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BSS-ID
B A
ADDR ADDR ADDR ADDR
1 2 3 4
A B
BSS
2
Case 2 (“To DS” = 0 & “From DS” = 1)
o The frame is coming from a distribution system (via an AP) and
going to a station
o The ACK frame should be sent to the AP
o Address 3 contains the original sender of the frame (in another
BSS)
BSS
B AP A
ADDR ADDR ADDR ADDR
1 2 3 4
A AP
Distribution B
system
3
Case 3 (“To DS” = 1 & “From DS” = 0)
o The frame is going to a distribution system (from a station to an
AP)
o The ACK frame is sent to the original station
o Address 3 contains the final destination of the frame (in another
BSS)
BSS
AP B A
ADDR ADDR ADDR ADDR
1 2 3 4
AP A
B Distribution
system
4
Case 4 (“To DS” = 1 & “From DS” = 1)
o The frame is going from one AP to another AP in a wireless
distribution system
o Four addresses are required to define the original sender, the
final destination, and 2 intermediate APs
Wireless
distribution system
AP2 AP1 B A
ADDR ADDR ADDR ADDR
AP1 1 2 3 4 AP2
A B
BSS BSS
5
IEEE 802.11 Implementation
This IEEE 802.11 standard defines the media access control (MAC)
and physical (PHY) layers for a LAN with wireless connectivity.
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Physical Medium
Infrared :
o limited to a single room as infrared light cannot penetrate opaque
walls
Spread spectrum:
o 802.11: frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct
sequence spread spectrum(DSSS)
o Operate in the 2.4GHz ISM [Industrial, Scientific and Medical]
bands, so that no licensing is required
o 802.11a: Using OFDM (orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing) in 5GHz ISM band
o 802.11b: Using HR-DSSS (high rate DSSS) in 2.4GHz ISM band
o 802.11g: Using OFDM in 2.4GHz ISM band
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Access Modes
8
Another interframe space has been defined: PIFS (PCF IFS)
PIFS is shorter than DIFS so that the base station using PCF has
higher priority over other station using DCF
For e.g., if a station wants to use DCF and an AP wants to use
PCF, the AP has priority since its waiting time is shorter (PIFS <
DIFS)
Due to its lower priority, stations using DCF may not gain access
to the medium
For networks with both PCF and DCF traffic, a repetition interval
has been designed
Each repetition interval consists of a contention-free period and
contention period
Each interval starts with a special control frame known as a
beacon frame
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When other stations sense the beacon frame, they start their NAV for
the duration of the contention free period.
At the end of the contention-free period, the AP a CF (contention-free)
end frame to allow the contention-based stations to used the medium.
Usually, DCF is used for ad hoc networking and PCF is used for
networking with base station or access point.
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Interframe Spacing (IFS)
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DIFS
PIFS
Contention window
Frame
Busy SIFS
... transmission
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Wired Equivalent Privacy
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The encryption uses an algorithm known as RC4 (a secret-key
stream cipher ):
15
Geography – For the case of interconnecting the devices in two
different geographical locations, it may be more feasible to implement
two LANs and use a microwave bridge to link them than to string
coaxial cable to implement a single LAN
B
connector
C
Ethernet LAN
server
A server
Interconnecting networks
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Connecting Devices
Data link Data link Data link Data link Data link Data link
Physical Physical
Physical Repeater Physical Physical Physical
Transport Transport
Router
Physical Physical
Physical Physical
Layer 3 connection
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Layer 1 Connections
Repeater
It operates only in the physical layer
A repeater is a regenarator, not an amplifier
It receives a signal and regenerates the original bit pattern before it
becomes too weak (attenuation) and corrupted
It extends the physical length of a LAN (10Base5 & 10Base2)
A repeater does not connect two LANs; it connects 2 segments of
the same LAN (still form one single LAN)
It is not a device to connect two LANs of different protocols
A repeater forwards every frame; it has not filtering capability
Repeater
Segment 1 Segment 2
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Hub
A hub is actually a multiport repeater
It is used to create connections between stations in a star topology
Hubs can also be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy
Use of hubs removes the length limitation of 10Base-T (100m)
Backbone
hub
Collision domain
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Layer 2 Connections
Bridge
A bridge operates in both physical and data link layers
At the physical layer, it regenerates the signal it receives
The bridge is able to check the physical (MAC) addresses contained
in a frame (as it is also operating in the data link layer)
A bridge has filtering capability: it can check the destination address
of a frame and decide if the frame should be forwarded (to a port) or
dropped
A table is used by the bridge to map addresses to port
A bridge does not change the physical address in a frame
00:2B:52:3A:E7:21 00:2B:52:3A:E7:32 00:3A:57:45:12:90 00:3A:57:45:12:75
Address Port
00:2B:52:3A:E7:21 1
` ` 1 2 ` ` 00:2B:52:3A:E7:32 1
Bridge
00:3A:57:45:12:75 2
00:3A:57:45:12:90 2
LAN 1 LAN 2
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A bridge should be able to connect LANs using different protocols at
the data link layer, such as Ethernet LAN to a wireless LAN (access
point)
Many issues to consider:
o Frame format. Each type of LAN has its own frame format.
o Maximum data size. If the incoming frame is too large for the
destination LAN, it must be fragmented into several frames.
Some protocols at the data link layer does not support
fragmentation and reassembly of frames. Thus the bridge must
discard any frame that is too large.
o Data rate. Each type of LAN has its own data rate. The bridge
must buffer the frame to compensate for the difference.
o Bit order. Different types of LAN may send data in different
order (MSB transmitted first or LSB transmitted first)
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o Security. Some LANs (e.g. Wifi) implement security
measures in the data link layer which often involve encryption.
The data must be decrypted by the bridge if it is forwarding it to
a LAN without security (e.g. Ethernet).
o Multimedia support. Some LANs support multimedia and
the quality of services needed for this type of communication.
Transparent bridges
These are the bridges that create and update their own routing tables
(IEEE 802.1d specifications)
The stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s existence
If a station is added or removed from the network, the bridges learn
this and update their routing table accordingly (i.e. does not require
manual modification of the table)
This capability to update the routing table is called route learning or
address learning
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Two-layer Switch
A two-layer switch is a multiport bridge that allows better (faster
performance)
A bridge can connect a few LANs together
A switch may allocate a unique port to each station, with each station on
its own independent entity (no contention and no collision)
Mail File
Switch
server server
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Virtual LANs
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In VLAN, a LAN is divided into logical segment
The group membership in VLANs is defined by software (stations can
be logically moved between VLANs)
VLAN even allows the grouping of stations connected to different
switches in be grouped into the same VLAN
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VLAN groups stations belonging to one or more physical LANs into
broadcast domains
All members belonging to the same VLAN can receive broadcast
messages sent to that particular VLAN
The stations in a VLAN communicate with each other as though
they belonged to a physical segment
Vendors define membership using different characteristic such as
port numbers, MAC addresses, IP addresses, IP multicast address to
a combination of these
Stations can be configured into different VLANs using:
i. Manual configuration using VLAN software to manually
assign stations into different VLANs. Subsequent migration is
also done manually
ii. Automatic configuration using criteria defined by the network
administrator (e.g. project number)
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iii. Semiautomatic configuration where initialization is done
manually with migration done automatically.
IEEE 802.1 subcommittee passes a standard called 802.1Q in 1996 that
defines frame tagging (allowing switches to exchange the membership
information of stations in other switches) and enables the use of
Switch β
multivendor equipment in VLANs
Switch α
H [VLAN 1]
E [VLAN 2]
G [VLAN 2]
A [VLAN 1] F [VLAN 1]
D [VLAN 2]
B [VLAN 1]
C [VLAN 2]
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Advantages of VLAN
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