WRITTEN REPORT ON FERROUS MATERIALS

Members: Abacahin, Lester Joseph Aga, Jamaica Babasa, Allen John Lapitan, Loren James Macasieb, Prince Mayol, Christy Marie Mokalid, Datu Omar Olpot, Lynnel

Submitted to: Engr. Butch G. Bataller August 2, 2012

INTRODUCTION Brief History The date when people first started using metals is yet to be determined; however, it is clear that the earliest metals used were native metals. In the turn of 2000 BC, iron became the material basis of human civilization in Europe, Asia, and Africa because of its property in which it becomes harder and more durable when alloyed with a bit of carbon - This was the Iron Age. By 513 BC, the Chinese were able to develop a furnace that could withstand extremely temperatures (up to about 1528 C) to melt iron, which lead to the production of cast iron in the East. Between 1500 and 1900, European steelmaking technology made advancements in processes. The Steel Age dawned upon the development of the Bessemer process (in 1856). (ASM International, 2004)

MATERIAL SELECTION Selection of a proper material for construction is important for the design of engineering projects. Usually, the best material is one that serves the desired objective at the minimum cost. In selection of materials, some of the following factors considered are the following: 1. Availability of the materials, 2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions of the process involved, and 3. Cost of the material Properties that determine the utility of the material; which in turn affect the factors in selection; are physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. (kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) Physical Properties Physical properties include luster, color, size and shape, density, electric and thermal conductivity, and melting point. Mechanical Properties These are properties associated with the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These properties describe how the material will react to physical forces. Mechanical properties are intrinsic to the material, and are determined through standardized mechanical tests. Table 1 shows the different mechanical properties considered for ferrous materials.

Table 1. Common Mechanical Properties and Definition Property Strength Definition The ability of a material to withstand externally applied forces without breaking or yielding Stiffness The ability of a material to resist deformation under stress; estimated by the modulus of elasticity Elasticity The property of a material to revert back to its original shape after deformation after removal of external forces; desirable property for materials used in tools and machineries Plasticity The property of the material which keep the deformation produced under load permanently Ductility The ability of the material to withstand tensile force without forces (thus enabling it to be drawn into wire); usually measured by percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area. Brittleness Property opposite of ductility Toughness The property of the material to resist fracture brought by high impact loads; Desirable property in parts subjected to shock and impact loads Resilience Desired property for spring materials; the property of the material to absorb energy and resist shock and impact loads. Creep Property that describes the resistance of material to permanent deformation due to constant stress at high temperature Malleability Special case of ductility which allow the material to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets Hardness Property that describes the resistance to wear, scratching, and deformation. Fatigue Ability of material to withstand repeated stresses (Source: kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) Chemical Properties Chemical properties refer to the materials resistance to oxidation or corrosion, flammability and toxicity. Corrosion resistance is the property of a material that gives it the ability to withstand attacks from atmospheric, chemical; or electrochemical conditions. Flammability is defined as the ease of causing fire or combustion of a material. Toxicity is defined as the degree to which the material is poisonous. (http://frontdesk.co.in, n.d.)

FERROUS MATERIAL A. Naming and Designation The naming scheme is consists of four to five digit numbers which identifies the alloys present and the amount of carbon in steel. The first two digit designates the primary alloy(s) of the steel while the last two digits of the designation signify the carbon content in the steel. The AISI designation system gives information about the chemical composition of the steel. The naming scheme consists of four to five digit numbers which identifies the alloys present and

the amount of carbon in steel. The first two digits designate the primary alloy(s) of the steel while the last two digits of the designation signify the carbon content in the steel. Table 2. AISI - SAE Carbon Steel Designations. Designation 10XX Nominal composition or range Nonresulfurized carbon steels with 44 compositions ranging from 1008 to 1095. Manganese ranges from 0.30 to 1.65%; if specified, silicon is 0.10 max, to 0.30 max., each depending on grade. Phosphorus is 0.040 max., sulfur is 0.050 max. Resulfurized carbon steels with 15 standard compositions. Sulfur may range up to 0.33%, depending on grade. Acid Bessemer resulfurized carbon steels with three compositions. Phosphorus generally is higher than 11XX series. Rephosphorized and resulfurized carbon steels with five standard compositions. Phosphorus may range up to 0.12% and sulfur up to 0.35%, depending on grade. Manganese, 1.75%. Four compositions from 1330 to 1345. Molybdenum, 0.20 or 0.25%. Seven compositions from 4012 to 4047. Chromium, to 0.95%; molybdenum, to 0.30%. Nine compositions from 4118 to 4161. Nickel, 1.83%; chromium to 0.80%; molybdenum, 0.25%. Three compositions, from 4320 to E4340.

11XX B11XX 12XX 13XX 40XX 41XX 43XX

(Source: http://www.azom.com, 2002) Unified Numbering System (UNS) provided a means of correlating internationally used metal and alloy numbering systems. The system establishes 9 series of designations for ferrous metals and alloys. The naming scheme is consists of a single letter prefix and followed by five digit numbers. The letter is suggestive of the family of metals identified (i.e.F for cast irons, T for tool steel and S for stainless steels). The listed cross-referenced specifications are representative only and are not necessarily a complete list of specifications applicable to a particular UNS designation.

Table 3. Unified Alloy Numbering System (UNS) designations for ferrous alloys. Designation Alloy Type

D00001-D99999 Specified-mechanical-properties steels F00001-F99999 Cast irons and cast steels

G00001-G99999 AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels H00001-H99999 AISI H steels K00001-K99999 Miscellaneous steels and ferrous alloys S00001-S99999 T00001-T99999 Source: (www.flamemet.com, n.d.) B. Classification Heat- and corrosion-resistant (stainless) steels Tool steels

Cast iron These ferrous materials are brittle, non ductile, non malleable and cracks when subjected to shocks and cannot be magnetized. They do not rust and are strong in compression but weak in tension and shear. The estimated melting point of these materials is about 1200C while the specific gravity is about7.5.

Types of Cast Iron 1. Gray cast iron. It is comprised mainly of iron with carbon (3-3.5%), Silicon (1-2.75%), manganese (0.401.0%), phosphorus (0.15-1.0%) and sulphur (0.02-0.15%). Usually gray in color due to the carbon present in the form of free graphite which acts as a lubricant. It has low tensile strength, high compressive strength and no ductility. Gray cast iron is commonly used in machine tool bodies, automotive cylinder blocks, heads, housings, fly-wheels and other parts where sliding action is desired. (kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) 2. White Cast Iron White cast iron is comprised mainly of iron with carbon (1.75-2.3%), Silicon (0.85-1.2%), manganese (<0.40%), phosphorus (<0.20%) and sulphur (<0.12%). Normally white in color due to the absence of graphite and whole carbon present in the form of carbide which is the hardest constituent of iron. It has high tensile strength and low compressive strength.

Engineering application of white cast iron are for carwheels, rolls for crushing grains and jaw crush plates due to its hard, wear resisting surface. (kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) 3. Ductile Cast Iron Also called nodular or spheroidal graphite cast iron, their composition is similar to that of grey iron, with more carbon than malleable iron (3.7%). It has trace amounts of magnesium (0.1-0.8%). instead of the normal angular flakes, the free graphite takes the form of small nodules or spheroids. It has high fluidity, castability, tensile strength, toughness, wear resistance, pressure tightness, weldability and machinability. It is commonly used for hydraulic cylinders, cylinders heads, rolls for rolling mill, and centrifugally cast products due to its shock and impact resistance. (kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) 4. Malleable Cast Iron Cast iron-carbon alloy which solidifies in the as-cast condition in a graphite free structure, malleable cast iron is made by heating white cast iron from 1400 to 1700F (760 and 927C) for about 150 hours in boxes containing hematite ore. It is ductile and can be bent without breaking or fracturing. It has higher tensile strength than that of grey cast iron. Malleable cast irons are comprised mainly of iron with carbon (2.16-2.90%), Silicon (0.901.90%), manganese (0.15-1.25%), phosphorus (0.02-0.15%) and sulphur (0.02-0.20%). They commonly used for machine parts for which the steel forgings would be too expensive and in which the metal should have a fair degree of accuracy. (kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) 5. High Silicon Cast Iron This type of cast iron is comprised mainly of iron and silicon (13-16%). They are highly resistant to oxidizing and reducing environments; however, resistance depends on the formation of a passive film. Good for combined corrosion-erosion service due to its hardness. They are commonly used in sulfuric acid service, since they are unaffected by sulfuric at all strengths. (Perry 7th Ed, 1997)

6. Ni-Resist Cast Iron Particularly useful for high temperatures, Ni-Resist cast iron has high carbon content ranging up to about 3%. It contains nickel at a range of about 13.5 to 35 percent, with about 6.5 percent copper as an optional additive. It has superior toughness and impact resistance due to nickel component which also increases the tensile strength and elongation. It is very resistant to oxidizing and reducing environment thus, use of these materials include handling of acids, hydraulic equipment pieces, valve body and cap bolts, and rolling mill machinery and their spare parts. (Perry 7th Ed, 1997)

Steel Also known as Carbon Steel, these materials are an alloy of iron & carbon (max. content of 1.5%). The carbon present in steel is in the form of carbide which increases the hardness and strength of the steel. According to Perry, steel have tensile strength ranging from 345 to 485 MPa. Other elements that comprise this material include nickel, chromium, aluminum, manganese, vanadium and tungsten. The effect of alloying elements is summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel Alloying Element Nickel Effect Increases toughness strength and Example Steels containing 2 to 5% nickel and 0.1 to 0.5% carbon exhibits great strength and hardness with high elastic limit, good ductility, and good resistance to corrosion Common chrome steels contain 0.5 to 2% chromium with 0.1 to 0.5% carbon About 3 to 18% tungsten to 0.2 to 1.5% carbon is usually used Chrome-vanadium steel contains 0.5 to 1.5% chromium, 0.15 to 0.3% vanadium and 0.13 to 1.1% carbon have extremely good tensile strength, elastic limit, endurance limit and ductility Manganese alloy steels containing 1.5% manganese with a carbon range of 0.4 to 0.55% have high strength and fair ductility About 1 to 2% silicon is usually used for silicon steels -

Chromium

Tungsten

Vanadium

Incorporates hardness with high strength and high elastic limit; Imparts corrosionresisting properties Prohibits grain growth; Increases the depth of hardening (of quenched steel) Increase in tensile strength (for low and medium carbon steels, increases elastic limit)

Manganese

Improves strength in steel for hot rolled and heat treated condition

Silicon

Improves elastic limit

Cobalt

Molybdenum

Increases hardness and strength (and also residual magnetism and coercive magnetic force in steel for magnets) Provide extra tensile strength Generally used

in

very

small quantity (0.15 to 0.30%) with chromium and manganese (Source: kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.)

It contains no more than 0.5% Silicon and 1.5% Manganese. However, carbon content varies for the different types: Dead mild steel (<0.15%) Low carbon or mild steel (0.15%-0.45%) Medium carbon steel (0.45%-0.80%) High carbon steel (0.80%-1.5%)

Types of Steel 1. High Alloy Steel Steel that is alloyed with other elements by 8% or more than the iron and carbon. These are commonly used for their corrosion resistance in aqueous media at or near temperature, and for service in hot gases and liquids at elevated and high temperature (>650oC).

Table 5. Types of High Alloy Steel Type Tool Steel Physical/Chemical/Mechanical Property It has high resistance to wear, stability during heat treatment, strength at high temperatures, and toughness Normally delivered in the soft annealed condition Commonly used for plastics molding, blanking and forming, die casting, extrusion, forging and wood-working Applications High Speed Tool Steels Hot- Work Tool Steels Cold- Work Tool Steels Shock- Resistant Tool Steels Mold Steels Special- Purpose Tool Steels Water- Hardening Tool Steels Heat Exchanger Pipes Liner Coils Rolls

Stainless Steel

Essentially a low carbon steel which contains chromium at 10% or more by weight. Other components include: iron, carbon, copper, nitrogen, molybdenum, and nickel.

Forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen Impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath Quickly reforms when the surface is scratched (Source: kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) 2. Medium Alloy Steel Group of (mostly) propriety alloys with somewhat better corrosion resistance than stainless steels, medium alloy steel have extensive applications in sulfuric acid systems. 3. Low Alloy Steel These types of steel contain one or more alloying agents to improve its mechanical and corrosion-resistant properties over those of carbon steel. It contains other alloying elements: manganese (1.65% max), silicon (0.60% max), and copper (0.60% max). Low alloy steel can be categorized according to carbon content. Table 6 shows the types of low alloy steel and Table 7 shows the comparative analysis of the different types of low alloy steel. (kvindia.hpage.com, n.d.) Table 6. Types of Low Alloy Steel Types Low Carbon Steel Physical/chemical/mechanical property Applications Contains 0.05-0.26% Carbon with Commonly used for up to 0.4% Manganese content superheater tubes and pipes in steam plants, Low strength but ductile in nature. Its surface hardness can be increased where service through carburizing. temperatures are in the range of 400oC to 500oC. Contains 0.3 0.8 % Carbon with Commonly used in 0.60 to 1.65% Manganese content large parts, forgings, and machined Balances ductility and strength components Good wear resistance Contains carbon (0.60-1.10%), manganese (0.60-1.0%) and silicon (0.20-0.50%) Structure is granular More tough and elastic than mild steel Easier to harden and to weld More difficult to forge and to weld commonly used for laminated springs for locomotives, carriages, wagons, and for heavy road vehicles

Medium Carbon Steel

High Carbon Steel

Table 7. Comparative Analysis of the types of low alloy steel Low Carbon Steel Advantages Good formability Good weldability Best of all metals Lowest cost 55-60% machinability (soft and drags which build up heat on the tool) Less strong Medium Carbon Steel Fair formability Good toughness Balanced ductility and strength 60-70% machinability (cut slightly better than low carbon steels) High Carbon Steel Fair formability High hardness High wear resistance

Disadvantages

Low toughness Low weldability More brittle

REFERENCES: Alloy Steels - AISI Designations. 2002. Retrieved from http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1378 Aran, Ahmet. 2007. Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Properties of Engineering Materials. Retrieved from http://www2.isikun.edu.tr/personel/ahmet.aran/mfgprop.pdf Engineering Materials and their Properties. Retrieved from kvindia.hpage.com/get_file.php?id=643917&vnr=136557. Jain, Manish. n.d. Construction Material: Ferrous Metal & Alloy. Retrieved from http://frontdesk.co.in/slide/ferrousmetal.swf The Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved from http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/aisi-sae-steelnumbering-system-d_1449.html Unified Numbering System . n.d. Retrieved from http://www.flamemet.com/cust/library/topics/uns.html

Perry, Robert H. 1997. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Vander Voort, George F. 2004. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures. ASM International