Materials for Turbine Components Turbine Rotors The development in the field of steam turbine design would not

have been possible without corresponding material development. The development of Alloys with properties which provide good creep resistance at high temperature and of other alloys with good mechanical and high fracture toughness has been one area of considerable metallurgical accomplishment. Also, the ability to produce components for use both at high and low temperature having large physical size and uniform material properties which meet rigorous inherent defect acceptance requirements, testifies to the improvement in steel making techniques. HP and IP Rotors : High temperature rotors are required to have a combination of creep strength, capture strength and ductility. This is conferred by rotors manufactured from forged chromium ,---------------------------------------steel ( MOU), a ferrite material which provides the best possible creep properties. Creep is a high temperature phenomenon and traditional design method involve the selection of materials which provide the required creep strength and creep capture ductility during the required design life. The equation for creep is of the form E-n tne-B/T Where E= creep strain, =stress N/m2, t= time, T= absolute temperature (--------) n,m, are material constants. Typically , high temperature turbine design is based on a creep strain 0.2% during 10 5 hours of operation. Typical curves of time to produce 0.2% strain and ---------are shown in the fig, for --------MoV rotor steel, and show the powerful effect of stress and temperature in controlling creep strain. While the best possible creep properties are required on both HP and IP rotor forgoings the HP problem is simplified by modest dimensions of HP rotors. The IP rotors poses a much more serious problem, especially in turbine employing reheat cycle. Full steam temperature is encountered on discs at the IP inlet stages, which have larger diameter and blades than equivalent stages on the HP rotor exposed to steam at the same temperature. Both the rem and the bore, the stresses are such that steam cooling may be necessary even with steels having the least creep properties. The reduced temperature encountered at the last two stages of the IP turbines rotor are offset by increased bore stress due to the longer blade length which demands an adequately high proof strength. The requirement for good creep strength and the necessary proof strength in conjunction with a rotor forgoing of heavy section is achieved on current rotors by the use of 1 Cr.1Mo0.25V steel Alloy. L.P.Rotors: For low temperature rotors, the main requirement are relatively high tensible strength combined with high toughness. In 3.5 Ni Cr MoV Monoblock rotor forgoing is currently used as it avoids the complication of shrink fits in the case of built------ rotors. The manufacturing facilities and forgoing technology required for the manufacturer of monobloc

rotor forgoing of large size and weight are fully able to meet the designers requirement. (No limitations are identified for the forgoing of 2 pole 900MW units currently under consideration). The use of vacuum degassed ingots, single and double upsetting procedures and the use of larger presses capable of forgoing operations, have all contributed to a marked improvement in quality of large LP rotor forgoing. Rotor forgoing for 660 MW set of above 100 tones forged weight , produced from ingots twice this size, are provided for L.P. Rotors. Vacuum degassing has eradicated the former problem of hydrogen embrittlement cracking and gives good fracture toughness. Ultrasonic inspection techniques ensure freedom from any internal discontinuation greater than 5 mm effective diameter. The parallel application of visual and negative inspection of the axial bore with ultrasonic examination was the accepted approach to non-destructive examination of the rotor forgoing whose simple geometry, in the rough machined state, permits accurate location and diagnosis of any internal defects producing ultrasonic indications. Ultrasonic techniques allow the material in the vicinity of the above hole, which is subjected to the highest tau----------stresses during over speed, -----------examined critically. This provide reassurance of integrity in circumstances where the complex geometry of the mechanical rotor prohibits the use of external examination. The purpose of the bore to permit internal inspection, but it also removed some of the central part of the forgoing which is where defects segregation in the original ingot weight be located and provided the opportunity to obtain fracture appearance transmission temperature examination. Inspection technique have nor developed to the extent where external ultrasonic can replace the former ---------inspection. This is very significant as the LP rotor is subjected to high centrifugal stresses, the last stage disc being the most heavily stressed part of the turbine. The centrifugal load of the large rotating blades set up on te--------stress in the rim of the disc and this stress increases with decreasing radius and its maximum value being at the hub. The larger the ------------of the hub, the larger the maximum stress. If the bore is small, the hoop stress is lessened. N2 Cr Mov steel containing upto 3.5% Ni has been for both shafts and discs for built up L.P.Rotors and is the first choice to achieve the t----- properties necessary for large monobloc rotors. Welding techniques are established for the design of fabricated LP motors employing a series of solid discs. Alloy steels for this application are subject to the conflicting demands for tensile strength card weld ability. Since LP turbine rotors may seen at temperature not much in excess of ambient, the provision of safeguards against the danger of brittle fracture is important. The use of materials for discs, shafts and monoblock rotors of the lowest possible fracture appearance transition temperature (FATT) and subjected to str-------------nondestructive testing and fracture mechanics assessment provides the necessary framework for the safe operation of L. P.Turbines. 3.5% Ni Cr MoV steel has a low value of FATT. In the --------quenched and tempered condition, and with careful centre of composition , high tensile properties can be matched with a FATT well below ambient temperature and a consequential high fracture toughness. The yield strength of a typical ti-----------Alloys in the annealed condition is approximately 50% better than standard 12% chromium stainless steel material and even slightly superior to the Super 12% Cr. Steels; the ductility is somewhat less. The fatigue strength of titanium alloy is however, generally higher than the 12% Cr. Steels.

Titanium alloys are not readily forgeable as 12% Cr. Steels. Titanium alloys are to be forged at lower temperature which means more energy is required to forge a certain amount. Also, since all titanium alloys are very active chemically at high temperatures, surface contamination is another problem encountered when forging. Machining is possible, if slow speeds are used, but a pr-----------------------for embrittlement by contamination and lack of heat penetration make welding difficult. Inert gas welding(T---) is the normal solution but this is time consuming and costly.

The main problems of titanium are high cost and poor vibration characteristics. The cost of titanium alloy is several times be that of standard 12% Cr. Blade material and a row of titanium blades normally costs two to three times that of steel row. The material damping of titanium is very poor, varying from 10% to 40% of that of 12% Cr. Blade materials. Thus there is a potential for higher vibratory stresses when operating the titanium blade at or near res-----------. Also Youngs Modules of titanium is low and since the flexibility is relatively high, natural frequencies are depressed and harmonies are more crowded in the running range. In view of the lower cost and improved properties of the super 12% Cr. Steels, it is unlikely that titanium alloys will super side those steels for LP moving blades. However, because of its strength/ weight ratio, titanium is used extensively for lacing wire and for coverbanding and -----------rouding. It has been the practice for many years to protect the leading edge and part of the co--------surface of the last stage moving blades by surface hardening or by the attachment (by silver soldering, or more recently by electron beam welding) of a shield made from a hard material such as tungsten, chromium tool steel or satellite 6B. Attachment is always followed by the most stringent non-destructive examination of the joints, Erosion of the original blade material around the shield can lead to under cutting of the shield material and eventual shield detachment. Cover-----------, blade upstands and tip ties can also suffer from droplet erosion. It is therefore considered prudent to inspect the blades during overhauls. Even if the erosion shield does not become detached, the shield will erode in time and will probably need to be replaced at least once during the life of the machine. Rotor fast fracture risk assessment: These have been major advances in the quality of monoblock rotor forging and in understanding the problem of ---------fractures. Rotor forgings can now be produced with greatly enhanced fracture resistance and the presence of significant defects can be ready detected -----------. However , large steam turbine rotor forging can not be produced entirely free of small, re----------defects and for the high temperature rotors under consideration, the forging duch------/ brittle transition temperature are not significantly below the temperature -------------experienced in operation. The possibility of a rotor brittle fracture can not be dismissed without a careful assessment. Having carried out a 100% volumetric NDT investigation, the defects indentified must be assessed for acceptability. Acceptable defect size is defined primarily ------the requiremental that it shall introduce no risk of rotor brittle fracture in service. The initial defect assumed on the basis of the inspection standard will be subjected to centrifugal and thermal stress cycling. Stress cycling could cause the defect to grow by fatigue. Extensive testing of materials has p---tted crack growth rate to be expressed in fracture mechanics form.

da/dn= CKm Where a= crack length K=cyclic stress intensity range c,m=constants The operations duty of large power plant is such that upper bounds can be re-----------established for stress cyclis. In actual service the stress during start up are limited by established operational procedures to protect the plant against high -----------fatigue. The total fatigue growth can then be calculated on the basis of the upper bond stress cycles and combined centrifugal and thermal stress. High temperature steam turbine rotors operate in the creep range and crack within them could therefore grow under steady loading. Rates of growth under creep can be co-related with the linear elastic fracture mechanics parameteK, via an equation of the form= da/dt=AKn, A, n= constant K=Stress intensity T=time The design criterion normally adopted for high temperature turbine rotor limits the maximum rotor stress in relation to the 105 hour creep -----------stress and limits the accumulated creep strain to 0.2% in 10 5 hrs, ensuring that the stress in critical high temperature regions in acceptable small. Calculated creep crack growth is therefore small and may be simply added to calculated fatigue crack extension.