AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

Organized Crime?
PART 2: RECONSTRUCTION

By William P. Litynski

Order Out of Chaos, Part 1: Political Reconstruction

Lone Gunman or Patsy? John Wilkes Booth, an actor and Rebel sympathizer, assassinates President Abraham Lincoln at Fords Theatre in Washington, D.C. on April 14, 1865. Abraham Lincoln was the first American president ever to be assassinated. Was Skull & Bones involved in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln? (Photo: Library of Congress)

Execution of the four persons condemned as conspirators (Mary E. Surratt, Lewis T. Powell, David E. Herold, and George A. Atzerodt) at the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7, 1865. (Photographed by Alexander Gardner) (National Archives)

A painting of Jefferson Davis, former U.S. Senator from Mississippi and former president of Confederate States of America, in prison at Fort Monroe in Hampton, Virginia in 1865. (Library of Congress)

Jefferson Davis, the deposed President of the Confederate States of America was captured by the U.S. Army in Irwinsville, Georgia on May 10, 1865. Jefferson Daviss ladies Colonel William Preston Johnston, Jefferson Daviss aide-de-camp, and Burton Norvell Harrison, Jefferson Daviss private secretary, were captured along with Jefferson Davis. William Preston Johnston and Burton Norvell Harrison were members of SKULL & BONES at Yale University.

Jefferson Daviss assistants William Preston Johnston (left, S&B 1852) and Burton Norvell Harrison (right, S&B 1859)

The Alaska Purchase (March 30, 1867)

The signing of the Alaska Treaty of Cessation on March 30, 1867. From left to right: Robert S. Chew, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward, William Hunter, Mr. Bodisco, Russian Minister to the U.S. Eduard de Stoeckl, U.S. Senator Charles Sumner and Frederick W. Seward.

The $7.2 million check issued by the Treasury of the U.S. to purchase Russia from the Russian government

Territory of Alaska

The signatures of U.S. President Andrew Johnson and U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward appear on a copy of the 1867 Ratification of the Alaska Purchase.

The Impeachment of U.S. President Andrew Johnson in 1868

The Radical Republicans in the U.S. Senate investigate U.S. President Andrew Johnson during the impeachment trial in 1868. President Andrew Johnson had allegedly violated the Tenure of Office Act by removing Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton from office on February 21, 1868. President Andrew Johnson was acquitted on May 26, 1868 by one vote short of a two-thirds vote required to remove him from office. The Radical Republicans imposed virtual martial law in the South in 1868 and divided the South into five military districts after former Rebel leaders attempted to maintain slavery through peonage and grandfather clauses. (Library of Congress)

Skull & Bones members involved in the Andrew Johnson Impeachment Case in 1868, from left to right: William M. Evarts (President Johnsons counsel), U.S. Senator Orris S. Ferry (voted Guilty), Rep. William B. Washburn (voted Yea), Rep. John A. Peters (voted Yea), and Rep. Richard D. Hubbard (voted Nay)
William Maxwell Evarts (S&B 1837) served as President Andrew Johnsons counsel during the Senate impeachment trial in 1868. U.S. Senator Orris S. Ferry (S&B 1844) voted Guilty on three articles of impeachment against President Andrew Johnson in the U.S. Senate in May 1868. U.S. Congressman William B. Washburn (S&B 1844, R-Massachusetts) and U.S. Congressman John A. Peters (S&B 1842, RMaine) voted in favor (Yea) of impeaching President Andrew Johnson in the U.S. House of Representatives on February 24, 1868. U.S. Congressman Richard D. Hubbard (S&B 1839, D-Connecticut) voted against impeachment (Nay) of President Andrew Johnson in the U.S. House of Representatives on February 24, 1868.

A list of Yeas and Nays of members of the U.S. House of Representatives who voted on the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson on February 24, 1868.

From a photograph by Brady in the United States Signal Corps, War Department, Washington, D.C. circa 1868. Members of the U.S. House of Representatives in charge of the President Andrew Johnson impeachment hearings, left to right, Seated: Benjamin F. Butler (former U.S. Army general), Thaddeus Stevens, Thomas Williams, John A. Bingham. Standing: James F. Wilson, George S. Boutwell, John A. Logan. (Mathew Brady photo)

Scene from the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson, held in the Senate Chamber in 1868. (Credit: Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, March 28, 1868) (Photo: http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/image/Johnson_Impeachment_Trial.htm)

Skull & Bones Members & Political Reconstruction of America (1865-1877)

Orris S. Ferry U.S. Senator (R-Conn., 1867-1875)

William Barrett Washburn U.S. Senator (R-Mass., 1874-1875)

Alphonso Taft Secretary of War (1876); U.S. Attorney General (1876-1877)

Morrison R. Waite Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1874-1888)

William M. Evarts U.S. Attorney General (1868-1869)

Henry C. Deming (S&B 1836) U.S. Congressman (R-Conn., 1863-1867)

Augustus Brandegee U.S. Congressman (R-Conn., 1863-1867)

Roswell Hart U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1865-1867)

Richard D. Hubbard U.S. Congressman (D-Conn., 1867-1869)

John Andrew Peters U.S. Congressman (R-Maine, 1867-1873)

Richard J. Haldeman U.S. Congressman (D-Penn., 1869-1873)

Stephen W. Kellogg U.S. Congressman (R-Conn., 1869-1875)

John Edward Seeley U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1871-1873)

Ellis Henry Roberts U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1871-1875)

Benjamin Tucker Eames U.S. Congressman (RRhode Island, 1871-1879)

Constantine C. Esty U.S. Congressman (R-Mass., 1872-1873)

William Walter Phelps U.S. Congressman (R-New Jersey, 18731875, 1883-1889)

William Wallace Crapo U.S. Congressman (R-Mass., 1875-1883)

Daniel H. Chamberlain Governor of South Carolina (1874-1876)

Dwight Foster Justice of Massachusetts Supreme Court (1866-1869)

Skull & Bones and Reconstruction (1865-1877)

Government Officials: Alphonso Taft (S&B 1833) Secretary of War (1876); U.S. Attorney General (1876-1877); Judge of Superior Court of Cincinnati (1865-1872) William M. Evarts (S&B 1837) U.S. Attorney General (July 17, 1868-March 4, 1869); U.S. Secretary of State (1877-1881) Morrison R. Waite (S&B 1837) Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1874-1888) Orris Sanford Ferry (S&B 1844) U.S. Senator (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1867-1875) William Barrett Washburn (S&B 1844) U.S. Senator (Republican Party-Massachusetts, 1874-1875); U.S. Congressman (Republican PartyMassachusetts, 1863-1871); Governor of Massachusetts (Republican, 1872-1874) Henry Champion Deming (S&B 1836) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1863-1867); U.S. Collector of Internal Revenue (1869-1872) Augustus Brandegee (S&B 1849) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1863-1867) Roswell Hart (S&B 1843) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New York, 1865-1867) Richard Dudley Hubbard (S&B 1839) U.S. Congressman (Democratic Party-Connecticut, 1867-1869) John Andrew Peters (S&B 1842) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Maine, 1867-1873); Attorney General of Maine (1864-1866) Richard J. Haldeman (S&B 1851) U.S. Congressman (Democratic Party-Pennsylvania, 1869-1873) Stephen W. Kellogg (S&B 1846) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1869-1875) John Edward Seeley (S&B 1835) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New York, 1871-1873) Ellis Henry Roberts (S&B 1850) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New York, 1871-1875); Member of New York State Assembly (1866) Benjamin Tucker Eames (S&B 1843) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Rhode Island, 1871-1879) Constantine C. Esty (S&B 1845) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Massachusetts, 1872-1873); Assessor of Internal Revenue (18621866; 1867-1872) William Walter Phelps (S&B 1860) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New Jersey, 1873-1875, 1883-1889) William Wallace Crapo (S&B 1852) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Massachusetts, 1875-1883) Daniel H. Chamberlain (S&B 1862) Governor of South Carolina (Republican, 1874-1876); Attorney General of South Carolina (1868-1872) Henry Champion Deming (S&B 1836) Provisional Mayor of New Orleans under Union Martial Law (October 1862-February 1863) Green Clay (S&B 1859) Member of Mississippi State Legislature during Reconstruction Henry Waterman Warren (S&B 1865) Member of Mississippi State Legislature (1870-1875) Hugh White Sheffey (S&B 1835) Judge of the Superior Court of Virginia (1865-1869) John Thomas Croxton (S&B 1857) Major General in the U.S. Army; Commander of the Military District of Southwest Georgia at Macon, Georgia (1865); U.S. Minister to Bolivia (1873-1874) William Law Learned (S&B 1841) Presiding Justice of the Supreme Court of New York (1875-1892) John Wallace Houston (S&B 1834) Associate Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1855-1893) Leonard Eugene Wales (S&B 1845) Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1864-1884) Dwight Foster (S&B 1848) Justice of Massachusetts Supreme Court (1866-1869) George G. Sill (S&B 1852) Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (1873-1877) College Administrators: Andrew D. White (S&B 1853) inaugural President of Cornell University (1866-1885) Daniel C. Gilman (S&B 1852) inaugural President of Johns Hopkins University (1875-1901); President of University of California at Berkeley (1872-1875); Secretary of Connecticut State Board of Education (1865-1866) Charles Janeway Stille (S&B 1839) Provost of University of Pennsylvania (1868-1880) Carroll Cutler (S&B 1854) President of [Case] Western Reserve University [Cleveland, Ohio] (1871-1886) William Chauvenet (S&B 1840) Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis (1862-1869) Henry Hitchcock (S&B 1848) Dean of the St. Louis Law School at Washington University in St. Louis (1867-1870, 1878-1881) Henry Coit Kingsley (S&B 1834) Treasurer of Yale University (1862-1886) William Preston Johnston (S&B 1852) Professor of English Literature, History, and Political Economy at Washington and Lee University (1867-1877); inaugural President of Tulane University (1884-1899) Benjamin Silliman Jr. (S&B 1837) Professor of Chemistry at Yale University (1854-1870) Timothy Dwight (S&B 1849) Professor of Sacred Literature at Yale University (1859-1886) Cyrus Northrop (S&B 1857) Professor of English at Yale University (1863-1884) Simeon Eben Baldwin (S&B 1861) Professor of Law at Yale Law School (1869-1919) Church Leaders: Charles F. Robertson (S&B 1859) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Missouri (1868-1886) Joseph Parrish Thompson (S&B 1838) Pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle in New York City (1845-1871) Joseph Augustine Benton (S&B 1842) Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church in San Francisco (1863-1869) Edward D. Morris (S&B 1849) Pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Columbus, Ohio (1855-1867) James Gardiner Vose (S&B 1851) Pastor of the Beneficent Church in Providence, Rhode Island (1866-1901) William Henry Fenn (S&B 1854) Pastor of High Street Congregational Church of Portland, Maine (1866-1904) Leander Trowbridge Chamberlain (S&B 1863) Pastor of New England Church in Chicago (1869-1876) Alexander S. Twombly (S&B 1854) Pastor of Winthrop (Congregational) Church in Boston (1872-1891) Others: William C. Whitney (S&B 1863) Corporation Counsel of New York City (1875-1882) John William Sterling (S&B 1864) Co-Founder and Member of Shearman & Sterling [law firm in New York City] (1873-1918) Thomas Thacher (S&B 1871) Co-Founder and Member of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett [law firm in New York City] (1875-1919) William M. Evarts (S&B 1837) President of the New York City Bar Association (1870-1879) Thomas Anthony Thacher (S&B 1835) Member of the Connecticut State Board of Education (1865-1877) Joseph Burbeen Walker (S&B 1844) Member of the Board of Education of Concord, New Hampshire (1859-1870)

Supreme Court Justices of the United States in 1868. Left to right, D.W. Middleton (Clerk), David Davis, Noah Haynes Swayne, Robert Cooper Grier, James Moore Wayne, Chief Justice Salmon Portland Chase, Samuel Nelson, Nathan Cliford, Samuel Freeman Miller, Stephen Johnson Field. James Moore Wayne, who graduated from Princeton University, was a U.S. Congressman from Georgia and a Mayor of Savannah, Georgia before serving as a U.S. Supreme Court Justice; Wayne remained on the Supreme Court bench throughout the Civil War. Noah Haynes Swayne was the father of Scroll & Key members John Wager Swayne (B.A. Yale 1856, S&K 1856) and Francis Gerrard Bond Swayne (B.A. Yale 1872, S&K 1872). (Photo: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SC-1868.jpg)

Skull & Bones and the Reconstruction Amendments The 13th Amendment was approved in the U.S. House of Representatives on January 31, 1865 by a margin of 119 Yeas, 56 Nays and 8 Not Voting; U.S. Congressmen Henry Champion Deming (S&B 1836, R-Connecticut), William Barrett Washburn (S&B 1844, R-Massachusetts), and Augustus Brandegee (S&B 1849, R-Connecticut) voted Yea (Yes) on the 13th Amendment. The 14th Amendment was approved in the U.S. House of Representatives on June 13, 1866 by a margin of 138 Yeas, 36 Nays and 10 Not Voting. Congressmen Henry Champion Deming (S&B 1836, R-Connecticut), Roswell Hart (S&B 1843, RNew York), William Barrett Washburn (S&B 1844), and Augustus Brandegee (S&B 1849, R-Connecticut) voted Yea (Yes) on the 14th Amendment. The 15th Amendment was approved in the U.S. House of Representatives on February 25, 1869 by a margin of 144 Yeas, 44 Nays and 35 Not Voting. The 15th Amendment was approved in the U.S. Senate on February 26, 1869 by a margin of 39 Yeas and 13 Nays. U.S. Congressman John Andrew Peters (S&B 1842, R-Maine) and U.S. Congressman William Barrett Washburn (S&B 1844) voted Yea (Yes) on the 15th Amendment; U.S. Congressman Richard Dudley Hubbard (S&B 1839, DConnecticut) voted Nay (No) on the 15th Amendment. U.S. Senator Orris S. Ferry (S&B 1844, R-Connecticut) voted Yea (Yes) on the 15th Amendment.

U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant takes the oath of office administered by U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase on the east portico of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., U.S.A. on March 4, 1869, before a large crowd. (Library of Congress)

U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant and his Cabinet receives credentials from Japanese diplomats in the East Room of the White House in 1872. (Library of Congress)

Presidential Election of 1876

Left to right: Samuel J. Tilden, Rutherford B. Hayes, Alphonso Taft, and William M. Evarts
Samuel J. Tilden Governor of New York (1875-1876); Presidential candidate for the Democratic Party in 1876 Rutherford B. Hayes U.S. Congressman (1865-1867); Governor of Ohio (1868-1872, 1876-1877); President of the U.S. (1877-1881) Alphonso Taft (S&B 1833) Secretary of War (March 8, 1876-May 22, 1876); U.S. Attorney General (May 22, 1876-March 4, 1877) William M. Evarts (S&B 1837) U.S. Attorney General (July 17, 1868-March 4, 1869); U.S. Secretary of State (1877-1881); counsel for U.S. President Rutherford Hayes, in behalf of the Republican Party, before the Electoral Commission in 1876

The presidential election of 1876 held on November 7, 1876 was one of the most controversial presidential elections in American history. The election of Rutherford B. Hayes as President of the United States in 1876 despite the tainted votes in the North and the South was followed by the end of Reconstruction in the South. Although Tilden received more popular votes than Hayes, Hayes received 185 electoral votes while Tilden received 184 electoral votes.

(Source: Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Online Catalog)

Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Morrison R. Waite administers the oath of office to U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes in front of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. on March 4, 1877. Morrison R. Waite was a member of Skull & Bones at Yale University. (Photo: Library of Congress)

An illustration of Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Morrison R. Waite administering the oath of office to U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes in front of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. on March 4, 1877.

Order Out of Chaos, Part 2: Economic Reconstruction

View in Wall Street from Corner of Broadway, New York. Engraving from Thirty Years' Progress of the United States (Hartford, Connecticut, 1867). [Note: Although the original title says corner of Broadway, it is the corner of Broad Street. At that time the Broad Street was called Broad Way Street.] (National Archives)

Skull & Bones, New York City, and the Rise of Corporate America

William C. Whitney (B.A. Yale 1863) Corporation Counsel of New York City (1875-1882)

John William Sterling (B.A. Yale 1864) Co-Founder and Member of Shearman & Sterling [law firm in New York City] (1873-1918)

Chauncey M. Depew (B.A. Yale 1856) President of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Co. (1885-1898)

Morrison R. Waite (B.A. Yale 1837) Chief Justice of U.S. Supreme Court (1874-1888)

William M. Evarts (B.A. Yale 1837) President of New York City Bar Association (1870-1879); U.S. Sec. of State (1877-1881)

Note: Thomas Thacher (S&B 1871) was the Co-Founder and Member of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett [law firm in New York City] (1875-1919); William Law Learned (S&B 1841) was the Presiding Justice of the Supreme Court of New York (1875-1892).

The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of opinion that it does. U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Morrison R. Waite, 1886, in Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company

American Corporate Robber Barons of the late 19th Century

Left to right: Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919), John Pierpont Morgan Sr. (1837-1913), John D. Rockefeller Sr. (1839-1937), and Jay Gould (1836-1892).

Left to right: John Jacob Astor III, August Belmont Sr., Edward H. Harriman, and Cornelius Vanderbilt
Note: John Pierpont Morgan earned millions of dollar in profit selling malfunctioned rifles to the U.S. federal government during the Civil War; John Pierpont Morgan also paid a substitute $300 to serve as his replacement during the Civil War. Carnegie, Morgan, Rockefeller, and Gould did not serve in the military during the Civil War.

The Bosses of the Senate

American National Debt during and after Reconstruction (1865-1914) July 1, 1864 - $1,815,784,370.57 July 1, 1882 - $1,918,312,994.03 July 1, 1900 - $2,136,961,091.67 July 1, 1865 - $2,680,647,869.74 July 1, 1883 - $1,884,171,728.07 July 1, 1901 - $2,143,326,933.89 July 1, 1866 - $2,773,236,173.69 July 1, 1884 - $1,830,528,923.57 July 1, 1902 - $2,158,610,445.89 July 1, 1867 - $2,678,126,103.87 July 1, 1885 - $1,863,964,873.14 July 1, 1903 - $2,202,464,781.89 July 1, 1868 - $2,611,687,851.19 July 1, 1886 - $1,775,063,013.78 July 1, 1904 - $2,264,003,585.14 July 1, 1869 - $2,588,452,213.94 July 1, 1887 - $1,657,602,592.63 July 1, 1905 - $2,274,615,063.84 July 1, 1870 - $2,480,672,427.81 July 1, 1888 - $1,692,858,984.58 July 1, 1906 - $2,337,161,839.04 July 1, 1871 - $2,353,211,332.32 July 1, 1889 - $1,619,052,922.23 July 1, 1907 - $2,457,188,061.54 July 1, 1872 - $2,253,251,328.78 July 1, 1890 - $1,552,140,204.73 July 1, 1908 - $2,626,806,271.54 July 1, 1873 - $2,234,482,993.20 July 1, 1891 - $1,545,996,591.61 July 1, 1909 - $2,639,546,241.04 July 1, 1874 - $2,251,690,468.43 July 1, 1892 - $1,588,464,144.63 July 1, 1910 - $2,652,665,838.04 July 1, 1875 - $2,232,284,531.95 July 1, 1893 - $1,545,985,686.13 July 1, 1911 - $2,765,600,606.69 July 1, 1876 - $2,180,395,067.15 July 1, 1894 - $1,632,253,636.68 July 1, 1912 - $2,868,373,874.16 July 1, 1877 - $2,205,301,392.10 July 1, 1895 - $1,676,120,983.25 July 1, 1913 - $2,916,204,913.66 July 1, 1878 - $2,256,205,892.53 July 1, 1896 - $1,769,840,323.40 July 1, 1914 - $2,912,499,269.16 July 1, 1879 - $2,349,567,482.04 July 1, 1897 - $1,817,672,665.90 July 1, 1915 - $3,058,136,873.16 July 1, 1880 - $2,120,415,370.63 July 1, 1898 - $1,796,531,995.90 July 1, 1916 - $3,609,244,262.16 July 1, 1881 - $2,069,013,569.58 July 1, 1899 - $1,991,927,306.92 July 1, 1917 - $5,717,770,279.52 Source: http://www.treasurydirect.gov/govt/reports/pd/histdebt/histdebt_histo3.htm

An illustration of a scene in the New York Gold Room in New York City during Black Friday, September 24, 1869. Jay Gould and his partner Jim Fisk were involved in cornering the gold market on September 24, 1869. Jim Fisk was shot and killed in New York City on January 6, 1872. (Source: October 9, 1869 edition of Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper)

Left to right: Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, and William Marcy Boss Tweed William Marcy Boss Tweed, who served as a Grand Sachem of Tammany Hall in New York City, U.S. Congressman (D-New York, 1853-1855), Deputy Street Commissioner of New York City (1861-1870), and New York State Senator (1867-1871), was arrested and convicted for embezzlement in 1874. Boss Tweed escaped from prison in December 1875, was captured in Spain, and died in prison in New York City on April 12, 1878.

Cornelius Vanderbilt and the railroad monopoly of the late 1800s

Standard Oil Company refinery circa 1899

American corporate executives and other robber barons in the late 1800s and early 1900s hired children, many of them whom were illiterate immigrants from Europe, to perform menial and hazardous jobs in the factories. (National Archives)

Left photo: A young girl works in a textile factory in the early 1900s. Right photo: A group of young boys is seen working in a coal mine in the early 1900s.

Six years after work began in 1862, the railroad workers of the Central Pacific Railroad from the west and the Union Pacific Railroad from the east met at Promontory Summit, Utah on May 10, 1869. It was there on May 10, 1869 that California Governor Leland Stanford (one of the Big Four owners of the Central Pacific) drove the Golden Spike on the special tie of polished California laurel.

The Denver Riot of 1880, where Americans, primarily railroad workers, attack Chinese immigrants in Denver, Colorado in November 1880. Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 on May 6, 1882, prohibiting the immigration of Chinese people initially for 10 years; the prohibition was extended until 1943 when Congress repealed the prohibition (at the request of Madame Chiang Kai-shek).

The Great Chicago Fire in October 1871 (October 8-10, 1871)

The corner of Dearborn and Monroe Streets after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The Mayor of Chicago at the time of the Great Chicago Fire was Roswell B. Mason. Roswell B. Masons sons Henry Burrall Mason (S&B 1870) and Alfred Bishop Mason (S&B 1871) were members of Skull & Bones at Yale University.

Haymarket Riot at Haymarket Square in Chicago on May 4, 1886.

Illinois National Guard troops confront striking American Railway Union members outside Arcade Building in the Pullman neighborhood of the south side of Chicago during the Pullman Strike in 1894. U.S. President Grover Cleveland, a Democrat, ordered the U.S. Army to Illinois to end the strikes in 1894. The strikes ended in July 1894.

Czar Alexander II of Russia was assassinated in St. Petersburg, Russia on March 13, 1881. Czar Alexander II of Russia ruled Russia from 1855 to 1881. Czar Alexander II of Russia was the Czar of Russia during the American Civil War.

The Political Assassinations of Garfield and McKinley: Lone Gunman or Patsy?

Left: Charles J. Guiteau shoots U.S. President James A. Garfield in the back at the Baltimore & Potomac Railroad Passenger Terminal in Washington, D.C. on July 2, 1881; James A. Garfield was a supporter of a gold and silver standard. Right: Anarchist Leon Czolgosz shoots U.S. President William McKinley in the stomach at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, U.S.A. on September 6, 1901. Both presidents died from their wounds.

If that mischievous financial policy which had its origin in the North American Republic should become indurated down to a fixture, then that government will furnish its own money without cost. It will pay off its debts and be without a debt. It will have all the money necessary to carry on its commerce. It will become prosperous beyond precedent in the history of the civilized governments of the world. The brains and wealth of all countries will go to North America. That government must be destroyed or it will destroy every monarchy on the globe. editorial in The London Times in 1862

Battle of San Juan Hill in Cuba during the Spanish-American War in July 1898. America acquired Cuba, Philippines, and Puerto Rico from Spain at the end of the Spanish-American War. (Photo: Latin American Studies)

Foreign armies, including the American, Japanese, British, and Russian armies make their presence in the Forbidden City in Peking during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900. Prominent Wall Street banking firms, including J.P. Morgan & Co., invested heavily in China in the early 1900s. John Hay was the U.S. Secretary of State from 1898 to 1905; John Hay was the U.S. Secretary of State during the Spanish-American War, Boxer Rebellion, and the Russo-Japanese War. John Hays daughter married Helen Hay married Payne Whitney, a member of Skull & Bones at Yale University, in 1902. (National Archives)

Yale University Graduates and Their Occupation during the Spanish-American War

Andrew D. White B.A. Yale 1853 U.S. Minister to Germany (1897-1902)

John Dalzell B.A. Yale 1865 U.S. Congressman (R-Penn., 1887-1913)

George P. Wetmore B.A. Yale 1867 U.S. Senator (R-Rhode Island, 18951907, 1908-1913)

Charles Newell Fowler B.A. Yale 1876 U.S. Congressman (RNew Jersey, 1895-1911)

Ellis Henry Roberts B.A. Yale 1850 Treasurer of the United States (1897-1905)

William K. Townsend B.A. Yale 1871 Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Connecticut (1892-1902)

LeBaron Bradford Colt B.A. Yale 1868 Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit [Boston] (1884-1913)

David Josiah Brewer B.A. Yale 1856 Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1889-1910)

Henry Billings Brown B.A. Yale 1856 Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1891-1906)

George Shiras Jr. B.A. Yale 1853 Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1892-1903)

Robert Weeks de Forest B.A. Yale 1870 General Counsel of Central Railroad of New Jersey (1874-1924)

Lloyd Wheaton Bowers B.A. Yale 1879 General Counsel of Chicago & Northwestern Railway Co. (1893-1909)

John William Sterling B.A. Yale 1864 Co-Founder of Shearman & Sterling [law firm in New York City] (1873-1918)

Edward Curtis Smith B.A. Yale 1875 Governor of Vermont (1898-1900)

Timothy L. Woodruff B.A. Yale 1879 Lieutenant Governor of New York (1897-1902)

William Preston Johnston B.A. Yale 1852 President of Tulane University (1884-1899)

Daniel C. Gilman B.A. Yale 1852 President of Johns Hopkins University (1875-1901)

Rev. Timothy Dwight B.A. Yale 1849 President of Yale University (1886-1899)

Cyrus Northrop B.A. Yale 1857 President of University of Minnesota (1884-1911)

William Torrey Harris B.A. Yale 1858 U.S. Commissioner of Education (1889-1906)

Yale University Graduates and Their Occupation during the Russo-Japanese War

Ellis Henry Roberts B.A. Yale 1850 Treasurer of the United States (1897-1905)

Henry Waters Taft B.A. Yale 1880 Partner of Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft [law firm in New York City] (1899-1945)

William Howard Taft B.A. Yale 1878 U.S. Secretary of War (1904-1908)

George P. Wetmore B.A. Yale 1867 U.S. Senator (R-Rhode Island, 18951907, 1908-1913)

Chauncey M. Depew B.A. Yale 1856 U.S. Senator (R-New York, 1899-1911)

David Josiah Brewer B.A. Yale 1856 Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1889-1910)

Frank B. Brandegee B.A. Yale 1885 U.S. Congressman R-Conn., 1902-1905)

Francis Burton Harrison B.A. Yale 1895 U.S. Congressman (D-New York, 1903-1905, 1907-1913)

John Dalzell B.A. Yale 1865 U.S. Congressman (R-Penn., 1887-1913)

Charles Newell Fowler B.A. Yale 1876 U.S. Congressman (RNew Jersey, 1895-1911)

Henry Billings Brown B.A. Yale 1856 Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1891-1906)

LeBaron Bradford Colt B.A. Yale 1868 Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit [Boston] (1884-1913)

William K. Townsend B.A. Yale 1871 Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit [New York City] (1902-1907)

Otto T. Bannard B.A. Yale 1876 President of New York Trust Co. (1904-1916)

Robert Weeks de Forest B.A. Yale 1870 General Counsel of Central Railroad of New Jersey (1874-1924)

Lloyd Wheaton Bowers B.A. Yale 1879 General Counsel of Chicago & Northwestern Railway Co. (1893-1909)

James Mulford Townsend B.A. Yale 1874 General Counsel of E.I. du Pont de Nemours Powder Co. (1903-1913)

John William Sterling B.A. Yale 1864 Co-Founder of Shearman & Sterling [law firm in New York City] (1873-1918)

Arthur Twining Hadley B.A. Yale 1876 President of Yale University (1899-1921)

Cyrus Northrop B.A. Yale 1857 President of University of Minnesota (1884-1911)

Wall Street during the Panic of 1907

John Pierpont Morgan and King Edward VII attend a house party at the Harcourts Nuneham Park estate in 1907.

John Pierpont Morgan gazes ferociously at bystanders at the funeral of Senator John Fairfield Dryden in 1911.

The Federal Reserve headquarters in Washington, D.C. The Federal Reserve is Americas central bank; the Federal Reserve operates in a manner similar to the former Second Bank of the United States.

The Federal Reserve Board as they took office on August 10, 1914. From left to right, standing: Paul M. Warburg, John Skelton Williams (Comptroller of the Currency), W.P.G. Harding, Adolph C. Miller; Seated: Charles S. Hamlin (Governor), William G. McAdoo (Chairman and Secretary of the Treasury), and Frederic A. Delano. McAdoo is wearing a mourning armband to commemorate the death, four days earlier, of his mother-in-law, Ellen Axson Wilson, the former First Lady and wife of President Woodrow Wilson. William G. McAdoo had married Woodrow Wilsons daughter Eleanor Randolph Wilson in May 1914. Paul M. Warburg was a Jewish banker who was born and raised in Hamburg, Germany; Paul M. Warburg immigrated to America in 1902. Paul M. Warburg, along with U.S. Senator Nelson Aldrich and four other men, created the Federal Reserve during a secret meeting held at Jekyll Island near Savannah, Georgia in November 1910. (Photo: New York University)

American marines occupy a corner in Veracruz, Mexico in April 1914. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the U.S. Marines to intervene in Mexico to protect Wall Street bankers investments. (Photo: Latin American Studies)

Panama Canal under construction in the early 1900s. The construction of the Panama Canal was financed primarily by Wall Street and supervised primarily by the U.S. government. The Panama Canal was open to all commercial and passenger ships beginning on August 15, 1914.

The Ludlow Massacre at Ludlow, Colorado on April 20, 1914, where 20 people, 11 of them children, died violently during an attack by the Colorado National Guard on a tent colony of 1,200 striking coal miners and their families. The coal miners living and working in Ludlow, Colorado were striking against the Rockefeller family-owned Colorado Fuel & Iron Company. (Western History/Genealogy Department, Denver Public Library)

Rockefeller muscle men ride in an armored car, known to the striking miners as the Death Special, with a M1895 machine gun mounted onto the vehicle, at a coal mine in Ludlow, Colorado. The Rockefeller family and other corporate executives at various coal mines used these armored cars to discipline workers and to restrict their movements.

The Wall Street Bombing occurred outside of the House of Morgan in New York City at 12:01 P.M. on September 16, 1920. The explosion killed 38 people and seriously injured 143 people. The bombing incident was allegedly conducted by Italian Galleanist anarchists; however, no person was convicted in court for their involvement in the Wall Street Bombing despite the fact that Justice Department, led by U.S. Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, made numerous arrests.

Order Out of Chaos, Part 3: Social Reconstruction (Indian Wars & Jim Crow)

The Lakota, Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors led by Lakota warrior Crazy Horse defeated the U.S. Army at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in present-day Montana on June 25-26, 1876 in an attempt to preserve their land and their way of life. U.S. Army General George A. Custer was killed in action on June 25, 1876. The U.S. government required American Indians (Native Americans) to live in government-designated reservations during the 1800s.

Chief Joseph (1840-1904), Chief of the Nez Perce tribe who attempted to escape to Canada to avoid living on the reservation.

Tell General Howard I know his heart. What he told me before, I have it in my heart. I am tired of fighting. Our chiefs are killed; Looking Glass is dead, Too-hul-hul-sote is dead. The old men are all dead. It is the young men who say yes or no. He who led on the young men is dead. It is cold, and we have no blankets; the little children are freezing to death. My people, some of them, have run away to the hills, and have no blankets, no food. No one knows where they areperhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my children, and see how many of them I can find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my chiefs! I am tired; my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever. Chief Joseph, upon surrendering to the U.S. Army in October 1877 My son, my body is returning to my mother earth, and my spirit is going very soon to see the Great Spirit Chief. When I am gone, think of your country. You are the chief of these people. They look to you to guide them. Always remember that your father never sold his country. You must stop your ears whenever you are asked to sign a treaty selling your home. A few years more and white men will be all around you. They have their eyes on this land. My son, never forget my dying words. This country holds your father's body. Never sell the bones of your father and your mother. Chief Joseph The Elder (Chief Josephs father), circa 1871

American soldiers bury dead native American Indians in January 1891 after murdering the natives at the Battle of Wounded Knee in South Dakota on December 29, 1890. Many American Indian tribes, including the Sioux, Apache, and Navajo were forced to live on reservations; corporate robber barons used this opportunity to search for gold, oil, coal, lumber, and other natural resources and build new railroad routes while various politicians, both Republicans and Democrats, in Congress used this opportunity to create a white nation.

Band of Apache Indian prisoners take a break at a rest stop beside Southern Pacific Railway near Nueces River, Texas on September 10, 1886. Among those on their way to exile in Florida are Natchez (center front) and, to the right, Geronimo and his son. (Photo: National Archives)

Sioux Nation chief Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody pose for a portrait in Montreal, Quebec, British Canada during Buffalo Bills Wild West Show in August 1885. Sitting Bull was shot in the head by an Indian agency police officer on December 15, 1890 during an attempt to arrest him and prevent him from supporting the Ghost Dance movement. (Photo: Library of Congress)

Freedmans Bureau officer promotes racial peace in the postwar South. (Harper's Weekly, July 25, 1868) The Radical Republicans imposed virtual martial law (Reconstruction) in the South in 1868 and divided the South into five military districts in response to the black codes and other restrictions imposed on freed slaves during the beginning of Reconstruction. Five U.S. Army generals administered the South from different cities and appointed individuals who were close friends or loyal to the Republican Party while members of the Democratic Party were marginalized or excluded. The State legislatures in the Southern states (i.e. South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, North Carolina) in 1865-1867 promulgated various black codes and other laws restricting the rights of the freed slaves and laws restricting political opposition. The primary purpose of Reconstruction and the virtual martial law in the South was to rebuild the South, restore law and order in the South, and assimilate the freed slaves into American society. Racial tensions remained high in the South during and after Reconstruction, despite the federal governments attempt to promote equality and peace between the former Rebel soldiers and former slaves.

U.S. Army Major General Oliver Otis Howard (1830-1909) was a U.S. Army officer during the Civil War, founder and President of Howard University in Washington, D.C. (1869-1874), commissioner of the Freedman's Bureau (1865-1874), and Superintendent of U.S. Military Academy at West Point (1881-1882). Major General Howard also fought against Chief Joseph and his Nez Perce tribe in 1877.

A photo of a Freedmens School. (Photo: http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/freedmans-bureau.htm)

Caption: The First Colored Senator and Representatives in the 41st and 42nd Congress of the United States. Americans of African descent supported the Republican Party and were elected to federal and state offices during Reconstruction. Americans of African descents were deprived of their liberty and suffrage after Reconstruction ended in 1877. Jim Crow laws enacted in the former Confederate-occupied States reduced Americans of African descent (both full and partial) to a state of peonage.

The "Invisible Empire of the South", better known as the Ku Klux Klan, was a terrorist organization founded by former Rebel soldiers in Pulaski County, Tennessee in May 1866. The Ku Klux Klan engaged in acts of lynching, murder, arson, and terrorism against Americans of African descent, Americans who supported the Republican Party, and Americans who moved to the South after the Civil War (carpetbaggers). Both Congress and President Ulysses S. Grant attempted to outlaw the Ku Klux Klan by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1871, also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act.

Ku Klux Klan terrorists: Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest (left) and Confederate Brigadier General and U.S. Senator John Tyler Morgan (Democrat, Alabama, 1877-1907)

A Ku Klux Klan ceremony. Was Skull & Bones involved in developing the Ku Klux Klan after the Civil War? There were six members of Skull & Bones in the U.S. House of Representatives and one member of Skull & Bones in the U.S. Senate in 1871. Congressmen John Edward Seeley (S&B 1835, R-New York), Benjamin Tucker Eames (S&B 1843, R-Rhode Island), and Ellis Henry Roberts (S&B 1850, R-New York) voted Yea (Yes) on the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act). John Andrew Peters (S&B 1842, R-Maine), Stephen W. Kellogg (S&B 1846, R-Connecticut), and Richard J. Haldeman (S&B 1851, D-Pennsylvania) did not vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1871. U.S. Senator Orris Sanford Ferry (S&B 1844) did not vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1871.

Members of the Ku Klux Klan burn a cross.

Members of the Ku Klux Klan display a stiff-arm salute similar to the Nazi German salute under Adolf Hitler.

Former Rebel (Confederate) army General Albert Pike, a 33rd Degree Freemason

Front cover of a book on the Knights of the Golden Circle. The Ku Klux Klan is reportedly an extension of the Knights of the Golden Circle, a secret society.

Three men lynched in Duluth, Minnesota, circa 1920. (Photo courtesy of the Minnesota Historical Society)

Race riot erupts in Tulsa, Oklahoma from May 31-June 1, 1921. An estimated 300 people were killed; most of the victims were Americans of African descent. The race riot erupted after 19-year-old African-American shoeshine man named Dick Rowland tripped and fell on an elevator and fell on 17-year-old white girl named Sarah Page, an elevator operator; Dick Rowland was arrested by Tulsa city police for assault and later released. Whites in Tulsa responded by forming a lynch mob and roaming the streets of Tulsa. (Photo: http://www.tulsareparations.org/TulsaRiot.htm)

Dedicated only weeks before the riot, the Mount Zion Baptist Church was a great source of pride for many black Tulsans. But after a prolonged battle, the white rioters burned it-as well as more than a half dozen other African American churches-to the ground (Courtesy Department of Special Collections, McFarlin Library, University of Tulsa). (Photo: http://www.tulsareparations.org/TulsaRiot.htm)

Street by street, block by block, the white invaders moved northward across Tulsa's African-American district, looting homes and setting them on fire. Several rioters also flew airplanes and used their airplanes to drop bombs on various homes and businesses. (Courtesy Department of Special Collections, McFarlin Library, University of Tulsa) (Photo: http://www.tulsareparations.org/TulsaRiot.htm)

White rioters began setting black homes and businesses on fire around midnight, largely along Archer Street. There were atrocities as well. One elderly African-American couple, it was later reported, was shot in the back of the head by whites as they knelt in prayer inside their home (Courtesy Oklahoma Historical Society). (Photo: http://www.tulsareparations.org/TulsaRiot.htm)

Shortly after the outbreak of violence, the Tulsa police presented the local National Guardsmen with a machine gun-only it proved to be defective. A second machine gun that was in the hands of white civilians, however, was used to considerable effect during the attack on Greenwood. Martial law was declared in Tulsa, Oklahoma during the race riot. (Courtesy Department of Special Collections, McFarlin Library, University of Tulsa) (Photo: http://www.tulsareparations.org/TulsaRiot.htm)

As the riot wore on, African-American families frequently became separated, as black men were often the first to be led away at gunpoint. For many black Tulsans, it was hours-and, in some cases, much longer-before they learned the fate of their loved ones. (Department of Special Collections, McFarlin Library, University of Tulsa) (Photo: http://www.tulsareparations.org/TulsaRiot.htm)

Race riot in East St. Louis on July 2, 1917

Race riot in East St. Louis on July 2, 1917

Silent Protest parade is held on Fifth Avenue in New York City on July 28, 1917, in response to the East St. Louis race riot. In front row are: James Weldon Johnson [far right], W. E. B. DuBois [2nd from right], Rev. Hutchens Chew Bishop, rector of St. Philip's Episcopal Church [Harlem] and realtor John E. Nail. (Photo: New York Public Library)

Left photo: Mob Stopping Street Car in East St. Louis during a bloody Race Riot on July 2, 1917. Right photo: Race riot in Chicago in 1919. (Both photos: http://www.blackpast.org/?q=tree/Race+Riots/Race+Riots)

Homer Plessy, an American citizen of Creole descent, brought the case of Plessy v. Ferguson before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896. Homer Plessy, who was 7/8 white (European) and 1/8 black (African), was arrested for sitting in the white section of a segregated train. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld racist segregation laws, better known as Jim Crow laws, that state legislatures in the South promulgated. The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously declared racial segregation laws unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954.

But in view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, ruling class of citizens. There is no caste here. Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law. U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan, May 1896, in his dissenting opinion in Plessy v. Ferguson

States Rights in Florida: A Colored Entrance for Americans of African descent is displayed at the Saenger Theater in Pensacola, Florida, United States of America in circa 1938. (Photo: http://www.pensapedia.com/wiki/Segregation)

American travelers of African descent throughout the South were directed to "colored only" waiting areas at bus stations, such as this one in Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A. in 1940. (Source: Jack Delano, May 1940, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.) http://www.amistadresource.org/plantation_to_ghetto/archives/image_archive.html

An American man of African descent drinks at a water cooler reserved for "Colored" in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S.A. in 1939. Separate water fountains for blacks and whites, providing such basic a human need as water, highlighted how far-reaching racial discrimination was during the Jim Crow era. (Source: Russell Lee, July 1939, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.) http://www.amistadresource.org/plantation_to_ghetto/archives/image_archive.html

A cafe in the warehouse district of Durham, North Carolina with separate entrances for "White" and "Colored," in 1940, typical of eating establishments throughout the South during the Jim Crow era. (Source: Jack Delano, May 1940, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.) http://www.amistadresource.org/plantation_to_ghetto/archives/image_archive.html

Sign on restaurant indicating "We Cater to White Trade Only," Lancaster, Ohio, 1938. During Jim Crow segregation, some business establishments did not service black patrons at all. This sign on a restaurant in Lancaster, Ohio, in 1938, is clear about serving whites only. (Source: Ben Shahn, August 1938, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.) http://www.amistadresource.org/plantation_to_ghetto/archives/image_archive.html

Kansas State Free Fair in Topeka, Kansas. Fitter Families Contest examining staff and sweepstakes winning family. Archival Information: AES,Am3,575.06,55 (Photo: http://blog.lib.umn.edu/perry032/impossible/cat_policy_and_politics.html)

A woman points to a degrading sign regarding Japanese immigrants living in California.

A group of Klansmen participates in a Klan rally near Montgomery, Alabama on December 16, 1956. (Photo: George Tames/The New York Times) (Source: The Tumultuous Fifties: A View from The New York Times Photo Archives by Douglas Dreishpoon and Alan Trachtenberg)

A group of American students of European descent confront two American students of African descent as the two American students of African descent tried to enter North Little Rock High School in Little Rock, Arkansas on September 15, 1957. (Photo: William P. Straeter/Associated Press) (Source: The Tumultuous Fifties: A View from The New York Times Photo Archives by Douglas Dreishpoon and Alan Trachtenberg)

Left photo: Protests erupt in front of Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas on September 4, 1957 as Arkansas National Guardsmen stand in the background. (Photo: Bettmann/CORBIS) Right photo: A paratrooper from the U.S. Army 101st Airborne Division stands guard outside Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas on September 25, 1957, as students chat during a fire drill. The troops integrated Central with bare bayonets on September 25th, ending a month of open defiance of federal authority. (Photo: Bettmann/CORBIS)

American U.S. Army soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division escort the Little Rock Nine students into the former all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas on September 25, 1957.

Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey fingerprints Rosa Parks on February 22, 1956. (Associated Press photo by Gene Harrick)

Police officers in Birmingham, Alabama terrorize an American boy with dogs.

A Greyhound bus with 14 members of an interracial group that was part of the Freedom Ride was firebombed outside Anniston, Alabama on May 14, 1961. (United Press International) (Source: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/20/us/20civil.html)

Woolworth Sit-In in Jackson, Mississippi on May 28, 1963

Racial segregation (Jim Crow) side effects from the Civil War and Reconstruction

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivers a speech in front of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. on August 28, 1963.

The 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama on September 15, 1963

President Lyndon B. Johnson, a lifelong resident of Texas, signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law in the East Room of the White House on July 2, 1964. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is standing directly behind the President. (Photo: Cecil Stoughton/Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum)

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated around 6:00 p.m. at Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.A. on April 4, 1968.

Civil Rights Leaders in the early 1900s

Booker T. Washington (left) and W.E.B. Du Bois, A. Philip Randolph

Ida B. Wells (left), Mary McLeod Bethune, and Susan B. Anthony

Eleanor Roosevelt

U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt meets with Tuskegee Institute founder Booker Washington and at Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama in 1905. (Photo: Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library)

Andrew Carnegie (front row, center) and Robert C. Ogden (front row, far left) visiting faculty members of the Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama in 1906. Booker T. Washington and his wife Margaret James Murray are sitting between Carnegie and Ogden. (Photo: Library of Congress)

Booker T. Washingtons work to improve education of Americans of African descent led to his association with some of the nations most powerful and wealthy figures. Here, he poses with education reformer R.C. Ogden (left), future U.S. president William Howard Taft (second from left), and industrialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie (right). (Photo: Library of Congress/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Multimedia.jsp?id=m-5153)

Order Out of Chaos, Part 4: Intellectual and Spiritual Reconstruction

Cornell University, located in Ithaca, New York, U.S.A., was established in 1866. (Photo: Cornell University)

Left to right: Andrew D. White, Daniel C. Gilman, Timothy Dwight, Charles J. Stille, Carroll Cutler, William Preston Johnston
Skull & Bones and College Education: Andrew D. White (S&B 1853) inaugural President of Cornell University [Ithaca, New York] (1866-1885) Daniel C. Gilman (S&B 1852) inaugural President of Johns Hopkins University [Baltimore, Maryland] (1875-1901); President of University of California at Berkeley (1872-1875); Secretary of Connecticut State Board of Education (1865-1866) Timothy Dwight (S&B 1849) President of Yale University (1886-1899); Professor of Sacred Literature at Yale University (1859-1886) Charles Janeway Stille (S&B 1839) Provost of University of Pennsylvania [Philadelphia] (1868-1880) Carroll Cutler (S&B 1854) President of [Case] Western Reserve University [Cleveland, Ohio] (1871-1886) William Chauvenet (S&B 1840) Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis [St. Louis, Missouri] (1862-1869) William Preston Johnston (S&B 1852) inaugural President of Tulane University [New Orleans] (1884-1899); President of Louisiana State University (1880-1883); Professor of English Literature, History, and Political Economy at Washington and Lee University (1867-1877) Cyrus Northrop (S&B 1857) President of University of Minnesota (1884-1911); Professor of English at Yale University (1863-1884) Henry Hitchcock (S&B 1848) Dean of the St. Louis Law School at Washington University in St. Louis (1867-1870, 1878-1881) Benjamin Silliman Jr. (S&B 1837) Professor of Chemistry at Yale University (1854-1870) Simeon Eben Baldwin (S&B 1861) Professor of Law at Yale Law School (1869-1919)

Members of Skull and Bones class of 1861 Seated (left to right): Sextus Shearer and William H. Fuller. Standing (left to right): Robert L. Chamberlain, Simeon E. Baldwin (Governor of Connecticut, 1911-1915), Hubert S. Brown, Francis E. Kernochan, William E. Park, Ralph O. Williams, Franklin B. Dexter (Secretary of Yale University, 1869-1899), John Mitchell, Edward R. Sill, Alexander P. Root, Stanford Newel (U.S. Minister to the Netherlands, 1897-1905), Tracy Peck Jr., Anthony Higgins (U.S. Senator, 1889-1895).

A painting of Columbia University, looking north from Forty-Ninth Street in New York City, in 1894. Several members of Skull & Bones attended Columbia Law School at Columbia University during the Civil War and Reconstruction, including former Secretary of the Treasury Franklin MacVeagh (S&B 1862, LL.B. Columbia 1864) and former U.S. Senator LeBaron Bradford Colt (S&B 1868, LL.B. Columbia 1870).

Members of Skull and Bones class of 1868 Seated (left to right): Anson Phelps Tinker and LeBaron Bradford Colt (U.S. Senator, 1913-1924). Standing (left to right): [First two are not identified on the verso of the picture.] Thomas Chalmers Sloane, Henry P. Wright (Dean of Yale University, 1884-1909), James Kingsley Thacher, Coburn Dewees Berry, Samuel Tweedy, James Coffin, Chauncey Bunce Brewster (Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Connecticut (1899-1928), William Allison McKinney, Charles Henry Farnam, Edward Jefferson Tytus, [Last individual not identified on the verso of the picture.] Remaining unidentified members were William P. Dixon, John Lewis, and William Curtis Wood.

Native American schoolchildren pose for a group portrait at a boarding school. The U.S. federal government required children of Native American tribes to attend boarding schools (usually separating the children from their parents) and required children to assimilate to EuropeanAmerican culture and renounce their Native American culture.

Wolf in Sheeps Clothing? Skull & Bones and Their Participation in American Churches during Reconstruction

Left photo: Broadway Tabernacle (present-day Broadway United Church of Christ) was located at 34th Street and Sixth Avenue in New York City from 1859 to 1905. Right photo: Joseph Parrish Thompson (S&B 1838), the Pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle in New York City (1845-1871)

Left: Joseph Augustine Benton (S&B 1842), Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church in San Francisco (1863-1869) Right: Charles F. Robertson (S&B 1859), the Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Missouri (1868-1886)

Supporters of the Prussian-inspired compulsory school system: Horace Mann (left, 1796-1859) and John Dewey (right, 1859-1952). Horace Mann (A.B. Brown University 1819) served as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education (1837-1848) and a U.S. Congressman (Whig-Massachusetts, 1848-1853). John Dewey was a Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University from 1904 to 1930.

Faith in the prayer-hearing God is an unproved and outmoded faith. There is no God and there is no soul. Hence, there are no needs for the props of traditional religion. With dogma and creed excluded, then immutable truth is dead and buried. There is no room for fixed, natural law or moral absolutes. John Dewey, Soul-searching, Teacher Magazine, September 1933, p. 33

An illustration of State Street in Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. in circa 1840. Massachusetts was the first State to adopt the Prussian school system (including mandatory attendance and compulsory education) in 1852.

A group of American schoolchildren of African descent perform the Bellamy salute to the American flag in Hampton, Virginia, U.S.A. in circa 1899. Francis Bellamy (1855-1931), a Baptist minister and a Christian socialist who wrote the original Pledge of Allegiance in 1892, adopted a stiff-armed salute with the right arm; the stiff-armed salute later became known as the Bellamy salute. The Bellamy salute was discontinued in 1942 and replaced with the hand-over-heart salute. (Photo: Library of Congress)

A group of schoolchildren salute the American flag using the military salute in Hempstead, New York in circa 1915. (Source: New York State Education Department, Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education)

Johns Hopkins University, located in Baltimore, Maryland, was established in 1875.

University of California at Berkeley, located in Berkeley, California, was established in 1869.

A statue of Daniel Coit Gilman, the inaugural President of Johns Hopkins University (1875-1901), appears at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. Educator and humanist John Dewey earned a Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University in 1884. Former U.S. President Woodrow Wilson earned a Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University in 1886. (Photo: Flickr)

A statue of Andrew Dickson White, the inaugural President of Cornell University (1866-1885), appears in front of Goldwin Smith Hall at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Political powerbroker Colonel Edward Mandell House attended Cornell University from 1877 to 1880. (Photo: Flickr)

YALE UNIVERSITY & EARLY 19TH CENTURY AMERICA

Jeremiah Day (left), Yale President Theodore Dwight Woolsey (center), and Benjamin Silliman on Commencement Day at Yale University on July 26, 1860. Theodore Dwight Woolsey served as President of Yale University from 1846 to 1871. Theodore Dwight Woolsey was the President of Yale during the Mexican War and the American Civil War. Theodore Dwight Woolseys son Theodore Salisbury Woolsey was initiated into Skull & Bones in 1872. (Picture: Manuscripts & Archives, Yale University Library)

Prominent Antebellum Yale Graduates

Horatio Seymour B.A. Yale 1797 U.S. Senator (D-Vermont, 1821-1833)

Henry Baldwin B.A. Yale 1797 Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1830-1844)

John C. Calhoun B.A. Yale 1804 U.S. Senator (D-South Carolina, 1832-1843, 1845-1850)

John M. Clayton B.A. Yale 1815 U.S. Secretary of State (1849-1850)

Trusten Polk B.A. Yale 1831 U.S. Senator (D-Missouri, 1857-1862)

Asher Robbins B.A. Yale 1782 U.S. Senator (W-Rhode Is., 1825-1839)

Jabez W. Huntington B.A. Yale 1806 U.S. Senator (W-Conn., 1840-1847)

Isaac Chapman Bates B.A. Yale 1802 U.S. Senator (Whig-Mass., 1841-1845)

Samuel S. Phelps B.A. Yale 1811 U.S. Senator (Whig-Vermont, 18391851, 1853-1854)

Roger Sherman Baldwin B.A. Yale 1811 U.S. Senator (W-Conn., 1847-1851)

Stephen R. Bradley B.A. Yale 1775 U.S. Senator (DR-Vermont, 1791-1795; 1801-1813)

Samuel W. Dana B.A. Yale 1775 U.S. Senator (F-Conn., 1810-1821)

Chauncey Goodrich B.A. Yale 1776 Mayor of Hartford, Connecticut (1812-1815); attended Hartford Convention in 1814

James Hillhouse B.A. Yale 1773 Treasurer of Yale University (1782-1832); attended Hartford Convention in 1814

Benjamin Tallmadge B.A. Yale 1773 U.S. Congressman (F-Conn., 1801-1817)

Edward Dorr Griffin B.A. Yale 1790 President of Williams College (1821-1836)

Bennet Tyler B.A. Yale 1804 President of Dartmouth College (1822-1828)

Heman Humphrey B.A. Yale 1805 President of Amherst College (1823-1845)

William Maxwell B.A. Yale 1802 President of HampdenSydney College [Virginia] (1838-1845)

Augustus B. Longstreet B.A. Yale 1813 President of Univ. of Mississippi (1849-1856)

Yale University Graduates & American Civil War (1861-1865) Union: Cassius Marcellus Clay (B.A. 1832) U.S. Minister to Russia (1861-1862, 1863-1869) William T. Minor (B.A. 1834) U.S. Consul General at Havana, Cuba [Spain] (1864-1867) William M. Evarts (B.A. 1837, S&B 1837) Special Diplomatic Envoy to Great Britain and France Benjamin Gratz Brown (B.A. 1847) U.S. Senator (R-Missouri, 1863-1867) Henry L. Dawes (B.A. 1839) U.S. Congressman (R-Massachusetts, 1857-1875) John Law (B.A. 1814) U.S. Congressman (D-Indiana, 1861-1865) William Barrett Washburn (B.A. 1844, S&B 1844) U.S. Congressman (R-Massachusetts, 1863-1871) Henry Champion Deming (B.A. 1836, S&B 1836) U.S. Congressman (R-Connecticut, 1863-1867) Augustus Brandegee (B.A. 1849, S&B 1849) U.S. Congressman (R-Connecticut, 1863-1867) George C. Woodruff (B.A. 1825) U.S. Congressman (D-Connecticut, 1861-1863) Rufus Paine Spalding (B.A. 1817) U.S. Congressman (R-Ohio, 1863-1869) Willard P. Hall (B.A. 1839) Governor of Missouri (1864-1865); Lieutenant Governor of Missouri (1861-1864) John Andrew Peters (B.A. 1842; S&B 1842) Attorney General of Maine (1864-1866) Dwight Foster (B.A. 1848; S&B 1848) Attorney General of Massachusetts (1861-1864) Chauncey M. Depew (B.A. 1856, S&B 1856) Secretary of State of New York (1864-1865) William Strong (B.A. 1828) Judge of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania (1857-1868) Isaac Atwater (B.A. 1844) Judge of the Supreme Court of Minnesota (1857-1864) Charles Allen (B.A. 1815) Chief Justice of the Suffolk County Superior Court [Boston, Massachusetts] (1859-1867) Frederick A. Tallmadge (B.A. 1811) Superintendent of the New York City Metropolitan Police [NYPD] (1857-1862); Clerk of the New York Court of Appeals (1862-1865) Michael Waller Robinson (B.A. 1857) Member of the Missouri State Legislature (1861-1863) William Huntington Russell (B.A. 1833, S&B 1833) Major-General in the Militia of the State of Connecticut (1862-1870) Orris Sanford Ferry (B.A. 1844, S&B 1844) Brigadier General in the U.S. Volunteers (1862-1865); U.S. Congressman (R-Conn., 1859-1861) Joseph Cooke Jackson (B.A. 1857, S&B 1857) brevetted Brigadier General in the 6th New Jersey Volunteers John Thomas Croxton (B.A. 1857, S&B 1857) Major Gen., Union Army; Commander of Military District of SW Georgia at Macon, Georgia (1865) Channing Richards (B.A. 1858) Military Mayor of Memphis, Tennessee (November 1864-July 1865) Rebel: Richard Taylor (B.A. 1845, S&B 1845) Commander of the [Confederate] Army of Tennessee (1865) Henry Rootes Jackson (B.A. 1839, S&B 1839) Major General in the Confederate Army John Perkins Jr. (B.A. 1840, S&B 1840) Member of the Confederate House of Representatives (Louisiana, 1864-1865) William T.S. Barry (B.A. 1841, S&B 1841) Chairman of the Mississippi Secession Convention in 1861; Signer of the Confederate Constitution William Preston Johnston (B.A. 1852, S&B 1852) Confederate President Jefferson Daviss aide-de-camp Burton Norvell Harrison (B.A. 1859, S&B 1859) Private Secretary to Confederate President Jefferson Davis Allen Taylor Caperton (B.A. 1832) Confederate Senator (Virginia, 1861-1865) William Nathan Harrell Smith (B.A. 1834) Member of the Confederate House of Representatives (North Carolina, 1862-1865) Frederick W.M. Holliday (B.A. 1847) Member of the Confederate House of Representatives (Virginia, February 1864-April 1865) William Bennett Fleming (B.A. 1825) Judge of the Superior Court of Chatham County, Georgia [Savannah] (1847-1849, 1853-1868, 1879-81) College Presidents and Church Leaders: Rev. Theodore Dwight Woolsey (B.A. 1820) President of Yale University (1846-1871) Frederick A.P. Barnard (B.A. 1828) President of Columbia University (1864-1889) Samuel Ware Fisher (B.A. 1835) President of Hamilton College (1858-1866) Aaron Lucius Chapin (B.A. 1837) inaugural President of Beloit College [Wisconsin] (1849-1886) Francis Gillette (B.A. 1829) Chairman of Connecticut State Board of Education (1849-1865) William Heathcote DeLancey (B.A. 1817) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Western New York (1839-1865) Francis Huger Rutledge (B.A. 1820) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Florida (1851-1866) Thomas March Clark (B.A. 1831) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Rhode Island (1854-1903) William Ingraham Kip (B.A. 1831) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of California (1857-1890) Richard Hooker Wilmer (B.A. 1836) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Alabama and Louisiana (1860-1900) Joseph Parrish Thompson (B.A. 1838, S&B 1838) Pastor of Broadway Tabernacle in New York City (1845-1871) George Washington Blagden (B.A. 1823) Pastor of Old South Church in Boston (1836-1872) John Chester Backus (B.A. 1830) Pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Baltimore, Maryland (1836-1875) Samuel Wolcott (B.A. 1833) Pastor of High Street Congregational Church in Providence, Rhode Island (1853-1859); Pastor of New England Church in Chicago (1859-1862); Pastor of Plymouth Church in Cleveland, Ohio (1862-1874) Charles Henry Hall (B.A. 1842) Rector of the Church of the Epiphany in Washington, D.C. (1856-1869); Rector of the Holy Trinity Church in Brooklyn, New York (1869-1895) Others: James Darrach (B.A. 1827) Superintendent of the New York Hospital in New York City [on Broadway opposite Pearl Street] (1854-1864) Charles F. Pond (B.A. 1830) President of the New Haven, Hartford and Springfield Railroad Company (1842-1867) Josiah Dwight Whitney (B.A. 1839) State Geologist of California (1860-1874); Sturgis-Hooper Professor of Geology at Harvard School of Mines (1875-1896) Frederick Adolphus Porcher (B.A. 1828) President of South Carolina Historical Society (1856-1888)

Yale University Graduates and Reconstruction (1865-1877) Federal Government Officials: William M. Evarts (B.A. 1837, S&B 1837) U.S. Attorney General (1868-1869); U.S. Secretary of State (1877-1881) Edwards Pierrepont (B.A. 1837) U.S. Attorney General (1875-1876) Alphonso Taft (B.A. 1833, S&B 1833) U.S. Secretary of War (1876); U.S. Attorney General (1876-1877); Judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati (1865-1872) Cassius Marcellus Clay (B.A. 1832) U.S. Minister to Russia (1861-1862, 1863-1869) John Thomas Croxton (B.A. 1857, S&B 1857) U.S. Minister to Bolivia (1873-1874) William T. Minor (B.A. 1834) U.S. Consul General at Havana, Cuba [Spain] (1864-1867) Anthony Higgins (B.A. 1861, S&B 1861) U.S. Attorney for the District of Delaware (1869-1876) Channing Richards (B.A. 1858) Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Ohio [Cincinnati] (1871-1877); U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Ohio (1877-1883) William Hemphill Jones (B.A. 1831) Deputy First Comptroller of the Treasury (1875-1876) Benjamin Gratz Brown (B.A. 1847) U.S. Senator (R-Missouri, 1863-1867); Governor of Missouri (1871-1873) Orris Sanford Ferry (B.A. 1844, S&B 1844) U.S. Senator (R-Connecticut, 1867-1875) Henry L. Dawes (B.A. 1839) U.S. Senator (R-Massachusetts, 1875-1893); U.S. Congressman (R-Massachusetts, 1857-1875) Allen Taylor Caperton (B.A. 1832) U.S. Senator (D-West Virginia, 1875-1876) William Barrett Washburn (B.A. 1844, S&B 1844) U.S. Senator (R-Massachusetts, 1874-1875); Governor of Massachusetts (1872-1874); U.S. Congressman (R-Massachusetts, 1863-1871) Augustus Brandegee (B.A. 1849, S&B 1849) U.S. Congressman (R-Connecticut, 1863-1867) Henry C. Deming (B.A. 1836, S&B 1836) U.S. Congressman (R-Connecticut, 1863-1867); U.S. Collector of Internal Revenue (1869-1872) Richard Dudley Hubbard (B.A. 1839, S&B 1839) U.S. Congressman (D-Connecticut, 1867-1869) Stephen W. Kellogg (B.A. 1846, S&B 1846) U.S. Congressman (R-Connecticut, 1869-1875) Roswell Hart (B.A. 1843, S&B 1843) U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1865-1867) William E. Robinson (B.A. 1841) U.S. Congressman (D-New York, 1867-1869) John Edward Seeley (B.A. 1835, S&B 1835) U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1871-1873) Ellis Henry Roberts (B.A. 1850, S&B 1850) U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1871-1875) Constantine C. Esty (B.A. 1845, S&B 1845) U.S. Congressman (R-Massachusetts, 1872-1873) William Wallace Crapo (B.A. 1852, S&B 1852) U.S. Congressman (R-Massachusetts, 1875-1883) John Andrew Peters (B.A. 1842, S&B 1842) U.S. Congressman (R-Maine, 1867-1873) Benjamin Tucker Eames (B.A. 1843, S&B 1843) U.S. Congressman (R-Rhode Island, 1871-1879) Richard J. Haldeman (B.A. 1851, S&B 1851) U.S. Congressman (D-Pennsylvania, 1869-1873) William Walter Phelps (B.A. 1860, S&B 1860) U.S. Congressman (R-New Jersey, 1873-1875, 1883-1889) Carter Henry Harrison (B.A. 1845, S&K 1845) U.S. Congressman (D-Illinois, 1875-1879) Randall Lee Gibson (B.A. 1853, S&K 1853) U.S. Congressman (D-Louisiana, 1875-1883) Rufus Paine Spalding (B.A. 1817) U.S. Congressman (R-Ohio, 1863-1869) Lazarus D. Shoemaker (B.A. 1840) U.S. Congressman (R-Pennsylvania, 1871-1875) Elias W. Leavenworth (B.A. 1824) U.S. Congressman (R-New York, 1875-1877) Alpheus S. Williams (B.A. 1831) U.S. Congressman (D-Michigan, 1875-1878) Morrison R. Waite (B.A. 1837, S&B 1837) Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1874-1888) William Strong (B.A. 1831) Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1870-1880) Lewis B. Woodruff (B.A. 1830) Judge of the U.S. Circuit Courts for the Second Circuit [New York City] (1869-1875) Alexander Smith Johnson (B.A. 1835) Judge of the U.S. Circuit Courts for the Second Circuit [New York City] (1875-1878) William Burnham Woods (B.A. 1845) Judge of the U.S. Circuit Courts for the Fifth Circuit [New Orleans] (1869-1880) Rensselaer Russell Nelson (B.A. 1846, S&B 1846) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Minnesota (1858-1896) Nathaniel Shipman (B.A. 1848) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Connecticut (1873-1892) Henry Billings Brown (B.A. 1856) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan [Detroit] (1875-1890) Edward C. Billings (B.A. 1853) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana [New Orleans] (1876-1893) State and Local Government Officials: Daniel H. Chamberlain (B.A. 1862, S&B 1862) Governor of South Carolina (1874-1876); Attorney General of South Carolina (1868-1872) Henry Huntly Haight (B.A. 1844) Governor of California (1867-1871) Charles R. Ingersoll (B.A. 1840) Governor of Connecticut (1873-1877) Christopher C. Cox (B.A. 1835) Lieutenant Governor of Maryland (1865-1868) George G. Sill (B.A. 1852; S&B 1852) Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (1873-1877) Henry C. Robinson (B.A. 1853) Mayor of Hartford, Connecticut (1872-1874) William C. Whitney (B.A. 1863, S&B 1863) Corporation Counsel of New York City (1875-1882) Samuel Lathrop Bronson (B.A. 1855) Corporation Counsel of New Haven, Connecticut (1873-1878) William Law Learned (B.A. 1841, S&B 1841) Presiding Justice of the Supreme Court of New York (1875-1892) Origen Storrs Seymour (B.A. 1824) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Connecticut (1873-1874) Charles Johnson McCurdy (B.A. 1817) Judge of the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (1863-1867) Dwight Foster (B.A. 1848, S&B 1848) Justice of Massachusetts Supreme Court (1866-1869) Charles Frederick Sanford (B.A. 1847) Judge of the Superior Court of New York City (1875-1881) David J. Brewer (B.A. 1856) Judge of Kansas State Supreme Court (1870-1884) John Wallace Houston (B.A. 1834, S&B 1834) Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1855-1893) Leonard Eugene Wales (B.A. 1845, S&B 1845) Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1864-1884) Hugh White Sheffey (B.A. 1835, S&B 1835) Judge of the Superior Court of Virginia (1865-1869) Albert Pierson Condit (B.A. 1850, S&B 1850) Member (1866-1867, 1871) and Speaker (1871) of the New Jersey State Legislature

George Morris Woodruff (B.A. 1857) Connecticut State Railroad Commissioner (1874-1897); President of the board of the Connecticut State Railroad Commission (1875-1897); Member of Connecticut State Board of Education (1865-1877) College Presidents: Rev. Theodore Dwight Woolsey (B.A. 1820) President of Yale University (1846-1871) Rev. Noah Porter (B.A. 1831) President of Yale University (1871-1886) Frederick A.P. Barnard (B.A. 1828) President of Columbia University (1864-1889) Samuel Ware Fisher (B.A. 1835) President of Hamilton College [New York] (1858-1866) George Thacher (B.A. 1840) President of the University of Iowa (1871-1877) John H. Lathrop (B.A. 1819) inaugural President of University of Missouri (1841-1849, 1865-1866) Andrew D. White (B.A. 1853, S&B 1853) inaugural President of Cornell University [Ithaca, New York] (1866-1885) Daniel C. Gilman (B.A. 1852, S&B 1852) inaugural President of Johns Hopkins University [Baltimore, Maryland] (1875-1901); President of University of California at Berkeley (1872-1875) Henry Durant (B.A. 1827) inaugural President of University of California at Berkeley (1870-1872); Mayor of Oakland, California (1873-1875) John Wesley Johnson (B.A. 1862) inaugural President of University of Oregon (1876-1893) Edmund Asa Ware (B.A. 1863) inaugural President of [Clark] Atlanta University [Atlanta, Georgia] (1867-1885) Henry Lawrence Hitchcock (B.A. 1832) President of [Case] Western Reserve University [Cleveland, Ohio] (1855-1871) Carroll Cutler (B.A. 1854, S&B 1854) President of [Case] Western Reserve University [Cleveland, Ohio] (1871-1886) George Wilson McPhail (B.A. 1835) President of Davidson College (1866-1871); former President of Lafayette College Julian M. Sturtevant (B.A. 1826) President of Illinois College [Jacksonville, Illinois] (1844-1876) Charles Janeway Stille (B.A. 1839, S&B 1839) Provost of University of Pennsylvania (1868-1880) William Chauvenet (B.A. 1840, S&B 1840) Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis (1862-1869) Henry Barnard (B.A. 1830) President of St. Johns College [Annapolis, Maryland] (1866-1867); U.S. Commissioner of Education (1867-1870) State and Local Educators: William Torrey Harris (B.A. 1858) Superintendent of Schools of St. Louis, Missouri (1868-1880) Charles Daniel Hine (B.A. 1871, S&B 1871) Superintendent of Schools of Saginaw, Michigan (1871-1874) Thomas Anthony Thacher (B.A. 1835, S&B 1835) Member of Connecticut State Board of Education (1865-1877) Constantine C. Esty (B.A. 1845, S&B 1845) Member of Massachusetts State Board of Education (1871-1879); U.S. Congressman Joseph Burbeen Walker (B.A. 1844, S&B 1844) Member of the Board of Education of Concord, New Hampshire (1859-1870) Horace Day (B.A. 1836) Secretary of Board of Education of New Haven, Connecticut (1868-1902) [John] Wager Swayne (B.A. 1856, S&K 1856) Member of the Board of Education of Toledo, Ohio (1872-1876) Isaac Atwater (B.A. 1844) Member of the Board of Education of Minneapolis, Minnesota (1868-1878) Samuel Chester Gale (B.A. 1854) Member of the Board of Education of Minneapolis, Minnesota (1871-1880) Church Leaders: Thomas March Clark (B.A. 1831) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Rhode Island (1854-1903) William Ingraham Kip (B.A. 1831) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of California (1857-1890) Richard Hooker Wilmer (B.A. 1836) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Alabama and Louisiana (1860-1900) Charles F. Robertson (B.A. 1859, S&B 1859) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Missouri (1868-1886) Joseph Parrish Thompson (B.A. 1838, S&B 1838) Pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle in New York City (1845-1871) Joseph Augustine Benton (B.A. 1842, S&B 1842) Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church in San Francisco (1863-1869) Edward D. Morris (B.A. 1849, S&B 1849) Pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Columbus, Ohio (1855-1867) William Eves Moore (B.A. 1847, S&B 1847) Pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Columbus, Ohio (1872-1894) James Gardiner Vose (B.A. 1851, S&B 1851) Pastor of the Beneficent Church in Providence, Rhode Island (1866-1901) William Henry Fenn (B.A. 1854, S&B 1854) Pastor of High Street Congregational Church of Portland, Maine (1866-1904) Alexander S. Twombly (B.A. 1854, S&B 1854) Pastor of Winthrop (Congregational) Church in Boston (1872-1891) Samuel W. Duffield (B.A. 1863) Pastor of 8th Presbyterian Church in Chicago (1874-1876); Pastor of the Kenderton Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia (1867-1870) Charles Henry Hall (B.A. 1842) Rector of the Church of the Epiphany in Washington, D.C. (1856-1869); Rector of the Holy Trinity Church in Brooklyn, New York (1869-1895) Samuel Wolcott (B.A. 1833) Pastor of High Street Congregational Church in Providence, Rhode Island (1853-1859); Pastor of New England Church in Chicago (1859-1862); Pastor of Plymouth Church in Cleveland, Ohio (1862-1874) George Washington Blagden (B.A. 1823) Pastor of Old South Church in Boston (1836-1872) Henry Augustus Boardman (B.A. 1829) Pastor of Tenth Presbyterian Church of Philadelphia (1833-1876) John Chester Backus (B.A. 1830) Pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Baltimore, Maryland (1836-1875); Trustee of Princeton University (1860-1872) Hiram Phelps Arms (B.A. 1824) Pastor of First (Congregational) Church of Norwich, Connecticut (1836-1873) William Ives Budington (B.A. 1834) Pastor of Clinton Avenue Congregational Church in Brooklyn, New York (1855-1878) Lawyers: John William Sterling (B.A. 1864, S&B 1864) Co-Founder and Member of Shearman & Sterling [law firm in New York City] (1873-1918) Thomas Thacher (B.A. 1871, S&B 1871) Co-Founder and Member of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett [law firm in New York City] (1875-1919) Robert Weeks de Forest (B.A. 1870, S&K 1870) General Counsel of Central Railroad of New Jersey (1874-1924)

Yale University Graduates (Skull & Bones) & Reconstruction (1865-1877) Government Officials: Daniel H. Chamberlain (S&B 1862) Governor of South Carolina (Republican, 1874-1876); Attorney General of South Carolina (1868-1872) Green Clay (S&B 1859) Member of Mississippi State Legislature during Reconstruction Henry Waterman Warren (S&B 1865) Member of Mississippi State Legislature (1870-1875) Hugh White Sheffey (S&B 1835) Judge of the Superior Court of Virginia (1865-1869) John Thomas Croxton (S&B 1857) Major General in the U.S. Army; Commander of the Military District of Southwest Georgia at Macon, Georgia (1865); U.S. Minister to Bolivia (1873-1874) Morrison R. Waite (S&B 1837) Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1874-1888) William M. Evarts (S&B 1837) U.S. Attorney General (1868-1869); U.S. Secretary of State (1877-1881) Alphonso Taft (S&B 1833) Secretary of War (1876); U.S. Attorney General (1876-1877); Judge of Superior Court of Cincinnati (1865-1872) Orris Sanford Ferry (S&B 1844) U.S. Senator (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1867-1875) William Barrett Washburn (S&B 1844) U.S. Senator (Republican Party-Massachusetts, 1874-1875); U.S. Congressman (Republican PartyMassachusetts, 1863-1871); Governor of Massachusetts (Republican, 1872-1874) Henry Champion Deming (S&B 1836) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1863-1867); U.S. Collector of Internal Revenue (1869-1872) Augustus Brandegee (S&B 1849) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1863-1867) Roswell Hart (S&B 1843) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New York, 1865-1867) Richard Dudley Hubbard (S&B 1839) U.S. Congressman (Democratic Party-Connecticut, 1867-1869) John Andrew Peters (S&B 1842) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Maine, 1867-1873); Attorney General of Maine (1864-1866) Richard J. Haldeman (S&B 1851) U.S. Congressman (Democratic Party-Pennsylvania, 1869-1873) Stephen W. Kellogg (S&B 1846) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1869-1875) John Edward Seeley (S&B 1835) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New York, 1871-1873) Ellis Henry Roberts (S&B 1850) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New York, 1871-1875); Member of New York State Assembly (1866) Benjamin Tucker Eames (S&B 1843) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Rhode Island, 1871-1879) Constantine C. Esty (S&B 1845) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Massachusetts, 1872-1873); Assessor of Internal Revenue (18621866; 1867-1872) William Walter Phelps (S&B 1860) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-New Jersey, 1873-1875, 1883-1889) William Wallace Crapo (S&B 1852) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Massachusetts, 1875-1883) William Law Learned (S&B 1841) Presiding Justice of the Supreme Court of New York (1875-1892) John Wallace Houston (S&B 1834) Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1855-1893) Leonard Eugene Wales (S&B 1845) Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1864-1884) Dwight Foster (S&B 1848) Justice of Massachusetts Supreme Court (1866-1869) George G. Sill (S&B 1852) Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (1873-1877) Albert Pierson Condit (S&B 1850) Member (1866-1867, 1871) and Speaker (1871) of the New Jersey State Legislature Colleges: Andrew D. White (S&B 1853) inaugural President of Cornell University (1866-1885) Daniel C. Gilman (S&B 1852) inaugural President of Johns Hopkins University (1875-1901); President of University of California at Berkeley (1872-1875); Secretary of Connecticut State Board of Education (1865-1866) Charles Janeway Stille (S&B 1839) Provost of University of Pennsylvania (1868-1880) Carroll Cutler (S&B 1854) President of [Case] Western Reserve University (1871-1886) William Chauvenet (S&B 1840) Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis (1862-1869) Henry Hitchcock (S&B 1848) Dean of the St. Louis Law School at Washington University in St. Louis (1867-1870, 1878-1881) Henry Coit Kingsley (S&B 1834) Treasurer of Yale University (1862-1886) William Preston Johnston (S&B 1852) Professor of English Literature, History, and Political Economy at Washington and Lee University (1867-1877) Benjamin Silliman Jr. (S&B 1837) Professor of Chemistry at Yale University (1854-1870) Timothy Dwight (S&B 1849) Professor of Sacred Literature at Yale University (1859-1886) Cyrus Northrop (S&B 1857) Professor of English at Yale University (1863-1884) Simeon Eben Baldwin (S&B 1861) Professor of Law at Yale Law School (1869-1919) Churches: Charles F. Robertson (S&B 1859) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Missouri (1868-1886) Joseph Parrish Thompson (S&B 1838) Pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle in New York City (1845-1871) Joseph Augustine Benton (S&B 1842) Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church in San Francisco (1863-1869) Edward D. Morris (S&B 1849) Pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Columbus, Ohio (1855-1867) William Eves Moore (S&B 1847) Pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Columbus, Ohio (1872-1894) James Gardiner Vose (S&B 1851) Pastor of the Beneficent Church in Providence, Rhode Island (1866-1901) William Henry Fenn (S&B 1854) Pastor of High Street Congregational Church of Portland, Maine (1866-1904) Alexander S. Twombly (S&B 1854) Pastor of Winthrop (Congregational) Church in Boston (1872-1891) Others: William C. Whitney (S&B 1863) Corporation Counsel of New York City (1875-1882) John William Sterling (S&B 1864) Co-Founder and Member of Shearman & Sterling [law firm in New York City] (1873-1918) Thomas Thacher (S&B 1871) Co-Founder and Member of Simpson, Thacher & Bartlett [law firm in New York City] (1875-1919) William M. Evarts (S&B 1837) President of the New York City Bar Association (1870-1879) Thomas Anthony Thacher (S&B 1835) Member of the Connecticut State Board of Education (1865-1877) Joseph Burbeen Walker (S&B 1844) Member of the Board of Education of Concord, New Hampshire (1859-1870)

Antebellum American Federal and State Government Officials (Skull & Bones) Federal Government Officials: William Henry Washington (S&B 1834) U.S. Congressman (Whig Party-North Carolina, 1841-1843) John Wallace Houston (S&B 1834) U.S. Congressman (Whig Party-Delaware, 1845-1851) Allen Ferdinand Owen (S&B 1837) U.S. Congressman (Whig Party-Georgia, 1849-1851); Consul in Havana, Cuba [Spain] (1851) John Perkins Jr. (S&B 1840) U.S. Congressman (Democratic Party-Louisiana, 1853-1855) William Taylor Sullivan Berry (S&B 1841) U.S. Congressman (Democratic Party-Mississippi, 1853-1855) Orris Sanford Ferry (S&B 1844) U.S. Congressman (Republican Party-Connecticut, 1859-1861) Henry Rootes Jackson (S&B 1839) U.S. Minister to the Austrian Empire (1854-1858) State Government Officials (Southern): James N. Lea (S&B 1834) Associate Justice of Louisiana Supreme Court (1855-1863) Hugh White Sheffey (S&B 1835) Member of the General Assembly of the State of Virginia (1846-1854) Allen Ferdinand Owen (S&B 1837) Member of Georgia State House of Representatives (1843-1847) Curtis Field Burnham (S&B 1840) Member of Kentucky House of Representatives (1851, 1859-1863) William Taylor Sullivan Berry (S&B 1841) Member of Mississippi State House of Representatives (1849-1851, 1855) John Henry Felder (S&B 1844) Member of South Carolina State Legislature (1852-1861) Richard Taylor (S&B 1845) Louisiana State Senator (1856-1861) Thomas McKinney Jack (S&B 1853) Member of Texas State Legislature (1859) State Government Officials (Northern): John Wallace Houston (S&B 1834) Associate Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1855-1893) Henry C. Deming (S&B 1836) Member of Connecticut State House of Representatives (1849-1850, 1859-1861) Thomas Marshall Key (S&B 1838) Ohio State Senator (1858-1861) Benjamin Tucker Eames (S&B 1843) Rhode Island State Senator (1854-1857); Member of Rhode Island House of Rep. (1859-1860) William Barrett Washburn (S&B 1844) Member of Massachusetts State House of Representatives (1853-1855) Constantine C. Esty (S&B 1845) Massachusetts State Senator (1857-1858) Henry B. Harrison (S&B 1846) Connecticut State Senator (1854-1856) Augustus Brandegee (S&B 1849) Member of Connecticut State House of Representatives (1854-1857, 1859-1861)

American State Government Officials during the American Civil War (Skull & Bones) Dwight Foster (S&B 1848) Attorney General of Massachusetts (1861-1864) John Andrew Peters (S&B 1842) Attorney General of Maine (1864-1866); Maine State Senator (1862-1863) Chauncey M. Depew (S&B 1856) Secretary of State of New York (1864-1865); Member of New York State Assembly (1861-1863) Henry Champion Deming (S&B 1836) Mayor of Hartford, Connecticut (1854-1858, 1860-1862); Provisional Mayor of New Orleans under Union Martial Law (October 1862-February 1863) William Frierson Cooper (S&B 1838) Justice of Tennessee Supreme Court (1861-1862, 1877-1886) John Wallace Houston (S&B 1834) Associate Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1855-1893) Leonard Eugene Wales (S&B 1845) Justice of the Superior Court of Delaware (1864-1884) Andrew D. White (S&B 1853) New York State Senator (1864) William Henry Gleason (S&B 1853) Member of New York State Assembly (1864-1865) Charles M. Tyler (S&B 1855) Member of Massachusetts House of Representatives (1862) Benjamin Tucker Eames (S&B 1843) Rhode Island State Senator (1863-1864) Alvyn P. Hyde (S&B 1845) Member of Connecticut State House of Representatives (1854, 1858, 1863) George Pratt (S&B 1857) Member of Connecticut House of Representatives (1860, 1864-1865, 1869) John Ball Brisbrin (S&B 1846) Member of Minnesota State Legislature (1858-1864)

Prominent Rebel (Confederate) Bonesmen Richard Taylor (S&B 1845) Lieutenant General in the Confederate Army; Commander of the Department of Alabama, Mississippi, and East Louisiana (1864-1865); Commander of the [Confederate] Army of Tennessee (1865); Surrendered to the Union Army near Mobile, Alabama on May 4, 1865; son of former U.S. President Zachary Taylor; Confederate President Jefferson Daviss brother-in-law Henry Rootes Jackson (S&B 1839) Major General in the Confederate Army; delegate to the Democratic Presidential Convention at Charleston, South Carolina in 1860; served as a prisoner-of-war after surrendering to the Union Army at the Battle of Nashville in December 1864 William Preston Johnston (S&B 1852) Colonel in the Confederate Army; Jefferson Daviss aide-de-camp; captured by the Union Army along with Jefferson Davis in Irwinsville, Georgia on May 10, 1865; served as a pallbearer at Gen. Robert E. Lees funeral; President of Tulane University (1884-1899); son of Confederate Brig. Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, former Secretary of War of the Republic of Texas John Perkins Jr. (S&B 1840) Member of the Confederate House of Representatives for Louisiana [Second Congress] (1864-1865); Delegate to the Confederate Provisional Congress in Montgomery, Alabama (1861-1862) William T.S. Barry (S&B 1841) Chairman of the Mississippi Secession Convention in 1861; Delegate to the Confederate Provisional Congress (1861-1862); Signer of the Confederate Constitution; Colonel in command of the 35th Mississippi Infantry; captured at Mobile, Alabama on April 12, 1865 Burton Norvell Harrison (S&B 1859) Private Secretary to Confederate President Jefferson Davis; captured by the Union Army along with Jefferson Davis in Irwinsville, Georgia on May 10, 1865; father of former U.S. Congressman Francis Burton Harrison (S&B 1895) Thomas L. Bayne (S&B 1847) Colonel; Chief of the Bureau of Foreign Supplies in the Confederate War Department; married to Mary Gayle, the daughter of former Governor of Alabama John Gayle Thomas McKinney Jack (S&B 1853) Colonel; Adjutant General of the Department of Texas, Confederate Army (1864-1865); Aide-de-camp to Confederate Brigadier General Albert Sidney Johnston until Gen. Johnstons death at Battle of Shiloh; son of William H. Jack, former Secretary of State of the Republic of Texas Hugh White Sheffey (S&B 1835) Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates (1861-1865) Vincent Marmaduke (S&B 1852) Colonel, Confederate Army; son of former Governor of Missouri Meredith Miles Marmaduke Alexander Porter Root (S&B 1861) Major; Assistant Adjutant-General on the staff of Confederate Brigadier General Thomas Drayton James N. Brickell (S&B 1845) First Lieutenant, Ordnance Officer for the Confederate Army in Louisiana William Felix Alexander (S&B 1851) Assistant to Confederate Gen. A.R. Lawton, the Quartermaster-General of the Confederate Army Henry Williams (S&B 1837) Lieutenant of the Irish Volunteers from Savannah, Georgia (Confederate Army) Prominent Federal (Union) Bonesmen William M. Evarts (S&B 1837) Special Diplomatic Envoy to Great Britain and France under President Abraham Lincoln Green Clay (S&B 1859) Secretary of the U.S. Legation at St. Petersburg, Russia (1861); Secretary of the U.S. Legation at Turin and Florence (1862-1868); Colonel, Union Army; son of former U.S. Congressman Brutus Junius Clay Constantine C. Esty (S&B 1845) Assessor of Internal Revenue (1862-1866; 1867-1872) William Huntington Russell (S&B 1833) Major-General in the Militia of the State of Connecticut (1862-1870) Orris Sanford Ferry (S&B 1844) Brigadier General in the United States Volunteers (1862-1865) Joseph Cooke Jackson (S&B 1857) brevetted Brigadier General in the 6th New Jersey volunteers John Thomas Croxton (S&B 1857) Major General, Union Army; Commander of Military District of Southwest Georgia at Macon, Ga. (1865) William Seward Pierson (S&B 1836) brevetted Brigadier General, Union Army; selected as Mayor of Sandusky, Ohio in 1861 Thomas Marshall Key (S&B 1838) Colonel; Judge Advocate on the staff of Union Army Gen. George B. McClellan Thaddeus Foote (S&B 1844) Colonel in 10th Michigan Cavalry Henry McCormick (S&B 1852) Colonel in the First Regiment of Pennsylvania Militia Rufus Cowles Crampton (S&B 1851) Lieutenant Colonel of the 145th Illinois Volunteers Edward Payson Nettleton (S&B 1856) Lieutenant Colonel in 31st Massachusetts Infantry; brevetted Colonel Henry Hitchcock (S&B 1848) brevetted Lieutenant Colonel; Assistant Adjutant General, U.S. Volunteers; Served as Judge Advocate on the personal staff of Union Army General William T. Sherman; son of Henry H. Hitchcock, former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Alabama Daniel Henry Chamberlain (S&B 1862) Captain in 5th Massachusetts Colored Infantry (1864-1865) Henry Varnum Freeman (S&B 1869) Captain in 12th U.S. Colored Infantry (1863-1865) Newton Spaulding Manross (S&B 1850) Captain in 16th Regiment of Connecticut Volunteers; died at Battle of Antietam on Sept. 17, 1862 Thomas Hedge (S&B 1867) Second Lieutenant in Company G, 106th Regiment of New York Volunteer Infantry (1864-1865) Leonard Eugene Wales (S&B 1845) Second Lieutenant in First Delaware Volunteers in 1861 Edward Foster Blake (S&B 1858) Adjutant in the 5th Regiment of Connecticut Volunteers; killed in action in Virginia on August 9, 1862 Diodate Cushman Hannahs (S&B 1859) Captain in the 6th New York Cavalry; killed in action in Virginia on September 10, 1862 Daniel Hebard (S&B 1860) Assistant Adjutant-General of Volunteers [of Ohio]; died on August 7, 1862 George Coit Ripley (S&B 1862) 1st Lieutenant; Tenth Connecticut Regiment, Company A; Aide-de-camp to Gen. Orris S. Ferry (S&B 1844) in 1865 Charles Miller Bliss (S&B 1852) 2nd Lieutenant; Second Vermont Infantry during the Civil War Samuel Henshaw Bates (S&B 1833) served as a private in the 24th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteers during Civil War William Baldwin Ross (S&B 1852) member of the Seventh Regiment New York State Guard during the Civil War Jacob Cooper (S&B 1852) Chaplain of the Third Kentucky Regiment, U.S. Volunteers Charles Mellen Tyler (S&B 1855) Chaplain of the 22nd Massachusetts Infantry Francis Eugene Butler (S&B 1857) Chaplain of the 25th Regiment of New Jersey Volunteers; died at Suffolk, Virginia on May 4, 1863 William Kittredge Hall (S&B 1859) Chaplain of the 17th Connecticut Infantry Edward Brown Furbish (S&B 1860) Chaplain of the 25th Maine Volunteers William Curtis Johnston (S&B 1860) Chaplain of the 13th U.S. Kentucky Volunteers; died of pneumonia in Kentucky on December 3, 1862

HARVARD UNIVERSITY & EARLY 19TH CENTURY AMERICA

Harvard University is located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, just outside of Boston.

A Meeting of The Boston Brahmins: Presidents of Harvard University pose for a portrait. Left to right, Josiah Quincy (1829-1845), Edward Everett (1846-1849), Jared Sparks (1849-1853), James Walker (1853-1860), and Cornelius Conway Felton (1860-1862). (Photo: Wikimedia)

American merchants in Boston, Hartford, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore relied on fast-moving clipper ships in the 1840s and 1850s as they expanded their trade with the British Empire and opened trade with China (including Hong Kong and Shanghai) and Japan (beginning in 1853). Warren Delano gained a huge fortune in the opium trade in Hong Kong. Warren Delanos son Frederic A. Delano, a Harvard graduate, served as the first Vice Chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1914 to 1916. Warren Delanos grandson Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a Harvard graduate, served as the President of the United States from 1933 to 1945.

Harvard graduates (left to right): Caleb Cushing, Edward Everett, and Robert Charles Winthrop Caleb Cushing (B.A. 1817) served as a U.S. Congressman during the Opium War. Cushing served the U.S. Attorney General under President Franklin Pierce. Cushing served as the Chairman of the Democratic National Conventions at Charleston and Baltimore in 1860. Edward Everett (B.A. 1811) served as the Governor of Massachusetts (1836-1840) and as U.S. Minister to Great Britain (1841-1845) during the Opium War; Everett served as President of Harvard University (1846-1849), Secretary of State (1852-1853), and U.S. Senator (WhigMassachusetts, 1853-1854). Edward Everett was the Vice Presidential candidate for the Constitutional Union Party in 1860. Robert Charles Winthrop (B.A. 1828) was a U.S. Congressman (Whig-Massachusetts, 1840-1842, 1842-1850), a Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives (1847-1849), and a U.S. Senator (1850-1851). Robert Charles Winthrop is U.S. Senator John F. Kerrys great-greatgrandfather.

Prominent Antebellum Harvard Graduates

George Bancroft B.A. Harvard 1817 U.S. Minister to Prussia (1867-1871)

Caleb Cushing B.A. Harvard 1817 U.S. Attorney General (1853-1857)

Joseph Coolidge B.A. Harvard 1817 Partner of Russell & Co. opium syndicate (1834-1840)

Samuel A. Eliot B.A. Harvard 1817 Mayor of Boston (1837-1839)

Alva Woods B.A. Harvard 1817 inaugural President of University of Alabama (1831-1837)

John Quincy Adams B.A. Harvard 1787 President of the United States (1825-1829)

Joseph Story B.A. Harvard 1798 Justice, U.S. Supreme Court (1811-1845)

Edward Everett B.A. Harvard 1811 U.S. Minister to Great Britain (1841-1845)

Robert Charles Winthrop B.A. Harvard 1828 Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives (1847-1849)

Charles Sumner B.A. Harvard 1830 U.S. Senator (R-Mass., 1851-1874)

Charles F. Adams Sr. B.A. Harvard 1825 U.S. Minister to Great Britain (1861-1868)

Robert Rantoul Jr. B.A. Harvard 1826 Member of Mass. State Board of Education (1837-1842)

Ebenezer R. Hoar B.A. Harvard 1835 U.S. Attorney General (1869-1870)

William A. Richardson B.A. Harvard 1843 Secretary of the Treasury (1873-1874)

Frederick A. Sawyer B.A. Harvard 1844 U.S. Senator (R-South Carolina, 1868-1873)

Harvard University Graduates and American Civil War (1861-1865) & Reconstruction (1865-1877) Government Officials: Ebenezer R. Hoar (B.A. 1835, LL.B. 1839) U.S. Attorney General (1869-1870); U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts, 1873-1875) William Adams Richardson (B.A. 1843, LL.B. 1846) Secretary of the Treasury (1873-1874) Charles Francis Adams Sr. (B.A. 1825) U.S. Minister to Great Britain (1861-1868) George Bancroft (B.A. 1817) U.S. Minister to the Kingdom of Prussia (1867-1871); U.S. Minister to Germany (1871-1874) John Lothrop Motley (B.A. 1831) U.S. Minister to Austria (1861-1867); U.S. Minister to Great Britain (1869-1870) Edward Joy Morris (B.A. 1836) U.S. Minister to Turkey [Ottoman Empire] (1861-1870) Caleb Cushing (B.A. 1817) U.S. Minister to Spain (1874-1877) John Chandler Bancroft Davis (B.A. 1840) U.S. Minister to Germany (1874-1877) Ayres Phillips Merrill (B.A. 1845) U.S. Minister to Belgium (1876-1877) James R. Partridge (B.A. 1841, LL.B. 1843) U.S. Minister to Honduras (1862); U.S. Minister to El Salvador (1863-1866); U.S. Minister to Venezuela (1869-1870); U.S. Minister to Brazil (1871-1877) Charles Sumner (B.A. 1830, LL.B. 1834) U.S. Senator (Republican-Massachusetts, 1851-1874) Frederick A. Sawyer (B.A. 1844) U.S. Senator (Republican-South Carolina, 1868-1873); Assistant Secretary of the Treasury (1873-1874) Samuel Thomas Worcester (B.A. 1830) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Ohio, 1861-1863) John Ganson (B.A. 1839) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-New York, 1863-1865) George M. Brooks (B.A. 1844, LL.B. 1847) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts, 1869-1872) George F. Hoar (B.A. 1846, LL.B. 1849) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts, 1869-1877) William W. Warren (B.A. 1856, LL.B. 1856) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Massachusetts, 1875-1877) Frederick George Bromberg (B.A.1858) U.S. Congressman (Liberal Republican-Alabama, 1873-1875); Treasurer of Mobile, Alabama (18671869); Member of Alabama State Senate (1868-1872); Postmaster of Mobile, Alabama (July 1869-June 1871) Ashur Ware (B.A. 1804) Judge of the U.S. District Court for Maine (1822-1866) Edward Fox (B.A. 1834, LL.B. 1837) Judge of the U.S. District Court for Maine (1866-1881) Willard Hall (B.A. 1799) Judge of the U.S. District Court for Delaware (1823-1871) Peleg Sprague (B.A. 1812) Judge of the U.S. District Court for Massachusetts (1841-1865) Samuel Treat (B.A. 1837) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri (1857-1887) Edward Henry Durell (B.A. 1831) Judge of the U.S. District Court for Louisiana (1863-1872) William Whiting (B.A. 1833, LL.B. 1838) Solicitor of the War Department (1862-1865) Nathan Webb (B.A. 1846) U.S. Attorney for the District of Maine (1870-1878) Charles Allen (B.A. 1847) Attorney General of Massachusetts (1867-1872) George Tyler Bigelow (B.A. 1829) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts (1860-1867) Horace Gray (B.A. 1845, LL.B. 1849) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts (1873-1881) Pliny Merrick (B.A. 1814) Justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts (1853-1864) William Crowninshield Endicott (B.A. 1847) Justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts (1863-1882) John Davis Long (B.A. 1857) Member of the Massachusetts State House of Representatives (1875-1878); Speaker of the Massachusetts State House of Representatives (1876-1878) John G. Palfrey (B.A. 1815) Postmaster of Boston (1861-1867) Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff (B.A. 1831, M.D. 1834) Mayor of Boston (1868-1871); Overseer of Harvard University (1852-1861, 1863-1869) Elisha Reynolds Potter (B.A. 1830) Justice of Rhode Island Supreme Court (1868-1882); Rhode Island State Senator (1847-1852, 1861-63) Edward Kent (B.A. 1821) Justice of the Maine Supreme Court (1859-1873) College Administrators, Church Leaders, and Businessmen: Cornelius Conway Felton (A.B. 1827) President of Harvard University (1860-1862) Thomas Hill (A.B. 1843) President of Harvard University (1862-1868) Charles William Eliot (A.B. 1853) President of Harvard University (1869-1909) William Augustus Stearns (B.A. 1827) President of Amherst College (1854-1876) Samuel Eliot (B.A. 1839) President of Trinity College [Hartford, Connecticut] (1860-1864) Charles Short (B.A. 1846) President of Kenyon College (1863-1867) Thomas Chase (B.A. 1848) President of Haverford College (1874-1886) John Daniel Runkle (B.S. 1851) President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1870-1878) Joseph Moore (B.S. 1861) President of Earlham College (1868-1883) Christopher C. Langdell (B.A. 1851) Dean of Harvard Law School (1870-1895) Theophilus Parsons (B.A. 1815) Dane Professor of Law at Harvard Law School (1848-1869) Stephen Elliott (B.A. 1824) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Georgia (1841-1866) Alfred Lee (B.A. 1827) Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware (1841-1887) Nehemiah Adams (B.A. 1826) Pastor of Union Congregational Church in Boston (1834-1878) Chandler Robbins (B.A. 1829) Pastor of Second [Congregational] Church of Boston (1833-1874) Stephen Higginson Tyng (B.A. 1817) Pastor of St. Georges Church in New York City (1845-1878) William Henry Furness (B.A. 1820) Minister of the First Unitarian Church in Philadelphia (1825-1875) Richard Fuller (B.A. 1824) Pastor of 7th Baptist Church in Baltimore (1847-1871); former President of Southern Baptist Convention George Edward Ellis (B.A. 1833) Pastor of Harvard Unitarian Church in Charlestown, Massachusetts (1840-1869); Overseer of Harvard University (1850-1879) Charles Francis Adams Jr. (A.B. 1856) Member of the Board of Railroad Commissioners of Massachusetts (1869-1879) James Dandridge Halyburton (B.A. 1823) Judge of the District of Virginia [Confederacy] (1861-1865) George Partridge Sanger (B.A. 1840, LL.B. 1844) President of John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Co. (1863) Willard Phillips (B.A. 1810) President of New England Mutual Life Insurance Co. (1847-1870)

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY & EARLY 19TH CENTURY AMERICA

Princeton University is located in Princeton, New Jersey, a town near Trenton, New Jersey and Philadelphia.

Princeton powerbrokers Aaron Burr Jr. (left) and Nicholas Biddle Aaron Burr Jr. (A.B. Princeton 1772), the Vice President of the U.S. from 1801 to 1805, mortally wounded Alexander Hamilton in a duel at Weehawken, New Jersey on July 11, 1804. Burr was indicted for murder in New York and New Jersey but never tried in either jurisdiction; he escaped to South Carolina and later returned to Washington, D.C. to complete his time in office. Aaron Burr Jr. was arrested and tried for treason in August 1807 for attempting to establish a republic in the Southwest of which he was to be the head. Burr was acquitted of treason and went to England in 1808. Aaron Burr Jr. returned to New York City in 1812; he died in Staten Island, New York on September 14, 1836. Nicholas Biddle (A.B. Princeton 1801) served as the President of the Second Bank of the United States from 1823 to 1836.

Colonel Edward M. House (left) and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson (Photo: Manuscripts & Archives, Yale University Library) Edward M. House was a political powerbroker from Austin, Texas, U.S.A. who supported the establishment of the Federal Reserve System. Edward M. House, one of the co-founders of the Council on Foreign Relations in New York City, was the author of Philip Dru: Administrator, a book in which he promotes communism, socialism, central bank, and income tax in America. Colonel Edward M. House was the son of British-born Rebel (Confederate) blockade runner and businessman Thomas William House; Thomas William House was the mayor of Houston, Texas in 1862. Woodrow Wilson, a segregationist and a white supremacist, was the son of a Rebel (Confederate) chaplain. Woodrow Wilson was the President of Princeton University (1902-1910), Governor of New Jersey (1911-1913), and President of the United States (1913-1921). Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act, a bill establishing the Federal Reserve, Americas central bank, on December 23, 1913.

Princeton University Graduates and American Civil War (1861-1865) Confederate: John I. Middleton (A.B. 1819) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) William P. Finley (A.B. 1820) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) Alexander Mazyck (A.B. 1820) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) Abraham W. Venable (A.B. 1819) Member of the Confederate Congress (North Carolina, 1862-1864) Alexander R. Boteler (A.B. 1835) Member of the Confederate Congress (Virginia, 1862-1864); U.S. Congressman (Virginia, 1859-1861) David Funsten (A.B. 1838) Member of the Confederate Congress (Virginia, 1864-1865) Walter Preston (A.B. 1839) Member of the Confederate Congress (Virginia, 1862-1864) Henry Cousins Chambers (A.B. 1844) Member of the Confederate Congress (Mississippi, 1862-1865) Richard Wilde Walker (A.B. 1841) Confederate Senator (Alabama, 1864-1865) Alfred H. Colquitt (A.B. 1844) Member of the Georgia Secession Convention (1861); Major General of the Confederate Army (1861-1865) Walter L. Keirn (A.B. 1848) Member of the Mississippi Secession Convention (1861) Robert Craig Kent (A.B. 1849) Member of the Virginia Secession Convention (1861) James Chesnut Jr. (A.B. 1835) Signer of the Confederate Constitution James Jay Archer (A.B. 1835) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1862-1864) Bradley Tyler Johnson (A.B. 1849) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1864-1865) Allen Thomas (A.B. 1850) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1863-1865) Williams Stevenson Walker (A.B. 1851) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1862-1865) Union: William Lewis Dayton (A.B. 1825) U.S. Ambassador to France (1861-1864) James Moore Wayne (A.B. 1808) Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1835-1867); Mayor of Savannah, Georgia (1817-1819) John Jay Jackson, Jr. (A.B. 1845) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Virginia (1861-1864) James Dunlop (A.B. 1811) Chief Justice of the U.S. Circuit Court for the District of Columbia (1857-1863) Richard Stockton Field (A.B. 1821) U.S. Senator (R-New Jersey, 1862-1863); Judge of the U.S. District Court for New Jersey (1863-1870) James Alfred Pearce (A.B. 1822) U.S. Senator (Whig/Democrat-Maryland, 1843-1862) James Walter Wall (A.B. 1838) U.S. Senator (Democrat-New Jersey, 1863) William Pennington (A.B. 1813) U.S. Congressman (Republican-New Jersey, 1859-1861); Speaker of the U.S. House (1860-1861) John L.N. Stratton (A.B. 1836) U.S. Congressman (Republican-New Jersey, 1859-1863) Charles John Biddle (A.B. 1837) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Pennsylvania, 1861-1863) Robert McKnight (A.B. 1839) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Pennsylvania, 1859-1863) John Thompson Nixon (A.B. 1841) U.S. Congressman (Republican-New Jersey, 1859-1863) Francis P. Blair Jr. (A.B. 1841) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Missouri, 1857-1859, 1860, 1861-1862, 1863-1864); Major General of the United States Volunteers (1862-1865) Alexander Henry (A.B. 1840) Mayor of Philadelphia (1858-1866) Edward William Whelpley (A.B. 1834) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey (1861-1864) William W. Belknap (A.B. 1848) Brigadier General of the United States Volunteers (1864-1865) William Mumford Baker (A.B. 1846) Pastor of First Presbyterian Church in Austin, Texas (1850-1865); Unionist during the Civil War John Maclean, Jr. (A.B. 1816) President of Princeton University (1854-1868) Princeton University Graduates and Reconstruction (1865-1877) William W. Belknap (A.B. 1848) Secretary of War (1869-1876) James D. Cameron (A.B. 1852) Secretary of War (1876-1877) George M. Robeson (A.B. 1847) Secretary of the Navy (1869-1877); Attorney General of New Jersey (1867-1869) Nathaniel G. Taylor (A.B. 1840) Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1867-1869) James Moore Wayne (A.B. 1808) Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1835-1867) George H. Boker (A.B. 1842) U.S. Minister to Turkey [Ottoman Empire] (1871-1875); U.S. Minister to Russia (1875-1877) John Sharpenstein Hager (A.B. 1836) U.S. Senator (Democrat-California, 1873-1875) James K. Kelly (A.B. 1839) U.S. Senator (Democrat-Oregon, 1871-1877) Francis P. Blair Jr. (A.B. 1841) U.S. Senator (Democrat-Missouri, 1871-1873) John Potter Stockton (A.B. 1843) U.S. Senator (Democrat-New Jersey, 1865-1866, 1869-1875) Alexander Hamilton Bailey (A.B. 1837) U.S. Congressman (Republican-New York, 1867-1871) Thomas Laurens Jones (A.B. 1840) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Kentucky, 1867-1871, 1875-1877) Nathaniel G. Taylor (A.B. 1840) U.S. Congressman (Whig/Unionist-Tennessee, 1854-1855, 1866-1867) Frederick H. Teese (A.B. 1843) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-New Jersey, 1875-1877) James D. Strawbridge (A.B. 1844) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Pennsylvania, 1873-1875) Stevenson Archer (A.B. 1846) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Maryland, 1867-1875) William H. Armstrong (A.B. 1847) U.S. Congressman (Republican Pennsylvania, 1869-1871) Hiester Clymer (A.B. 1847) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Pennsylvania, 1873-1881) Charles Edward Phelps (A.B. 1852) U.S. Congressman (Conservative-Maryland, 1865-1869) Charles Haight (A.B. 1857) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-New Jersey, 1867-1871) John Jay Jackson, Jr. (A.B. 1845) Judge of the U.S. District Court for West Virginia (1864-1901) Andrew Todd McKinney (A.B. 1858) U.S. Attorney for Texas (1871-1873) Joseph Wilberforce Martin (A.B. 1855) U.S. Attorney for Arkansas (1874-1876) Charles Henry Luzenberg (A.B. 1857) U.S. Attorney for the First District of Louisiana (1866-1872) Furman Sheppard (A.B. 1845) U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania (1868-1871) John Calvin Reed (A.B. 1854) Grand Giant of the Ku Klux Klan in Oglethorpe County, Georgia (1868-1871) John Maclean, Jr. (A.B. 1816) President of Princeton University (1854-1868) James Clarke Welling (A.B. 1844) President of George Washington University (1871-1894); President of St. Johns College [Annapolis, Maryland] (1867-1870)

BROWN UNIVERSITY & EARLY 19TH CENTURY AMERICA

Brown University, an Ivy League college, is located in Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

Prominent Antebellum Brown University Graduates

James Fenner A.B. Brown 1789 Governor of Rhode Island (1807-1811, 1824-1831, 1843-1845)

Jonathan Maxcy A.B. Brown 1787 President of University of South Carolina (1804-1820)

Horace Mann A.B. Brown 1819 U.S. Congressman (Whig-Mass., 1848-1853); Secretary of Massachusetts State Board of Education (1837-1848)

Pendleton Murrah A.B. Brown 1848 Governor of Texas [Confederate] (1863-1865)

William Learned Marcy A.B. Brown 1808 Governor of New York (1833-1838)

Brown University Graduates and American Civil War (1861-1865) and Reconstruction (1865-1877) Lafayette S. Foster (A.B. 1828) U.S. Senator (Republican-Connecticut, 1855-1867) Henry Bowen Anthony (A.B. 1833) U.S. Senator (Republican-Rhode Island, 1859-1884) Samuel Greene Arnold (A.B. 1841) U.S. Senator (Republican-Rhode Island, 1862-1863); Lt. Gov. of Rhode Island (1852-1853, 1861-1862) Eli Thayer (A.B. 1845) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts 1857-1861) Benjamin F. Thomas (A.B. 1830) U.S. Congressman (Unionist-Massachusetts, 1861-1863) Nathan F. Dixon Jr. (A.B. 1833) U.S. Congressman (Whig/Republican-Rhode Island, 1849-1851, 1863-1871) Charles Russell Train (A.B. 1837) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Mass., 1859-1863); Attorney General of Massachusetts (1871-1878) Thomas Allen Jenckes (A.B. 1838) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Rhode Island, 1863-1871) George H. Browne (A.B. 1840) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Rhode Island 1861-1863); U.S. Attorney for Rhode Island (1852-1861) Samuel S. Cox (A.B. 1846) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Ohio, 1857-1865; Democrat-New York, 1869-1873, 1873-1885, 1886-1889) Christopher Robinson (A.B. 1825) U.S. Minister to Peru (1861-1865) John Pitman (A.B. 1799) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Rhode Island (1825-1864) Jonathan Russell Bullock (A.B. 1834) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Rhode Island (1865-1869); Justice of the Supreme Court of Rhode Island (1862-1864); Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island (1860-1861) Edwin Channing Larned (A.B. 1840) U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Illinois [Chicago] (1861-1865) Wingate Hayes (A.B. 1844) U.S. Attorney for Rhode Island (1861-1871) Samuel Coney (A.B. 1829) Governor of Maine (1864-1867) Pendleton Murrah (A.B. 1848) Governor of Texas [Confederate] (1863-1865) Walter S. Burges (A.B. 1831) Attorney General of Rhode Island (1851-1854, 1860-1863) Theron Metcalf (A.B. 1805) Justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts (1848-1865) George Arnold Brayton (A.B. 1824) Justice of the Supreme Court of Rhode Island (1843-1865, 1866-1868) Alfred Bosworth (A.B. 1835) Justice of the Supreme Court of Rhode Island (1854-1862) Thomas Ewing (A.B. 1856) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Kansas (1861-1862) William Gaston (A.B. 1840) Mayor of Roxbury, Mass. (1861-1862); Mayor of Boston (1871-1872); Governor of Massachusetts (1875-1876) Daniel Dyer Leach (A.B. 1830) Superintendent of Public Schools of Providence, Rhode Island (1855-1884) Barnas Sears (A.B. 1825) President of Brown University (1855-1867) Rev. George Whitefield Samson (A.B. 1839) President of George Washington University [formerly Columbian College] (1859-1871) Ebenezer Dodge (A.B. 1840) President of Colgate University (1868-1890) Benjamin Bosworth Smith (A.B. 1816) Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Kentucky (1832-1884) Philip Allen (A.B. 1803) Cotton manufacturer in Providence, Rhode Island (1812-1865) Zachariah Allen (A.B. 1813) Cotton manufacturer in Providence, Rhode Island (1822-1882) Julian Hartridge (A.B. 1849, LL.B. Harvard 1852) Confederate Congressman (1862-1865); U.S. Congressman (D-Georgia, 1875-1879)

Providence, Rhode Island in 1858, with factories in the background (Library of Congress)

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE & EARLY 19TH CENTURY AMERICA

Dartmouth College, an Ivy League college, is located in Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A., near the Vermont-New Hampshire border. (Photo: Flickr)

Prominent Antebellum Dartmouth Graduates

Daniel Webster A.B. Dartmouth 1801 U.S. Senator (Whig-Mass., 1827-1841, 1845-1850)

Levi Woodbury A.B. Dartmouth 1809 Secretary of the Treasury (1834-1841)

Salmon P. Chase A.B. Dartmouth 1826 Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1864-1873)

Rufus Choate A.B. Dartmouth 1819 U.S. Senator (Whig-Mass., 1841-1845)

Thaddeus Stevens A.B. Dartmouth 1814 U.S. Congressman (Whig/Republican-Penn., 1849-1853, 1859-1868)

James W. Grimes A.B. Dartmouth 1836 U.S. Senator (R-Iowa, 1859-1869)

John Wentworth A.B. Dartmouth 1836 Mayor of Chicago (1857-1858, 1860-1861)

Benjamin F. Flanders A.B. Dartmouth 1842 Mayor of New Orleans (1870-1872)

John Dudley Philbrick A.B. Dartmouth 1842 Superintendent of Public Schools of Boston (1856-1874, 1875-1878)

Sylvanus Thayer A.B. Dartmouth 1807 Superintendent of U.S. Military Academy (1817-1833)

Dartmouth College Graduates and American Civil War (1861-1865) and Reconstruction (1865-1877)
Salmon P. Chase (A.B. 1826) Secretary of the Treasury (1861-1864); Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1864-1873) Edward A. Rollins (A.B. 1851) U.S. Commissioner of Internal Revenue (1865-1869); Speaker, New Hamp. State House of Rep. (1861-1862) George P. Marsh (A.B. 1820) U.S. Minister to Italy (1861-1882) Benjamin Franklin Whidden (A.B. 1840) U.S. Consul-General in Haiti [Port au Prince] (1862-1865) Marquis De Lafayette Lane (A.B. 1849) U.S. Consul at Veracruz, Mexico (1862-1867) William Breck (A.B. 1838) U.S. Vice-Consul in Singapore (1857-1860); U.S. Consul in Swatow, China (1860-1866) John Lord Hayes (A.B. 1831) Chief Clerk of U.S. patent Office (1861-1865); head of U.S. Tariff Commission (1882-1883) Samuel Augustus Duncan (A.B. 1858) Assistant Commissioner of Patents (1870-1872) Benjamin F. Flanders (A.B. 1842) Mayor of New Orleans (1870-1872); Military Governor of Louisiana (1867-1868); U.S. Congressman (UnionistLouisiana, December 3, 1862-March 3, 1863); Assistant Treasurer of the United States at New Orleans (1873-1882) John Wentworth (A.B. 1836) Mayor of Chicago (1857-1858, 1860-1861); U.S. Congressman (Democrat/Republican-Illinois, 1843-1851, 1853-1855, 1865-1867) Daniel Clark (A.B. 1834) U.S. Senator (Republican-New Hampshire, 1857-1866) James W. Grimes (A.B. 1836) U.S. Senator (Republican-Iowa, 1859-1869) Thaddeus Stevens (A.B. 1814) U.S. Congressman (Whig/Republican-Pennsylvania, 1849-1853, 1859-1868) Thomas McKey Edwards (A.B. 1813) U.S. Congressman (Republican-New Hampshire, 1859-1863) Bradford N. Stevens (A.B. 1835) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-Illinois, 1871-1873) Daniel Wheelwright Gooch (A.B. 1843) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Massachusetts, 1858-1865, 1873-1875) John Noble Goodwin (A.B. 1844) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Maine, 1861-1863) Samuel Newell Bell (A.B. 1847) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-New Hampshire, 1871-1873, 1875-1877) James Willis Patterson (A.B. 1848) U.S. Congressman (Republican-New Hampshire, 1863-1867); U.S. Senator (New Hamp., 1867-1873) Charles Wesley Willard (A.B. 1851) U.S. Congressman (Republican-Vermont, 1869-1875) Walbridge Abner Field (A.B. 1855) Assistant Attorney General of the United States (1869-1870) David Timothy Corbin (A.B. 1857) U.S. Attorney for the District of South Carolina [Charleston] (1867-1877) Alanson Bertram Long (A.B. 1858) U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Louisiana [New Orleans] (1870) Amos T. Akerman (A.B. 1842) U.S. Attorney for the District of Georgia [Atlanta] (1869-1870); U.S. Attorney General (1870-1871) David Haven Mason (A.B. 1841) U.S. Attorney for the District of Massachusetts [Boston] (1870-1873) Perkins Bass (A.B. 1852) U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Illinois [Chicago] (1865-1866) John King Valentine (A.B. 1855) U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania [Philadelphia] (1875-1888) Asa Wentworth Tenney (A.B. 1859) U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of New York [Brooklyn] (1873-1885) Alfred Russell (A.B. 1850) U.S. Attorney for the District of Michigan [Detroit] (1861-1869) John Bear Doane Cogswell (A.B. 1850) U.S. Attorney for the District of Wisconsin [Milwaukee] (1861-1868) Henry Pearson Rolfe (A.B. 1848) U.S. Attorney for the District of New Hampshire (1869-1874) Joshua Gilman Hall (A.B. 1851) U.S. Attorney for the District of New Hampshire (1874-1879) Matthew Harvey (A.B. 1806) Judge of the U.S. District Court for New Hampshire (1831-1866) Daniel Clark (A.B. 1834) Judge of the U.S. District Court for New Hampshire (1866-1891) Roger Sherman Greene (A.B. 1859) Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Washington Territory (1870-1879) George W. Emery (A.B. 1858) Governor of Utah Territory (1875-1880) Edward Follansbee Noyes (A.B. 1857) Governor of Ohio (1872-1874) Nelson Dingley Jr. (A.B. 1855) Governor of Maine (1874-1876) Peter T. Washburn (A.B. 1835) Governor of Vermont (1869-1870) Lyman G. Hinckley (A.B. 1856) Lieutenant Governor of Vermont (1874-1876) Benjamin F. Prescott (A.B. 1856) Secretary of State of New Hampshire (1872-1877) William Cogswell Clarke (A.B. 1832) Attorney General of New Hampshire (1863-1872) Lewis Whitehouse Clark (A.B. 1850) Attorney General of New Hampshire (1872-1876) Ira Perley (A.B. 1822) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire (1855-1859, 1864-1869) George W. Nesmith (A.B. 1820) Justice of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire (1859-1870) William Henry Bartlett (A.B. 1847) Justice of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire (1861-1867) William Spencer Ladd (A.B. 1855) Justice of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire (1870-1874) Jonathan Everett Sargent (A.B. 1840) Justice (1859-1873) and Chief Justice (1873-1874) of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire Isaac Fletcher Redfield (A.B. 1825) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Vermont (1852-1860) Benjamin H. Steele (A.B. 1857) Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Vermont (1865-1870) Timothy Parker Redfield (A.B. 1836) Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Vermont (1870-1884) Jason Downer (A.B. 1838) Judge of the Supreme Court of Wisconsin (1864-1867) Benjamin Franklin Dennison (A.B. 1845) Judge of the U.S. Court for Washington Territory (1868-1870) Oliver Miller (A.B. 1848) Judge of the Maryland State Court of Appeals (1867-1892) James Frederick Joy (A.B. 1833) Member of Michigan State Legislature (1861-1862); President of Michigan Central Railroad (1867) Harvey Jewell (A.B. 1844) Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1868-1871) John Eaton (A.B. 1854) U.S. Commissioner of Education (1870-1886); Superintendent of Public Education in Tennessee (1867-1869) Asa Dodge Smith (A.B. 1830) President of Dartmouth College (1863-1877) Samuel Gilman Brown (A.B. 1831) President of Hamilton College (1867-1881) Charles Augustus Aiken (A.B. 1846) President of Union College (1869-1871); Prof., Latin Language and Literature at Dartmouth (1859-1866) Joseph Torrey (A.B. 1816) President of University of Vermont (1862-1866) Benjamin Labaree (A.B. 1828) President of Middlebury College (1840-1866) Milo Parker Jewett (A.B. 1828) President of Vassar College (1861-1864) William Edward Barnard (A.B. 1856) President of University of Washington (1863-1866) Daniel Blaisdell (A.B. 1827) Treasurer of Dartmouth College (1835-1875) Frederick Chase (A.B. 1860) Treasurer of Dartmouth College (1875-1890) Carlton Chase (A.B. 1817) Protestant Episcopal Bishop of New Hampshire (1844-1870) John Dudley Philbrick (A.B. 1842) Superintendent of Public Schools of Boston (1856-1874, 1875-1878) Cyrus Porter Smith (A.B. 1824) President of Brooklyn Board of Education (1847-1868) Jonathan Ross (A.B. 1851) Member of Vermont State Board of Education (1866-1870); Justice of Supreme Court of Vermont (1870-1890) Samuel Harvey Taylor (A.B. 1832) Principal of Philips Andover Academy [Massachusetts] (1837-1871)

Ivy League Rebels

Yale University: Richard Taylor (B.A. 1845, S&B 1845) Commander of the [Confederate] Army of Tennessee (1865) Henry Rootes Jackson (B.A. 1839, S&B 1839) Major General in the Confederate Army John Perkins Jr. (B.A. 1840, S&B 1840) Member of the Confederate House of Representatives (Louisiana, 1864-1865) William T.S. Barry (B.A. 1841, S&B 1841) Chairman of the Mississippi Secession Convention in 1861; Signer of the Confederate Constitution William Preston Johnston (B.A. 1852, S&B 1852) Confederate President Jefferson Daviss aide-de-camp Burton Norvell Harrison (B.A. 1859, S&B 1859) Private Secretary to Confederate President Jefferson Davis Allen Taylor Caperton (B.A. 1832) Confederate Senator (Virginia, 1861-1865) William Nathan Harrell Smith (B.A. 1834) Member of the Confederate House of Representatives (North Carolina, 1862-1865) James H. Adams (B.A. 1831) Governor of South Carolina (1854-1856); Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) Thomas L. Bayne (B.A. 1847, S&B 1847) Colonel; Chief of the Bureau of Foreign Supplies in the Confederate War Department Thomas McKinney Jack (B.A. 1853, S&B 1853) Colonel; Adjutant General of the Department of Texas, Confederate Army (1864-1865) Randall Lee Gibson (B.A. 1853) Brigadier General in the Confederate Army Note: S&B is an abbreviation for Skull & Bones. Judah P. Benjamin attended Yale University for two years before dropping out. Princeton University: John I. Middleton (A.B. 1819) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) William Peronneau Finley (A.B. 1820) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) Alexander Mazyck (A.B. 1820) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) James Chesnut Jr. (A.B. 1835) - Signer of the Confederate Constitution; Delegate to the Confederate Provisional Congress in Montgomery, Alabama (1861) Abraham W. Venable (A.B. 1819) Member of the Confederate Congress (North Carolina, 1862-1864) Alexander Robinson Boteler (A.B. 1835) Member of the Confederate Congress (Virginia, 1862-1864) David Funsten (A.B. 1838) Member of the Confederate Congress (Virginia, 1864-1865) Walter Preston (A.B. 1839) Member of the Confederate Congress (Virginia, 1862-1864) Henry Cousins Chambers (A.B. 1844) Member of the Confederate Congress (Mississippi, 1862-1865) Richard Wilde Walker (A.B. 1841) Confederate Senator (Alabama, 1864-1865) Alfred H. Colquitt (A.B. 1844) Member of the Georgia Secession Convention (1861); Major General of the Confederate Army (1861-1865) Walter L. Keirn (A.B. 1848) Member of the Mississippi Secession Convention (1861) Robert Craig Kent (A.B. 1849) Member of the Virginia Secession Convention (1861) James Jay Archer (A.B. 1835) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1862-1864) Bradley Tyler Johnson (A.B. 1849) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1864-1865) Allen Thomas (A.B. 1850) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1863-1865) Williams Stevenson Walker (A.B. 1851) Brigadier General of the Confederate Army (1862-1865) Harvard University: Robert W. Barnwell (B.A. 1821) Confederate Senator (South Carolina, 1861-1865); Signer of the Confederate Constitution; Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) William Ford DeSaussure (B.A. 1810) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) Benjamin Faneuil Dunkin (B.A. 1811) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) James Dandridge Halyburton (B.A. 1823) Confederate Judge for the District of Virginia (1861-1865) Brown University: Pendleton Murrah (A.B. 1848) Governor of Texas (1863-1865) Robert Benjamin Hilton (A.B. 1843) Member of the Confederate Congress (Florida, 1862-1865) Julian Hartridge (A.B. 1849) Member of the Confederate Congress (Georgia, 1862-1865) James P. Boyce (A.B. 1847) President of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (1873-1888); Member of the South Carolina State Assembly (1862-1863, 1864-1865) Columbia University: John Slidell (B.A. 1810) U.S. Senator from Louisiana (1853-1861); Confederate Envoy to France (1861-1865)

Ivy League Rebels, from left to right: Robert W. Barnwell (Harvard), James Chesnut Jr. (Princeton), Richard Taylor (Yale), John Slidell (Columbia), Pendleton Murrah (Brown)

SOUTH CAROLINA & IVY LEAGUE STUDENTS

Princeton University John Taylor (A.B. 1790) Governor of South Carolina (1826-1828); U.S. Senator (South Carolina, 1810-1816); U.S. Congressman (18071810, 1817-1821); Member of the South Carolina Senate (1818-1826) Patrick Noble (A.B. 1806) Governor of South Carolina (1838-1840); Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina (1830-1832); Member of the South Carolina Assembly (1814-1824, 1832-1836); Member of South Carolina Senate (1836-1838) Whitemarsh Benjamin Seabrook (A.B. 1812) Governor of South Carolina (1848-1850); Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina (1834-1836); Member of South Carolina Assembly (1814-1829); Member of South Carolina Senate (1826-1834) Daniel Elliott Huger (A.B. 1798) U.S. Senator (South Carolina, 1843-1845); Judge of the Supreme Court of South Carolina (1819-1828); Member of the South Carolina Assembly (1804-1809, 1818-1819, 1830-1832) James Chesnut Jr. (A.B. 1835) U.S. Senator (Democrat-South Carolina, 1858-1860); Member of South Carolina Senate (1852-1858); Member of South Carolina Assembly (1840-1846, 1850-1852) John Middleton (A.B. 1802) Member of the South Carolina Assembly (1825-1826) John I. Middleton (A.B. 1819) Member of South Carolina Assembly (1839-1857); Member of South Carolina Senate (1857-1858) William P. Finley (A.B. 1820) Member of the South Carolina Assembly (1832-1836); President of Charleston College (1845-1857) Alexander Mazyck (A.B. 1820) Member of the South Carolina Senate (1848-1865) John Avery Benbury (A.B. 1847) Member of the South Carolina Assembly (1859-1861) Harvard University: Robert Woodward Barnwell (B.A. 1821) U.S. Congressman (Democrat-South Carolina, 1829-1833); President of the University of South Carolina (1835-1841); U.S. Senator (Democrat-South Carolina, 1850) Thomas R. Mitchell (B.A. 1802) U.S. Congressman (Republican/Jacksonian-South Carolina, 1821-1823, 1825-1829, 1831-1833) William Ford De Saussure (B.A. 1810) U.S. Senator (Democrat-South Carolina, 1852-1853) Benjamin Faneuil Dunkin (B.A. 1811) Signer of the South Carolina Ordinance of Secession (1860) Brown University: Jonathan Maxcy (A.B. 1787) President of Brown University (1792-1802); President of University of South Carolina (1804-1820) James Ervin (A.B. 1797) U.S. Congressman (Republican-South Carolina, 1817-1821); South Carolina State Senator (1826-1829) Andrew Pickens (A.B. 1801) Governor of South Carolina (1816-1818) Jasper Adams (A.B. 1815) President of the College of Charleston [South Carolina] (1824-1826, 1828-1836) James P. Boyce (A.B. 1847) President of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (1873-1888); Member of the South Carolina State Assembly (1862-1863, 1864-1865) Yale University: Abraham Nott (B.A. 1787) U.S. Congressman (F-South Carolina, 1799-1801) Stephen Elliott (B.A. 1791) inaugural President of the Bank of the State of South Carolina (1812-1830) John C. Calhoun (B.A. 1804) U.S. Congressman (DR-South Carolina, 1811-1817); Secretary of War (1817-1825); U.S. Senator (D-South Carolina, 1832-1843, 1845-1850); Vice President of the U.S. (1825-1832); Secretary of State (1844-1845) John Myers Felder (B.A. 1804) U.S. Congressman (D-South Carolina, 1831-1835); South Carolina State Senator (1816-1820, 1840-1851) Christopher E. Gadsden (B.A. 1804) Protestant Episcopal Bishop of South Carolina (1840-1853) Augustus Baldwin Longstreet (B.A. 1813) President of Univ. of Mississippi (1849-1856); President of Univ. of South Carolina (1857-1861) Isaac Edward Holmes (B.A. 1815) Member of the South Carolina Assembly (1826-1829, 1832-1833); U.S. Congressman (Democrat-South Carolina, 1839-1851) James Hopkins Adams (B.A. 1831) Governor of South Carolina (1854-1856); South Carolina State Senator (1850-1853)

Left to right: James Chesnut Jr., John C. Calhoun, and Robert W. Barnwell