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1.

2 Network standards

Organization that set the standards for network:a. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) b. Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) c. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) d. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) e. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) f. Internet Society (ISOC) g. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

Networking Standards Organizations

Standards are documented agreements containing


technical specifications

ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is an


organization composed of more than a thousand representatives from industry and government who together determine standards for the electronics industry and other fields, such as chemical and nuclear engineering, health and safety, and construction

Networking Standards Organizations (continued)


ANSI also represents the United States in setting
international standards

EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) is a trade organization


composed of representatives from electronics manufacturing firms across the United States

Networking Standards Organizations (continued)

TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) Focuses


on standards for information technology, wireless, satellite, fiber optics, and telephone equipment

TIA/EIA alliance are its guidelines for how network cable


should be installed in commercial buildings, known as the TIA/EIA 568-B Series.

Networking Standards Organizations (continued)

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), or


I-triple-E, is an international society composed of engineering professionals

IEEE goals are to promote development and education in


the electrical engineering and computer science fields

Networking Standards Organizations (continued)

ISO (International Organization for Standardization),


headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, is a collection of standards and organizations representing 148 countries

ISOs goal is to establish international technological


standards to facilitate global exchange of information and barrier-free trade

Networking Standards Organizations (continued)

The ITU (International Telecommunication Union) is a


specialized United Nations agency that regulates international telecommunications, including radio and TV frequencies, satellite and telephony specifications, networking infrastructure, and tariffs applied to global communications

Networking Standards Organizations (continued)


ISOC (Internet Society), founded in 1992, is a professional membership society that helps to establish technical standards for the Internet

ISOC oversees groups with specific missions, such as the


IAB and IETF

Networking Standards Organizations (continued)

IAB (Internet Architecture Board) is a technical advisory


group of researchers and technical professionals interested in overseeing the Internets design and management

IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), the organization


that sets standards for how systems communicate over the Internetin particular, how protocols operate and interact

Networking Standards Organizations (continued) IANA and ICANN


Every computer / host on a network must have a unique
address

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) kept records of


available and reserved IP addresses and determined how addresses were issued out

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers


(ICANN), a private, nonprofit corporation and is now ultimately responsible for IP addressing and domain name management

1.3 Principles of communication in networking

Principles of communication in networking


Source Channel Destinations

SOURCE, CHANNEL & DESTINATION


Source - Sources are objects which encode message/ data and transmit the information, via a channel, to one or more receiver. (adalah objek yang encode mesej / data dan menyampaikan
maklumat tersebut, melalui saluran, untuk satu atau lebih penerima)

Channel - refers either to a physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel. Destination - the receiving end of a communication channel. It receives decoded messages/information from the sender, who first encoded them. (penerima terakhir
dari sebuah saluran komunikasi. Ia menerima decode mesej / maklumat dari penghantar)

SOURCE, CHANNEL & DESTINATIONCont

Rules of communication
a. b. c. d. e. f. Establish a link Issue a command and command qualifier Acknowledgment of command Dissection messages Error detection and correction Termination of transmission

RULES of COMMUNICATION
For two computer-based devices to communicate with one another, even at the lowest level, a number of rule must be satisfied.

A Point to Point Link

(I) Establish a link


Device 1 checks to see if Device 2 is present on the link by sending a specific "enquiry" message. If the link is active and device 2 is active then it should respond by sending back an "acknowledgement" message. (Jika link tersebut aktif dan peranti 2 juga
aktif maka ia akan memberi maklum balas dengan menghantar mesej ACK)

Device 1 must track the time that device 2 takes to respond. (peranti 1 perlu menjejaki masa yang diperlukan untuk peranti 2 memberi maklumbalas)

(I) Establish a link


If device 2 does not respond within a time interval (defined by the protocol) then device 1 assumes that the link is not active. This is called a transmission "time-out" error. (Jika peranti 2 tidak memberi maklumbalas dalam selang waktu
(ditentukan oleh protokol), maka peranti 1 menganggap bahawa link sudah tidak aktif. Ini disebut transmisi "time-out" error.)

(II) Issues a command and command qualifier


Device 1 sends device 2 a message, in a predefined format, which tells device 2 that a file is to be transferred. (peranti 1 akan menghantar mesej ke peranti 2 mengikut format dimana ia akan
memberitahu peranti 2 bahawa fail akan dihantar)

device 1 tells device 2 what to do with the file. For example, device 1 may tell device 2 to place the incoming file onto disk storage, with the file-name "FRED". (peranti 1 akan memberitahu peranti 2 apa yang harus dilakukan dengan fail tersebut.
Sebagai contoh, peranti 1 akan memberitahu peranti 2 untuk menyimpan file yang dihantar ke dalam cakera simpanan, dengan nama-fail "FRED".)

(III) Acknowledgment of command


If device 2 has correctly received the command and qualifier from device 1, and is capable of carrying out the command, then it sends device 1 an acknowledgement message. (Jika peranti 2 telah menerima perintah dari
peranti 1, dan mampu melaksanakan perintah tersebut, maka akan ia akan menghantar ACK)

The acknowledgement message tells device 1 that it can now proceed with further action needed to fulfill the command. (ACK memberitahu peranti 1 bahawa sekarang ia boleh meneruskan
tindakan yang selanjutnya bagi memenuhi perintah)

Acknowledgment of commandCont
If device 2 is unable to act upon the command from device 1, then it must respond with an error message. (Jika peranti 2 tidak boleh bertindak atas arahan dari peranti 1, maka ia harus
memberi maklumbalas dengan mesej ralat(negarif acknowledgment))

An error could occur on the receiver, for example, the disk on which the incoming file is to be stored, is already full. The error response message would tell device 1 that it should not proceed with its proposed course of action. (Kesalahan biasa terjadi pada penerima, contohnya, cakera tempat fail
yang akan disimpan, sudah penuh. Mesej kesalahan tersebut akan memberitahu peranti 1 agar tidak meneruskan tindakan/proses)

(IV) Dissection messages


All messages, command and otherwise, must be broken down into packets of manageable size for transmission. (Semua mesej, perintah dan sebaliknya, perlu dipecah menjadi pakej-pakej saiz
yang mudah untuk dikendalikan bagi penghantaran)

Thus if an error should occur in a packet, then only that packet needs to be re-transmitted (and not the entire message). (jika berlaku ralat, hanya paket itu sahaja yang perlu dihantar semula) Therefore, when device 1 wishes to transfer a large file to device 2, the file is broken up into packets and transmitted packet by packet. (Oleh kerana itu, apabila peranti 1 ingin
memindahkan fail besar ke peranti 2, fail dipecah menjadi paket-paket dan di hantar paket demi paket)

(V) Error detection and Correction


When device 1 sends a message packet to device 2, it performs a mathematical calculation (manipulation) on every unit of data transmitted. (Apabila peranti 1 menghantar paket
mesej ke peranti 2, ia melakukan pengiraan matematik (manipulasi) pada setiap unit data yang dihantar)

This calculation is transmitted to device 2 immediately after the message. (Pengiraan ini akan dihantar ke peranti 2
selepas mesej)

Device 2 performs exactly the same mathematical calculation on its incoming data as device 1. (peranti 2
melakukan pengiraan matematik pada data yang masuk sama seperti yang dilakukan oleh peranti 1 pada data tersebut)

(V) Error detection and Correction


Device 2 also reads in the calculation sent by device 1 and compares it with the local calculation. (peranti 2 juga
membaca pengiraan yang dihantar oleh peranti 1 dan membandingkannya dengan pengiraan yang telah dibuat)

If the two calculations provide an identical result, then it is assumed that the incoming message was not corrupted on the link. (Jika dua pengiraan memberikan hasil yang sama,
maka diandaikan bahawa mesej yang masuk tidak rosak pada link)

Device 2 can then issue a positive acknowledgement to device 1 to indicate that it is ready for the next message. (peranti 2 kemudiannya boleh mengeluarkan pengakuan positif(ACK) kepada peranti 1
untuk menunjukkan bahawa ia bersedia untuk menerima mesej seterusnya)

Error detection and CorrectionCont


If the two calculations are inconsistent, then it is assumed that incoming data has been corrupted, and device 2 issues a "negative acknowledgement" message to device 1, which indicates that the previous data message must be re-transmitted. (Jika dua pengiraan yang
tidak konsisten, maka dianggap bahawa data yang masuk telah rosak, dan peranti 2 akan mengeluarkan pengakuan "negatif" ke peranti 1, yang menunjukkan bahawa mesej data tersebut perlu dihantar semula)

(VI) Termination of transmission


Device 1 transmits a file, piece-wise, ensuring that each packet is correctly received by device 2, using the technique described in (v). (peranti 1 akan menghantar file dalam
pecahan paket dan memastikan paket2 tersebut diterima oleh peranti 2 dengan betul dengan menggunakan kaedah (V))

After the last piece of the file is transmitted to device 2 and positively acknowledged, then device 1 must terminate the transmission. (Setelah bahagian terakhir dari fail telah dihantar
ke peranti 2 dan ACK positif diakui, maka peranti 1 harus berhenti penghantaran)

(VI) Termination of transmission


Device 1 sends an "end of transmission message to device 2. (peranti 1 menghantar penamatan penghantaran" mesej ke peranti 2) This allows device 2 to close the stored file and return to other duties. (ini membolehkan peranti 2 untuk memberhentikan proses
penyimpanan data dan meneruskan dengan tugas yang lain)

File Transfer Sequence under Typical Protocol

Terminologies in Relation to Communication in Networking:


a. b. c. d. e. Message Encoding Message Formatting Message Size Message Timing Message Patterns

TERMINOLOGIES
There are several terminologies in relation to communication in networking:

(I) Message Encoding


Encoding occurs in computer communication. Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate form for the medium. (Encoding terjadi dalam komunikasi komputer. Encoding antara host
perlu dalam bentuk yang tepat/sesuai untuk medium)

Messages sent across the network are first converted into bits by the sending host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses depending on the network media over which the bits are transmitted. (Mesej yang dihantar di seluruh rangkaian terlebih dahulu
ditukarkan kepada bit oleh penghantar. Setiap bit akan dikodekan menjadi pola suara, gelombang cahaya, atau impuls elektrik bergantung pada media rangkaian di mana bit dihantar)

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK

Message EncodingCont
The destination host receives and decodes the signals in order to interpret the message. (penerima akan menerima dan menterjemah isyarat-isyarat untuk menginterpretasikan
mesej)

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK

(II) Message Formatting


When a message is sent from source to destination, it must use a specific format or structure. (Ketika mesej
dihantar dari sumber ke destinasi, ia harus menggunakan format atau struktur yang tertentu)

Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to deliver the message.
(format Mesej bergantung pada jenis mesej dan saluran yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan mesej)

The process of placing one message format (the letter) inside another message format (the envelope) is called encapsulation. (Proses menempatkan satu format
mesej (huruf) ke dalam format yang lain (sampul surat) disebut encapsulation)

Message FormattingCont
De-encapsulation occurs when the process is reversed by the recipient and the letter is removed from the envelope. (De-encapsulation berlaku apabila proses dibatalkan oleh
penerima dan surat akan dikeluarkan dari sampul surat)

Each computer message is encapsulated in a specific format, called a frame, before it is sent over the network. (Setiap mesej komputer dirumuskan dalam format khusus, yang disebut rangka,
sebelum dihantar melalui rangkaian)

A frame acts like an envelope; it provides the address of the intended destination and the address of the source host. (Sebuah rangka bertindak seperti sampul surat, ia mempunyai
alamat destinasi dan alamat sumber)

Message FormattingCont

(III) Message Size


when a long message is sent from one host to another over a network, it is necessary to break the message into smaller pieces. (apabila mesej yang panjang dihantar dari satu
host ke host yang lain melalui rangkaian, ia perlu untuk dipecahkan kepada beberapa bahagian)

The rules that govern the size of the pieces, or frames, communicated across the network are very strict. They can also be different, depending on the channel used. Frames that are too long or too short are not delivered. (Peraturan-peraturan yang menetapkan saiz potongan, atau rangka,
dihubungkan di seluruh rangkaian sangat ketat. Ia juga berbeza, bergantung pada saluran yang digunakan. Bingkai yang terlalu panjang atau terlalu pendek tidak akan dihantar)

Message SizeCont

(IV) Message Timing


Timing effects how much information can be sent and the speed that it can be delivered. (Timing memberi kesan
kepada berapa banyak maklumat yang boleh dihantar dan kelajuan penghantaran)

In network communication, a sending host can transmit messages at a faster rate than the destination host can receive and process. (penghantar boleh
menghantar mesej lebih laju berbanding keupayaan destinasi menerima dan memproses mesej)

Source and destination hosts use flow control to negotiate correct timing for successful communication. (sumber dan destinasi akan menggunakan flow control untuk berunding
tempoh yang betul bagi memastikan komunikasi berjaya)

Message TimingCont
Hosts on the network have rules that specify how long to wait for responses and what action to take if a response timeout occurs. (Host di jaringan mempunyai peraturan yang
menentukan berapa lama untuk menunggu maklumbalas dan tindakan yang harus diambil jika tamat waktu maklumbalas berlaku)

(V) Message Patterns


There are the standard message patterns in relation to human communication

Unicast Multicast Broadcast

Message PatternsCont
A one-to-one message pattern is referred to as a unicast, meaning that there is only a single destination for the message. (pola mesej satu-ke-satu disebut sebagai
Unicast, yang bermaksud bahawa hanya ada satu sahaja destinasi untuk mesej yang dihantar)

When a host needs to send messages using a oneto-many pattern, it is referred to as a multicast. Multicasting is the delivery of the same message to a group of host destinations simultaneously. (apabila
penghantar perlu menghantar mesej menggunakan pola satu-ke-banyak, ini disebut sebagai Multicast. Multicasting adalah penghantaran mesej yang sama kepada sekumpulan host serentak)

Message PatternsCont
If all hosts on the network need to receive the message at the same time, a broadcast is used. Broadcasting represents a one-to-all message pattern. (Jika semua host dalam rangkaian perlu menerima mesej pada masa yang sama,
broadcast akan digunakan. Broadcast merupakan pola mesej satu-untuk-semua)

Additionally, hosts have requirements for acknowledged versus unacknowledged messages.

Identify if a communication problem, in a given scenario, deals with message format, timing, message pattern, or message size.

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