Sie sind auf Seite 1von 17

Individual Travel Patterns

2012
Introduction Consideration Urban Form Transport Networks Psychosocial Demographics Conclusion

paul melenhorst

2 3 5 7 11 15

Paul Melenhorst 2012

Factors effecting individual travel patterns


Paul Melenhorst

This essay investigates the literature around factors that influence individual travel behavior. It considers variables in the research, before considering aspects of urban form, transport infrastructure and psychosocial demographics with reference to different areas in the City of Casey. In conclusion, the relative importance of each factor is considered.

INTRODUCTION
Australias current travel patterns are largely the result of land use and transport planning decisions that were made in the heady days of post World War II prosperity (Laird and Newman, 2001, 14) and founded on building road capacity to meet the demands of a growing car population (Curtis, 2005, 448). Without the benefit of any serious discourse on the relative merits of compact versus dispersed urban structure, an auto-centric urban society was seen as a fait accompli and accepted without question (Kelly, 2011, 11). This default position has meant that automobiles now account for about 70% of travel in Australias urban centres (Mees, Sorupia and Stone, 2007, 3) - even Decisions that people make about how they will travel are based on accessibility the relationship between land use and transport networks and the capacity of these networks to fulfil activities and opportunities (Francis and Ramsay, 2011, 3). However, spatial variables, a persons cultural heritage, health, social status, gender and age will also impact on individual travel patterns, perhaps even more higher, at almost 90% (City of Casey, 2011, 2) in the City of Casey, the area under scrutiny in this paper. Given this background, an analysis of factors influencing travel patterns must be made in the context of a society heavily biased in favour of car mobility.

Paul Melenhorst 2012

Fountain Gate

Harkaway

Berwick South

Berwick Village

Above: The study area located in Berwick and Metropolitan Melbourne.


source: P. Melenhorst. Adapted from Googlemaps

so. Factors relating to psycho-social demographics, whilst less tangible than lack of a bicycle path or the promise of a new bypass, also contribute to the decision to use horsepower, pedal power or otherwise and, therefore these must also be considered. This travel pattern analysis refers to a 15 km2 area in the City of Casey that includes Berwick Village (from the original precinct analysis), the super regional shopping centre Fountain Gate, and two residential neighbourhoods in Harkaway and Berwick South. Urban form and transport networks vary across these precincts from formal grid layouts in Berwick Village to organic and non-leaking culde-sacs (Cozens and Hillier, 2008, 5) in Berwick South. Whilst spatial factors vary across the area, psychosocial demographics are more constant.

CONSIDERATIONS
Deconstructing factors that influence travel behaviour is potentially a wicked process with problems of shared and unstructured jurisdiction, nebulous interrelationships and potentially a result where there is no agreed position. Causation is an issue. Ascertaining what actually influences travel behaviour is an innately difficult exercise. Rutherford, McCormack and Wilkinson (1996) conclude in a comparative analysis that whilst evidence indicates that people travel differently in different mixeduse neighbourhoods, it does not follow that these neighbourhood characteristics are necessarily responsible. And Crane (2000, 8) notes that it is not possible to determine the relative importance of differences between individual and group travel behaviour, therefore identifying how much of the observed behavior is influenced by the

Paul Melenhorst 2012

location

factors effecting travel patterns

urban form factors


land use mix

development density

structure & layout

physical features

psychosocial factors transport network factors

safety

status quo

sustainability

status & income`

socioeconomics age road hierarchy & network parking gender household composition

road & fuel pricing

active transit structures

autonomy technology advances

public transit structures

Above: Cognitive map of major variables influencing travel patterns.


source: P. Melenhorst

street configuration or any specific design feature alone is also impossible. As well, most current research has a narrow focus, concentrating on the white majority populace (Curtis and Perkins, 2006, 14), whereas there are subgroups outside of this demographic, whose language and semiotics, religious doctrine will impact differently on how and why they choose transportation. And this is a contested area with researchers sometimes disagreeing over key factors (Lewis, 1999; Crane, 2000;

Crane and Chatman, 2003; Mees, 2010; Gordon and Richardson, 2001). This is still an area that requires further research in developing a sufficient understanding of the relationship of urban and transport infrastructure and demographics to travel patterns. With these considerations in mind, two major groups of factors are associated with transportation patterns; the spatial variables of urban form and transport infrastructure; and community variables defined as psychosocial demographics.

Paul Melenhorst 2012

8km
Right. TOD (transport oriented design) guidelines suggest a walking catchment of five minutes (400 metres) from a railway node. Marchetti (1994) suggests that an average travel time budget is about one hour wide. This is the event horizon at which people are hesitant to travel much further. Presuming that journeys terminate at a concentric hub, people will stop walking at about 8km which is about average walking speed; stop using public transit at about 30km which is the average speed of a train; and stop driving at about 50km which is the average speed of a car. Commuting distances from the precincts under question to Melbournes CAD are about 45km, placing the City of Casey outside this theoretical wall.
source: P. Melenhorst. Data from Newman and Kenworthy (2011)

30km

50km

URBAN FORM
The urban form and design of a city its location, land use mix, size and morphology, density and physical features all impact on the decisions people make when travelling and commuting. Cervaro and Kockelman (1997, 199) have referred to these as the three Ds of density, diversity and design, with the more recent addition of destination accessibility and distance to transit (City of New York, 2010, 22) being used to analyse travel patterns. Caseys urban form is mostly conventional low density, single use urban infrastructure with areas like Fountain Gate, Harkaway and Berwick South located beyond any local walkable catchments.

density communities, away from local shopping and other activities, restrict the capacity of residents to walk or cycle for their daily travel requirements. This is in contrast to residents who are close to activity and transit nodes where higher rates of walking or cycling are observed (Naess and Jensen, 2004). Marchetti (1994), quantifies this by establishes a maximum budget time of approximately one hour that people will travel in order to get to work. When a destination is more than one hour from the origin the Marchetti wall people will tend to move to a faster transportation mode. Casey is 45km from Melbournes monocentric CAD with no transport mode falling inside this theoretical wall.

Location Casey demonstrates a strong correlation between location and vehicle dependence. As a sprawling suburb, particularly Harkaway and Berwick South tend to be removed from activity centres, therefore more dependent on motorised transport. Curtis and Perkins (2006, 9), referring to a study by Soltani and Primerano (2005) note sparse low-

Land Use Mix and Density Land use diversity also influences individual travel patterns through the accessibility of facilities and services such as employment, education, health and other services (Francis and Ramsay, 2011, 3). Sixty percent of car trip from within Casey are to destinations outside of the City (ABS, 2006a), which suggests land use mix is poor,

Paul Melenhorst 2012

Residential streets without active transport infrastructure Top: Cul-de-sac strreet in Berwick south
(source: P. Melenhorst)

Centre: Residential streets surrounding Fountain Gate


(source: realestate.com.au)

Bottom: Low density residential zoning in Harkaway


(source: P. Melenhorst)

Paul Melenhorst 2012

limiting opportunities for active transport. Fountain Gate, as a Principal Activity Centre, is particularly poor, forcing users to use motorized transport because of the lack of residential and public realm uses. (PDP 2009) As well as an accessible mix, the positioning of services is important. Blom (1992) notes, for example, that a labourintensive office development is better placed at a destination transport node, than, say, an equivalent residential urban development. This is because egress travel supports short car or bicycle trips to the point of departure (parking at a railway station or locking a bicycle), whereas these are not options at the destination, such as an office building. Caseys transit points are origin nodes for travel to Melbournes CAD. However, all three stations are located in retail/commercial rather than residential areas so distance to transit measures are more than 600 metres, discouraging walking. As well as land use mix, population and development density is a common yardstick for calculating travel usage. The City of Caseys urban density is relatively uniform averaging 10 dwellings per hectare (Buxton and Scheurer 2007, 15) with Harkaway less than one dwelling per hectare. Such low density means that services are fragmented and often only within reach by motorized transport. Increasing land use density would improve accessibility as services and infrastructure are clustered into more concentrated areas. With this higher degree of access, there tends to be shorter trips, which, it is argued, may incentivise people to shift travel mode to walking. Newman and Kenworthy (2011) cite increases in urban density as one reason why the modal split is changing from motorized transport to active and public transport. This corresponds to Casey where densities are low and motorized transport usage high.

There are various authors such as Kockelman (1991, 12) and Crane (2000, 6) however who note that density as a single variable, is a simplistic algorithm that fails to capture complex interrelationships between urban form factors. Crane explains that density, land use mix and location will decrease the distance between trip origin and destination, as they are physically closer together, however, whilst the amount people drive (VMT) will decrease, it does not also follow that travel modes will change or the number of trips decrease. And McLoughlin (1991) and Lewis (1999) have argued that, for outer urban areas, such as Berwick South and Harkaway, increases in density will have little impact on urban sprawl issues like car usage as infrastructure and services such as roads remain almost constant. To reduce such an allocation would make a direct assault on those qualities that make Melbourne liveable (Lewis, 1999, 117). Furthermore, Mees (2010, 41) indicates that there is little evidence tying urban density and sustainable transport share together with cities from across North America and Australia showing no correlation between density and public/active transport percentages. What in fact maybe occurring is what Curtis and Perkins (2006, 6) refer to as locational self-selection where suburbs with higher densities, mixed use and good permeability attract likeminded residents, who already walk, cycle and use public transport, rather than changing individual travel patterns to more sustainable modes.

TRANSPORT NETWORKS
The transport networks of a city the road hierarchy, the type of road network, pricing, sustainable transport networks, and advances in technology all impact on the

Paul Melenhorst 2012

decisions people make when traveling and commuting.

10.6% in VMT when a conventional network becomes a highly interconnected street system.

Road Hierarchy and Network A comprehensive matrix of arterial roads, local streets and laneways, and off-road cycle and pedestrian tracks will cater for multi-modal transit and encourage a mix of motorized and sustainable travel. However, gridded networks, with their connectivity and permeability, are more prone to safety issues for pedestrians than cul-de-sac networks where it is less easy to transit through (Town et al., 2003 ; Poyner and Webb, 1991). Cozens and Hillier (2008, 11) note that permeable As one of Australias fastest growing municipalities, Caseys road networks are acknowledged as congested with arterial road usage increasing travel times, (thereby reducing productive and social time), increasing operating costs and user uncertainty (Curtin, 2012, 13) and negatively impacting on adjacent local communities by encouraging inappropriate through traffic. Efficient and comprehensive road infrastructure, however, improves service as volumecapacity ratios are decreased, which will impact on an individuals road mobility and therefore travel patterns. This is a double-edged sword, though, as increased road capacity also has the function of increasing traffic volumes additional roads attract additional drivers which ultimately contributes to congestion (Hansen et al, 1999). As well as the road hierarchy, the type of road network in a precinct will influence vehicle and sustainable transport behaviour with a gridded network, as opposed to organic networks and leaking and non-leaking cul-de-sacs more able to facilitate walking, cycling and the use of public transport and enable relatively direct local vehicle trips (WAPC, 2009, 34). Gridded networks also potentially reduce local trips in a community. Kulash (1990) has established a reduction of 43% (expressed in VMT vehicle miles travelled) due to the higher degree of accessibility provided by such a network, and McNally and Ryan (1993) suggest a reduction of Outside of central activity districts, such as the City of Casey, where there is competition between activity centres, this may not be the case. Clark (2005, 3) notes that market mechanisms that seek to price people out of their cars may have the contrary effect of increasing car use, at least in the short term, as people opt to drive to destinations that have free parking. Parking and Road Pricing Parking levies and increased pricing aims to reduce congestion in inner city areas by discouraging commuters from driving. These push techniques - are aimed at making car usage less appealing and includes increased taxes on fuel, tolls on roads, decreased parking and increased parking prices. For example, the Victorian Governments introduction of a levy in Melbournes CAD has seen a significant increase in the number of people coming to the city by public transport (Hamer, Currie and Young, 2011, 13). And studies by Hensher and King (2001), and Handy et al (2005) have found that the cost of parking in inner city areas to be the most significant determinant in transport modal switch to public transit. street layouts are subject to higher levels of crime than less permeable layouts, such as non-leaking cul-de-sacs which may be a factor in people choosing to drive over walking, particularly at night.

Paul Melenhorst 2012

Clockwise from top: People queing at the Fountain Gate bus stop. There are 5200 car parking spaces at Fountain Gate, Victorias second largest shopping centre, yet no seating and weather cover at this bus stop.
(source: Public Transport Users Association)

Fountain Gate is enclosed on three sides by arterial roads, cutting the precinct off from active transport.
(source: fitzroys.com.au)

Residential streets, however no active transport access on the Casey line.


(source: railpage.com.au)

Narre Warren railway station, as a transit node cannot cope with vehicle traffic volumes.
(source: railpage.com.au) Paul Melenhorst 2012

This would certainly be the case in Berwick Village and Fountain Gate, where currently parking is free. Parking deterrents would drive, quite literally, people to competing strip shops and shopping malls that have free peak parking demand facilities.

This transit leverage effect is confirmed by Newman and Kenworthy (2011), indicating an inverse proportionality between car use and public transport use. And Holtzclaw (1994) notes that a doubling of transit accessibility (the number of bus and rails seats per hour) can reduce VMT per household by eight percent.

Sustainable Transport Infrastructure A complex of public transport routes and services allow people to choose transport options that best align with their travel requirements. Caseys transport infrastructure polarizes users through limited sustainable transport infrastructure with its railways stations located in lowdensity commercial/retail areas, rather than dense, mixed use precincts. There is the only one dedicated cycling route, the Hallam Bypass Trail (City of Casey, n. d.), However this does not connect to any transit nodes, limiting its use for commuting. Footpaths are comprehensive in Berwick Village but the cul-de-sacs of Berwick South are not comprehensive and Harkaway and Fountain Gate are very limited PTUA (Public Transport Users Association statistics (2010). The Fountain Gate precinct is particularly difficult for active transport users to navigate, being surrounded on three sides by primary and district distributor roads, and access through vehicle access. And it is not located on a railway line with the nearest station 1.5km away. Mess and Dodson (2011, 2) note that the way a public transport network is structured is integral as to how it will be used describing good public transport as being reliable and fast, and having a diversity of line haul, cross town and local feeder services (Curtin University, 2012b). As well, pull techniques (Van Wee and van der Hoorn, 1996, 82) such as a logical ticketing system, end of journey bicycle facilities, legible wayfinding, sufficient cover from weather, adequate parking and a good general amenity can mitigate travel behaviour. (Queensland Transport, 2008). What is more significant are long term waves of innovation (known as Kondratiev Cycles (Nogrady, 2010) corresponding with major technological innovations that include transportation. Marchetti (1993, 88) notes how dominant transportation modes, based on increased Advances in Technology Continued advances in fuel technologies (Parbo, 1997, 108), engine efficiency and power trains (Granovskii, Dincer and Rosen, 2006, 411) have already made cars less environmentally damaging. However, these incremental changes will not substantially change mode share away from cars (and, in fact, may encourage driving, if environmental issues become less critical). Transit leverage extends to good pedestrian infrastructure that encourages walking as a component of commuting (Cervero, 2002), however it is questionable whether improved bicycle infrastructure reduces car usage. Mees, Sorupia and Stone (2007, 3) argue that cycling, as a transit mode does not appear to effect car use, rather impacting on the share of walking and public transport users. This is because there is a disconnect between a bicycles average commuting length and peoples actual average commute lengths. Ironically, Gordon and Richardson (1998, 10) note that there is stronger correlation between cycling and car use than between cycling and transit, giving the example of the cyclist who drives 30 miles in order to ride along a beach promenade!

Paul Melenhorst 2012

10

0-4 0-4 5-14 5-14 15-24 15-24 25-54 25-54

indigenous indigenous 65+ females females 55-64

males males 0-4 5-14 15-24

speed, have changed with each new innovation cycle indigenous males (e.g. horse to carriage to automobile) and predicts the introduction of a new form of transportation, such as the Maglev (magnetic levitation vehicle) replacing trains and cars. Obviously this is speculative, however the underlying position that innovation impels changes in transportation usage is an important factor to consider.
females

UTION IN CASEY UTION IN CASEY

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS PE C A G E RDSIO N A I B C H CI A SAECYTNE R IASSTEI Y S S T R L I N TA O N I C U R IN CASEY

25-54

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN CASEY

Scotland Scotland Sri Lanka Sri Lanka New Zealand New Zealand England England

Presbyterian Presbyterian 65+ India Catholic Catholic 55-64 Australia

Uniting Uniting 0-4 Scotland SriAnglican Lanka Anglican 5-14 New Zealand England 15-24 No Religion No Religion 25-54

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEMOGRAPHICSmales indigenous Uniting Presbyterian


Anglican Much of the research suggests the decisions people make females Catholic

when choosing transportation are not so much guided by urban networks, but grounded in cultural predispositions, political bias and a persons age, gender and heritage. This factor is expressed in issues of safety, income and household composition, gender and age, status and status quo.
No Religion

BIRTH IN CASEY BIRTH IN CASEY

R E L I G I O U S A F F I L I AT I O N S ON I C E CAOGUER D L SYG ROFIBNU ITAIAFSFEI YI NA C AOSN Y N E IRI T IO I U B CR T H L IN T IA S E Y T IN CASEY

P ERRESLOI N AO UCSH A F FAI C T A T I O T I C S AR LIER SN GI L N I IN CCAASSEEYY

hours not stated hours not stated away from work away from work

unemployed India Labourers Labourers full-time Community Australia Community Sales Sales Managers Managers

Machinery hours not operators Scotland stated Machinery operators Sri Lanka Clerical/ away from administrative New Zealand Clerical/ work administrative England Professionals Professionals Technicians/ part-time trades Technicians/ trades

Uniting Machinery operators Labourers Catholic Anglican Perceptions of safety or risk will influenceClerical/ travel personal Community administrative

Transport and Safety

Presbyterian

choice. Despite the inherent dangers of higher speed motorized travel, cars are often seen as offering the safety
Technicians/ Managers of a comfortable cocoon (Hiscock et al (2002, 119), and No Religion Sales Professionals

RCE EMPLOYMENT R N CCEA E M Y L O Y M E N T SE P N CASEY

part-time part-time

L U N T R Y T IO B I E T B P R W A C E N AB F I C O O C COUUPRAO F ORNC R NEHM IENL O YI MK Y T C S O C C U P A T I IONN CIA S E Y R W I C K N BE

an ontological security that is not available with public transport. Obversely, public travel is perceived as riskier, particularly at night. A national police survey (Victoria Police, 2011) found that only 35.7% of people felt safe
Married Widowed using public transport at night compared with 82.6% of operators Machinery

R E L I G I O U S A F F I L I AT I O N O C C U P A T IIO N C IANS E Y R W I C K BE N

trades

Not stated Not stated Other tenure Other tenure Rented Rented Being purchased Being purchased

unemployed Married Fully owned Married full-time

hours not Not stated Widowed stated Widowed Other tenure away from Separated/ work divorced Separated/ divorced Rented Never / Being part-time married purchased / Never married

people during the day.


Community Sales

Labourers

Some of this reticence is however justified, particularly in


Technicians/ Managers Victoria (and well represented by the City of Casey) where married trades Never /

Clerical/ Separated/ administrative divorced Professionals

VAT E D W E L L I N G S V A TSEE Y W E L L I N G S D CA CASEY

AB A SI RCE I CA O C M U P IIOTU RP F O V A T E E D NP E O LSIM YGN T CL A R E D L R T A T U S MW L L Y ENE S M A R I T A L I S T A T CSAESYIEN C A S E Y N I N AU S Y C


Above: Census data indicates that Casey is a homogenous demographic
Fully owned

transit crime C C double Ithat for NSW W I C K danger on O is U P A T O N I N B E R (More trains in Melbourne than in London or New York, 2008). Bus transit has similar problems with Loukaitou-Sideris
Married Widowed Separated/ divorced

M A R I TA L S TAT U S I N C A S E Y

(source: P. Melenhorst Data from ABS 2006 Census QuickStats)

Not stated

Other tenure Rented Being purchased

Paul Melenhorst 2012 / Never

married

11

O CC U P I E D P R I VAT E D W E L L I N G S IN CASEY

M A R I TA L S TAT U S I N C A S E Y

(1999) noting that most serious crimes committed at bus stops occur late at night when passive surveillance is at its lowest.

This is largely still the attitude with Mees, Sorupia and Stone (2007, 19) citing places such as Hobart where even policy-makers see buses as a social service for people with no alternative rather than as a viable transit option. This message of inadequacy and deficiency public transports perception as slow, infrequent and unreliable (Hamilton et al, 1991) makes it unable to meet peoples desire to determine their own travel patterns. This is unlike the automobile, which has perceived benefits of autonomy and prestige (Hiscock et al, 2002, 119) and, ironically, notions of mass-produced individuality and escape from a car-induced congestion (Cullinane, 2002).

Household Income and Composition Individual travel patterns are also influenced by household income and composition. Income dictates housing and rental decisions that impact on the transport decisions people make. This trade off is particularly salient in newly established outer suburbs, such as Berwick South, where housing costs are less but sustainable transport infrastructure is limited (Crane and Chatman, 2003). The Vampire Index (Vulnerability Assessment for Mortgage, Petrol and Inflation Risks and Expenditure) (Dodson and Snipe, 2006, 21) indicates that parts of the City of Casey are prone to pressures from fluctuations in housing mortgage rates and fuel prices, particularly with such high VMT numbers. The addition of children and students with the requirements of childcare and school also impact on personal transport decisions. Caseys median age is 33 years (compared with an Australian average of 37 years), therefore a greater reliance on motorized transport is expected. Casey also has lower than average levels of unemployment at 3.6% and part time work at 26.8% (ABS, 2006b), which are two groups more likely to use non-motorized transport. (Ryley, 2005)

Gender and Age Individual travel patterns are also influenced by gender and age, with women and retirees more likely to demonstrate sustainable travel behaviour, but for different reasons. Women are more prepared to make changes to their travel patterns for environmental reasons (Curtis and Perkins, 2006, 13), which is borne out by ABS statistics from 19762006 (Mees Sorupia and Stone, 2007) that indicate both driving and cycling mode shares are disproportionately represented by males. And the elderly also make changes, however this is a function of the empty nester syndrome where retirees migrate from outer suburbs back into higher density inner suburbs and as a result drive less (Leinberger, 2007; Puentes and Tomer, 2009). This could also be because they are now not commuting. Berwick Village has a number of retirement villages in close proximity to both transit and activity nodes, which aligns with this trend.

Status and Lifestyle Another factor driving the attachment to the car is the lifestyle associations of ownership. Curtis (2005, 444) notes the burgeoning popularity of the car in the 1950s was not just a transport phenomenon but intimately tied to ideas of prosperity and modernity, with public-transport provision seen as serving only a social welfare function.

Territoriality and the Status Quo A socio-demographic factor not as often considered is the underlying territoriality of humans. Lee et al. (2006, 18) argues that current transportation patterns and the intransigence of consumer preference for the car are

Paul Melenhorst 2012

12

Left. The VAMPIRE (Vulnerability Risks and Expenditure) index provides valuable information for considering the overall stress on a household. This map of Melbourne has green representing the lowest level of vulnerability and red indicating the highest.
Source: Dodson and Sipe (2006)

City of Casey
Vampire index
19 -22 17 - 19 15 - 17 10 -15 1 - 10

Casey has a heterogenous spread with disproportionate representation under the highest levels of stress. The percentage of families paying off high mortgages in the south of Berwick is a key factor contributing to this situation.
Source: P. Melenhorst

Paul Melenhorst 2012

13

Top: An insightful bumper sticker that makes the connection between the current economic paradigm and the requirements of auto-consumption.
(source: Joost, www. flickr.com)

Middle, bottom: Current car marketing offers consumers perceived benefits of autonomy prestige and escape over sustainable transit alternatives.
(source: mitsubishi.com.au, nissan.comau, toyota.com.au) Paul Melenhorst 2012

14

simply a reflection of peoples preference for dispersed auto-driven socialization, rather than the New Urbanist argument for a compact, intimate community. Gordon (Moore and Henderson, 1998, 3) from the University of Southern California, referring to US Department of Transportation statistics that count 60 percent of trips by car for social reasons (church, family, sport, recreation), asserts that we dont actually want the community intimacy that is required for active transport. Rather, people are getting the neighbourhoods they want where the automobile or even the Internet are used to meet the demand for community.

Despite disputed terrain, however, it would seem that psychosocial demographics are more significant in moulding travel patterns than the urban structure of a city. Stead et al. (2000) suggest this, concluding that about half the variation in travel patterns (is) explained by socioeconomic patterns and around a third explained by land use characteristics. This fits with observations and ABS data for the City of Casey that finds individual transport patterns to be fairly uniform across precincts despite the variation in urban form and transport networks. Regardless of the ranking of importance, however, all of these factors shape a citys accessibility and influence the travel patterns of its residents.

CONCLUSION
Current knowledge indicates that spatial factors such as urban form and transport networks, and psychosocial variables such as economic status, gender, ethnicity, and identification with a peer group contribute to moulding individual travel behaviour. Whilst these factors have been identified, evidence is still emerging and often contested, such as the relationship between design and physical activity (City of New York, 2010, 24), the component influences of density compared to land use diversity, or urban design compared to distance to transit nodes. This also includes the impact of variables such as sprawl, bicycle infrastructure and parking, and planning typologies such as New Urbanism and Smart Growth.

Paul Melenhorst 2012

15

References
More danger on trains in Melbourne than in London or New York, 2008. http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/ story/0,21985,24327935-661,00.html (accessed July 20, 2012) ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) 2006a. State Suburb (SSC) by Sex Male/Female (SEXP) and Individual Income (weekly) (INCP). 2006. Berwick (State Suburb) by Census Collection District. http:// www.abs.gov.au (accessed July 29, 2012) ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics). 2006b. People who travelled to work by Car. As a percentage of all employed people. Based on Place of Usual Residence, 2006 Berwick (State Suburb) by Census Collection District. http://www.abs.gov.au (accessed July 29, 2012) Blom, J.A. 1982. Werkgelenheidslokaties en vervoerwijzekeuze (Employment locations and modal split), Ministerie van verker enwaterstaat/Projectbureau lntegrale Verkeers-n Vervoersstudies, Den Haag. Quoted in Van Wee and van der Hoorn (1996, 85). Buxton M and J. 2005. Density and Outer Urban Development in Melbourne. Second State of Australian Cities Conference, Griffith University, Brisbane, 30 Nov - 2 Dec. http://www.griffith.edu. au%2F__data%2Fassets%2Fpdf_file%2F0006%2F81186%2Fcitystructures-07-buxton.pdf&ei=-NIUUPHrD-WciAeVlICwDw&usg=A FQjCNGLqYKKAjvhttGBdtXiqjkLREabcA&sig2=dl01OV4Dmko5hB DQgmFaQw (accessed April 6, 2012) Cervero, R. 2002. Built environments and mode choice: toward a normative framework. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 7(4): 265-284. Quoted in Curtis and Perkins (2006, 8). City of Casey. 2011. Better Roads, Better Buses, Better Trains: City of Caseys Advocacy Campaign. www.casey.vic.gov.au (accessed August 1, 2012) CIty of Casey, n. d. Bicycles, Bike Paths and Riding Safety. http:// www.casey.vic.gov.au/bikes/ (accessed August 1, 2012) City of New York, 2010. Active Design Guidelines: Promoting Physical Activity and Health in Design. http://ddcftp.nyc.gov/ (accessed July 11, 2012) Clark, M. 2005. The Compact City: European Ideal, Global Fix or Myth? In Global Built Environment Review. 4(3): 1-11 http://www. edgehill.ac.uk/gber/pdf/vol4/issue3/Editorial.pdf (accessed July 8, 2010) Cozens, P.M. and Hillier, D. 2008. The Shape of Things to Come: New Urbanism, the Grid and the Cul-De-Sac. International Planning Studies. 13(1): 51-73. http://espace.library.curtin.edu. au:80/R?func=dbin-jump-full&local_base=gen01-era02&object_ id=20916 (accessed June 16, 2011) Crane, R. 2000. The Influence of Urban Form on Travel: An Interpretive Review. Journal of Planning Literature. 15(1): 3-23. http://jpl. sagepub.com.dbgw.lis.curtin.edu.au/content/15/1/3.full.pdf (accessed July 4, 2012) Crane, R., and D. Chatman, 2003. Traffic and Sprawl: Evidence from U.S. Commuting, 1985 To 1997. http://www-pam.usc.edu/ volume6/v6i1a3print.html - sec8 (accessed July 25, 2012) Cullinane, S. 2002. The relationship between car ownership and public transport provision: a case study of Hong Kong. Transport Policy, 9(1): 29-39. Quoted in Curtis and Perkins, (2006, 15) Curtin University. 2012. URP 600 Module 8. Department of Urban and Regional Planning. (accessed July 15, 2012). Curtin University. 2012. URP 600 Module 8. Department of Urban and Regional Planning. (accessed July 15, 2012). Curtis, C. 2005. The Windscreen World of Land Use Transport Integration: Experiences from Perth, a Dispersed City. Town Planning Review 76(4): 423-453. http://espace.library.curtin.edu. au/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id=0&dvs=1338121531715~257 (accessed May 27, 2012) Curtis, C. and T. Perkins, 2006. Travel Behaviour: A review of recent Literature. Impacts of transit led development in a new rail corridor working paper no. 3. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Curtin University. urbanet.curtin.edu.au/local/pdf/ARC_TOD_ Working_Paper_3.pdf (accessed July 19, 2012) Dodson, J. & N. Sipe, 2006. Shocking the Suburbs: Urban location, housing debt and oil vulnerability in the Australian City. Urban Research Program, Research Paper 8. Griffith University. http:// www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/10072/12665/1/41353. pdf (accessed September 15, 2011) Francis, J., and E. Ramsay, E. 2011. Accessibility Planning: More than the Integration of Transport and Land Use Planning. AITPM 2011 National Conference. Gordon, P. and H. Richardson. 1998. Bicycling Boom in Germany: A Revival Engineered by Public Policy. A Comment. In Transportation Quarterly. 52(1): 9-12. http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~pgordon/bicycling. html. (accessed July 26, 2012) Gordon, P., and H. Richardson. 2001. Transportation and Land Use. In Smarter Growth: Market-Based Strategies for Land Use Planning in the 21st Century. R. Holcombe and S. Staley (eds.) Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. www-bcf.usc.edu/~pgordon/pdf/ fsu_paper_feb_2_2001.pdf (accessed August 1, 2012) Hamer, P., G. Currie and W. Young, 2011. Parking Price Policies A review of the Melbourne congestion levy. Australasian Transport Research Forum 2011 Proceedings 28 30 September 2011, Adelaide, Australia. http://www.patrec.org/atrf.aspx (accessed July 22, 2012) Hamilton, K., L. Jenkins, and A. Gregory. 1991. Women and Transport: Bus Deregulation in West Yorkshire, University of Bradford, Bradford (1991). Quoted in Hiscock et al (2002, 121) Handy, S., L. Weston, and P. Mokhtarian. 2005. Driving by choice or necessity? Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice Positive Utility of Travel, 39(2-3): 183-203. Quoted in Curtis and Perkins (2006, 16). Hansen, M., D. Gillen, A. Dobbins, Y. Huang, M. Puvathingal. 1999. Air Quality Impacts of Urban Highway Capacity Expansion: Traffic Generation and Land Use Changes. California: University of California Transportation Centre. Quoted in Curtin (2012,14). Hensher, D., and J. King. 2001. Parking demand and responsiveness to supply, pricing and location in the Sydney central business district. In Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 35(3): 177196. Quoted in Curtis and Perkins (2006, 16). Hiscock, R., S. Macintyre, A. Kearns, A. Ellaway. Means of transport and ontological security: Do cars provide psycho-social benefits to their users? In Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 7(2): 119-135. http://www.sciencedirect.com. dbgw.lis.curtin.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1361920901000153 (accessed July 19, 2012) Holtzclaw, J. 1994. Using residential patterns and transit to decrease auto dependence and costs. Unpublished report, Natural Resources Defense Council. Quoted in Crane (2000, 12)

Paul Melenhorst 2012

16

Kelly, J-F. 2010. The Cities We Need. Grattan Institute Report No. 2010 - 4. http://www.grattan.edu.au/publications/038_the_cities_ we_need.pdf (accessed August 3, 2010) Kockelman, K. 1991. Travel behavior as a function of accessibility, Land use mixing, and land use balance: Evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area. Master of City Planning dissertation. University of California, Berkely. (accessed July 15, 2012) Kulash, W. 1990. Traditional Neighborhood Development: Will the Traffic Work? ASCE Successful Land Development: Quality and Profits Conference. March 1990. Quoted in Kockelman (1991, 47) Laird and Newman, 2001. Chapter 1 - How we got here: The role of transport in the development of Australia and New Zealand. In Back on Track: rethinking transport policy in Australia and New Zealand. http://edocs.library.curtin.edu.au/eres_display. cgi?url=dc60261511.pdf (accessed July 3, 2010) Lee, B., P. Gordon, J. Moore, and H. Richardson. 2006. Residential location, land use and transportation: the neglected role of nonwork travel. www-bcf.usc.edu/~pgordon/pdf/land-usetransportation-20061129.pdf (accessed August 1, 2012) Leinberger, C. 2007. The Option of Urbanism: Investing in a New American Dream, Island Press, Washington DC. (In Newman and Kenworthy, 2011). Lewis M. 1999. Suburban Backlash: The Battle for the Worlds Most Liveable City, Blooming Books, Hawthorn. Quoted in Buxton and Scheurer (2007, 6) Marchetti, C. (1994). Anthropological Invariants in Travel Behaviour. Technical Forecasting and Social Change 47(1): 7578. http://www. cesaremarchetti.org/archive/scan/MARCHETTI-052.pdf (accessed July 30, 2012) McLoughlin J. 1991. Urban Consolidation and Urban Sprawl: A Question of Density?, Urban Policy and Research, 9(3): 148-156. Quoted in Buxton and Scheurer (2007, 6) McNally, Michael G., and Sherry Ryan (1993). Comparative Assessment of Travel Characteristics for Neotraditional Design. Transportation Research Record No. 1400. TRB, NRC. Washington, D.C. Quoted in Kockelman (1991, 47) Mees, P. 2010. Public transport policy in Australia: a density delusion? In World Transport Policy & Practice. 16(3): 35-42 http://www.ecologica.co.uk/pdf/wtpp16.3.pdf (accessed August 1, 2012) Mees, P., E. Sorupia and J. Stone, 2007. Travel to work in Australian capital cities, 1976-2006: an analysis of census data. Australian Centre for the Governance and Management of Urban Transport. University of Melbourne. http://www.abp.unimelb.edu.au/aboutus/ pdf/census-travel-to-work-1976-2006.pdf (access July 18, 2010) Mees, P. and J. Dodson. 2011. Public Transport Network Planning in Australia: Assessing Current Practice in Australias Five Largest Cities. Griffith University, Brisbane. http://catalogue.curtin.edu.au/ primo_library/libweb/action/display.do?tabs=detailsTab&ct=displa y&fn=search&doc=dedupmrg66624313&indx=9&recIds=dedupm rg66624313&recIdxs=8&elementId=8&renderMode=poppedOut& displayMode=full&frbrVersion=2&dscnt=1&vl(7196987UI0)=any&s cp.scps=scope%3A%28cur_aleph%29%2Cscope%3A%28cur_ digitool_dc%29%2Cscope%3A%28cur_digitool_marc%29%2 Cscope%3A%28whc%29%2Cscope%3A%28jbsc%29%2Cpri mo_central_multiple_fe&frbg=&tab=default_tab&dstmp=1343790 456061&srt=rank&mode=Basic&dum=true&tb=t&vl(1UIStartWith 0)=contains&vl(freeText0)=Mees%2C+Paul+&vid=CUR (accessed July 26, 2012)

Moore, A., and R. Henderson. 1998. Plan Obsolescence. In Reason. http://reason.com/archives/1998/06/01/plan-obsolescence (accessed August 1, 2012) NoGrady, B. 2010. We are entering the sixth wave of innovation. http://www.abc.net.au/environment/articles/2010/05/04/2889772. htm (accessed May 8, 2012) Newman, P. and J. Kenworthy. 2011. Peak Car Use. In The Fifth Estate. http://www.thefifthestate.com.au/archives/24214 (accessed July 28, 2012) PDP (Priority Development Panel), 2009. Casey Main Street: Fountain Gate Narre Warren City of Casey. http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/ CA256F310024B628/0/183DC69E1E685EA0CA257624001DF 5C5/$File/2009+April+Final+Report+-+Casey+Main+Street.pdf (accessed June 6, 2010) Poyner, B. and B. Webb. 1991. Crime Free Housing. ButterworthsArchitecture: London. Quoted in Cozens and Hiller (2008, 11) PTUA (Public Transport Users Association), 2010. Crime stats highlight station hotspots. http://www.ptua.org.au/2010/09/12/ staffing-crime-stats/ (accessed July 22, 2012) Puentes, R. and A. Tomer. 2009 The Road Less Travelled: An Analysis of Vehicle Miles Traveled Trends in the U.S. Metropolitan Infrastructure Initiatives Series, Brookings Institution, Washington DC. (In Newman and Kenworthy, 2011). Queensland Transport, 2008. Busway Planning and Design Manual. Brisbane, Q.L.D: Queensland Government. Ryley, 2005 Use of non-motorised modes and life stage in Edinburgh. Journal of Transport Geography, In Press, Corrected Proof. Quoted in Curtis and Perkins (2006, 13). Soltani, A., and F. Primerano. 2005. The effects of community design. 28th Australasian Transport Research Forum (ATRF). Quoted in Curtis and Perkins (2006, 9) Stead, D., J. Williams and H. Tetheridge. 2000. Land Use, Transport and People: Identifying the Connections. In Achieving Sustainable Form. Jenks, M. (Ed). London, Spon Press. Town, S., C. Davey, and Wooton, A. 2003. Design Against Crime: Secure Urban. Environments By Design. The University of Salford: Salford, UK. Quoted in Cozens and Hiller (2008, 11) Van Wee, B. and T. van der Hoorn, 1995. Employment location as an instrument of transport policy in the Netherlands; Fundamentals, instruments and effectiveness. In Transport Policy, 3(3): 81-89. http:// edocs.library.curtin.edu.au/eres_display.cgi?url=DC65068195.pdf (accessed July 13, 2010) Victoria Police, 2011. National Survey of community satisfaction with policing, April - June 2011 (Quarter 4). http://www.policecareer.vic. gov.au/pso/the-role-of-psos (accessed July 20, 2012) WAPC (Western Australian Planning Commission). 2009. Liveable Neighbourhoods: a Western Australian Government sustainable cities initiative. www.planning.wa.gov.au/Plans+and+policies/ Publications/Downloads_GetFile.aspx?id=1594 (accessed February 11, 2011)

Paul Melenhorst 2012

17

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen