POLLUTION

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that

causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems
or living organisms they are in.[1] Pollution can take the form of
chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy.
Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or
energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are
considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is
often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

HISTORY

Prehistory

Humankind has had some effect upon the environment since the
Paleolithic era during which the ability to generate fire was acquired. In
the Iron Age, the use of tooling led to the practice of metal grinding on
a small scale and resulted in minor accumulations of discarded
material probably easily dispersed without too much impact. Human
wastes would have polluted rivers or water sources to some degree.
However, these effects could be expected predominantly to be dwarfed
by the natural world.

Ancient cultures

The first advanced civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China,

Persia, Greece and Rome increased the use of water for their
manufacture of goods, increasingly forged metal and created fires of
wood and peat for more elaborate purposes (for example, bathing,
heating). Still, at this time the scale of higher activity did not disrupt
ecosystems or greatly alter air or water quality.

Middle Ages

The European Dark Ages during the early Middle Ages were a great
boon for the environment, in that industrial activity fell, and population
levels did not grow rapidly. Toward the end of the Middle Ages
populations grew and concentrated more within cities, creating pockets
of readily evident contamination. In certain places air pollution levels
were recognizable as health issues, and water pollution in population
centers was a serious medium for disease transmission from untreated
human waste.

Since travel and widespread information were less common, there did
not exist a more general context than that of local consequences in
which to consider pollution. Foul air would have been considered a
nuissance and wood, or eventually, coal burning produced smoke,
which in sufficient concentrations could be a health hazard in proximity
to living quarters. Septic contamination or poisoning of a clean drinking
water source was very easily fatal to those who depended on it,
especially if such a resource was rare. Superstitions predominated and
the extent of such concerns would probably have been little more than
a sense of moderation and an avoidance of obvious extremes.

Official acknowledgement

But gradually increasing populations and the proliferation of basic

industrial processes saw the emergence of a civilization that began to
have a much greater collective impact on its surroundings. It was to be
expected that the beginnings of environmental awareness would occur
in the more developed cultures, particularly in the densest urban
centers. The first medium warranting official policy measures in the
emerging western world would be the most basic: the air we breathe.

The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were Arabic

medical treatises written between the 9th and 13th centuries, by
physicians such as al-Kindi (Alkindus), Qusta ibn Luqa (Costa ben
Luca), Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi,
al-Masihi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli
ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works
covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air
contamination, water contamination, soil contamination, solid waste
mishandling, and environmental assessments of certain localities.[2]

King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by

proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a
problem.[3][4] But the fuel was so common in England that this
earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away
from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to
be a problem there, especially later during the industrial revolution,
and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. This
same city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water
quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which
led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward.

It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental

pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and
consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave
rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial
chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human
waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to
enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other cities followed around
the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office
of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior.
Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles
and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public
reminder.

POLLUTION POTENTIAL IN THE YAMUNA BASIN

Non Point Sources of Pollution

The diffused pollution originates mainly from the catchment area
through movement of water. Pollutants originated from the topsoil
losses include soil organic matter, plant residues, nutrient elements,
organic chemicals, toxic elements and bacteria. Soil can retain, modify,
decompose or absorb pollutants.
The important non point pollution sources contributing to river Yamuna
are: Agricultural pollution sources & Pollution due to in stream uses of
water.

Agricultural Pollution
Agricultural pollution is contributed by following major sources: cattle,
agricultural residues and Fertilizer & Pesticide use. The pollution load
generated through above sources may be contributed to the river
either as point source or as non point sources. A large portion of
generated agricultural pollution is subjected to phototropic food chain
and consumed, hence never reaches to the river. Moreover, the cattle
originated BOD load is mostly utilized by the rural population either as
fuel or manure. The agricultural residues generated as waste in the
rural areas are subjected to saprotrophic food chain and hence
degraded naturally not contributing to the river pollution.

Pollution due to in-stream uses of water

The main sources of pollution caused by in-stream use of river water
are:
Cattle wading, Bathing, Open defecation, Clothes washing.

Cattle wading
Both side banks of entire stretch of river Yamuna is occupied by the
rural areas. The main activities in these areas are agricultural and
cattle farming. The cattle from local farms frequently visit the river for
various activities especially for wading in the river water. This activity
affects the water quality through many ways. The faucal matter of the
cattle contributed during wading directly increase the BOD and
Coliforms load of the river water. The cattle wading also contribute
various pathogens in the water, which may cause skin and other
diseases, not only to the other animals but sometimes also to the
human beings using river water directly or indirectly. The vigorous
movement and activities of cattle in the river disturbs the riverbed,
where organic matter and other pollutants are settled in form of
sludge. Due to cattle movements, the settled sludge disturbs and
again mixed with the water deteriorating its quality.

Bathing
In the entire country river mass bathing is very common phenomenon.
In the Yamuna river, mass bathing takes place during some special
festivals and religious days. The mass bathing is very significant at
urban centres e.g. Mathura, Vrindavan, Bateshwar, Delhi, Agra etc. The
large scale river bathing influence the water quality by increasing the
disease causing pathogens quantity in the river.
Open defecation
River Yamuna basin is heavily populated with rural and urban centres
where the sanitary facilities are either not existing or not developed.
Therefore, a large part of the population uses river catchment for the
open defecation. This activity thus contributes pathogenic and organic
contaminants in the river catchment, which are washed down to river
stream during rains or sudden release of water from the upstream
dams. Dumping of dead animals, human dead bodies in the river also
affect the water quality of the river.

Clothes washing
Clothes washing at the bank of river Yamuna are a common features
both in rural and urban centres. This not only causes inorganic, organic
and biological contamination but also increase the detergents
contents. Detergents availability in river water generates foam at the
surface due to turbulence particularly at a steep fall down stream to
dams and other sites. Foaming hamper the oxygen diffusion rate in the
river water affecting the self-purification capacity as well as other
biological activities.

1. WATER POLLUTION

When toxic substances enter lakes,

streams, rivers, oceans, and other
water bodies, they get dissolved or
lie suspended in water or get
deposited on the bed. This results in
the pollution of water whereby the
quality of the water deteriorates,
affecting aquatic ecosystems.
Pollutants can also seep down and
affect the groundwater deposits.

Water pollution has many sources.

The most polluting of them are the
city sewage and industrial waste
discharged into the rivers. The facilities to treat waste water are not
adequate in any city in India. Presently, only about 10% of the waste
water generated is treated; the rest is discharged as it is into our water
bodies. Due to this, pollutants enter groundwater, rivers, and other
water bodies. Such water, which ultimately ends up in our households,
is often highly contaminated and carries disease-causing microbes.
Agricultural run-off, or the water from the fields that drains into rivers,
is another major water pollutant as it contains fertilizers and
pesticides.

Domestic sewage refers to waste water that is discarded from

households. Also referred to as sanitary sewage, such water contains a
wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities. Biochemical
oxygen demand, or BOD

The amount of organic material that can rot in the sewage is measured
by the biochemical oxygen demand. BOD is the amount of oxygen
required by micro-organisms to decompose the organic substances in
sewage. Therefore, the more organic material there is in the sewage,
the higher the BOD. It is among the most important parameters for the
design and operation of sewage treatment plants. BOD levels of
industrial sewage may be many times that of domestic sewage.
Dissolved oxygen is an important factor that determines the quality of
water in lakes and rivers. The higher the concentration of dissolved
oxygen, the better the water quality. When sewage enters a lake or
stream, micro-organisms begin to decompose the organic materials.
Oxygen is consumed as micro-organisms use it in their metabolism.
This can quickly deplete the available oxygen in the water. When the
dissolved oxygen levels drop too low, many aquatic species perish. In
fact, if the oxygen level drops to zero, the water will become septic.
When organic compounds decompose without oxygen, it gives rise to
the undesirable odours usually associated with septic or putrid
conditions.

It amounts to a very small fraction

of the sewage by weight. But it is
large by volume and contains
impurities such as organic materials
and plant nutrients that tend to rot.
The main organic materials are food
and vegetable waste, plant nutrient
come from chemical soaps, washing
powders, etc. Domestic sewage is
also very likely to contain disease-
causing microbes. Thus, disposal of
domestic waste water is a
significant technical problem.
Sewage generated from the urban areas in India has multiplied
manifold since 1947.

Today, many people dump their garbage into streams, lakes, rivers,
and seas, thus making water bodies the final resting place of cans,
bottles, plastics, and other household products. The various substances
that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water pollution as
they contain harmful chemicals. In the past, people mostly used soaps
made from animal and vegetable fat for all types of washing. But most
of today’s cleaning products are synthetic detergents and come from
the petrochemical industry. Most detergents and washing powders
contain phosphates, which are used to soften the water among other
things. These and other chemicals contained in washing powders affect
the health of all forms of life in the water.

Agricultural Run off

Eutrophication

When fresh water is artificially supplemented with nutrients, it results

in an abnormal increase in the growth of water plants. This is known as
eutrophication. The discharge of waste from industries, agriculture, and
urban communities into water bodies generally stretches the biological
capacities of aquatic systems. Chemical run-off from fields also adds
nutrients to water. Excess nutrients cause the water body to become
choked with organic substances and organisms. When organic matter
exceeds the capacity of the micro-organisms in water that break down
and recycle the organic matter, it encourages rapid growth, or blooms,
of algae. When they die, the remains of the algae add to the organic
wastes already in the water; eventually, the water becomes deficient in
oxygen. Anaerobic organisms (those that do not require oxygen to live)
then attack the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and
hydrogen sulphide, which are harmful to the oxygen-requiring (aerobic)
forms of life. The result is a foul-smelling, waste-filled body of water.
This has already occurred in such places as Lake Erie and the Baltic
Sea, and is a growing problem in freshwater lakes all over India.
Eutrophication can produce problems such as bad tastes and odours as
well as green scum algae. Also the growth of rooted plants increases,
which decreases the amount of oxygen in the deepest waters of the
lake. It also leads to the death of all forms of life in the water bodies.

The use of land for agriculture and the practices followed in cultivation
greatly affect the quality of groundwater. Intensive cultivation of crops
causes chemicals from fertilizers (e.g. nitrate) and pesticides to seep
into the groundwater, a process commonly known as leaching. Routine
applications of fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture and
indiscriminate disposal of industrial and domestic wastes are
increasingly being recognized as significant sources of water pollution.

The high nitrate content in groundwater is mainly from irrigation run-

off from agricultural fields where chemical fertilizers have been used
indiscriminately.

Industrial effluents

Waste water from manufacturing or chemical processes in industries

contributes to water pollution. Industrial waste water usually contains
specific and readily identifiable chemical compounds. During the last
fifty years, the number of industries in India has grown rapidly. But
water pollution is concentrated within a few subsectors, mainly in the
form of toxic wastes and organic pollutants. Out of this a large portion
can be traced to the processing of industrial chemicals and to the food
products industry. In fact, a number of large- and medium-sized
industries in the region covered by the Ganga Action Plan do not have
adequate effluent treatment facilities. Most of these defaulting
industries are sugar mills, distilleries, leather processing industries,
and thermal power stations. Most major industries have treatment
facilities for industrial effluents. But this is not the case with small-
scale industries, which cannot afford enormous investments in
pollution control equipment as their profit margin is very slender.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by the rivers into the
oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced
hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport
models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM
Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the
fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species
such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the
New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at
the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several
days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson
discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force. Further
south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using
up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal
cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been
reported, because toxins climb the foodchain after small fish consume
copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up
the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as
heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as
DDT. This is known as biomagnification which is occasionally used
interchangeably with bioaccumulation.

The big gyres in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North
Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called "Great Pacific
Garbage Patch" that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas.
Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine
birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways
which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change

especially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A
noteworthy class of such chemicals are the chlorinated hydrocarbons
such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and
electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry
cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry
cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both of these chemicals,
which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition
reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including
dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface

pollution because groundwater can move great distances through
unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify
water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption),
dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity:
however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil
contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is
not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact,
this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural
sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography.

There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original
pollutant, but a derivative condition. Some of these secondary impacts
are:
Silt bearing surface runoff from can inhibit the penetration of sunlight
through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic
plants.
Thermal pollution can induce fish kills and invasion by new
thermophilic species. This can cause further problems to existing
wildlife.

Effects of water pollution

The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but
also to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable for
drinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry. It diminishes the
aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated
water destroys aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability.
Eventually, it is a hazard to human health. Nobody can escape the
effects of water pollution.

The individual and the community can help minimize water pollution.
By simple housekeeping and management practices the amount of
waste generated can be minimized.

2. AIR POLLUTION?

Air is the ocean we breathe. Air

supplies us with oxygen which is
essential for our bodies to live. Air is
99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor
and inert gases. Human activities can
release substances into the air, some
of which can cause problems for
humans, plants, and animals.

There are several main types of

pollution and well-known effects of
pollution which are commonly discussed. These include smog, acid
rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each of
these problems has serious implications for our health and well-being
as well as for the whole environment.

One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from
burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this
particulate matter . The particles are very small pieces of matter
measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. This type of
pollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution. The
exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a
major source of pollution in the air. Some authorities believe that even
the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can
release significant quanitites of soot into the air.

Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur

dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These
can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the
atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain.

Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, and

schools. Some of these pollutants can be created by indoor activities
such as smoking and cooking. In the United States, we spend about 80-
90% of our time inside buildings, and so our exposure to harmful
indoor pollutants can be serious. It is therefore important to consider
both indoor and outdoor air pollution.

Causes of Air Pollution:

Carbon dioxide is one the main pollutants that causes air pollution.
This is because, although living beings do exhale carbon dioxide, this
gas is harmful when emitted from other sources, which are caused due
to human activity. An additional release of carbon dioxide happens due
to various such activities. Carbon dioxide gas is used in various
industries such as the oil industry and the chemical industry. The
manufacturing process of most products would require the use of this
gas. There are various human activities that add to the increased
proportions of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The combustion of
fossil fuels and the harmful effects of deforestation have all contributed
towards the same. show that amongst the various gasses emitted
during a volcanic eruption, carbon dioxide remains to be at least 40%
of the emission. Scientists have now therefore identified carbon dioxide
as one of those elements that have contributed to global warming.

Causes of air pollution are not limited to this. The combustion of fuels
in automobiles, jet planes etc all cause the release of several primary
pollutants into the air. The burning of fossil fuels in big cities which is
seen at most factories, offices and even a large number of homes, it is
no wonder that air pollution is increasing at an alarming rate. The
release of other harmful gases all adds to the state that we see today.
Although carbon dioxide plays an important role in various other
processes like photosynthesis, breathing an excess of the same also
causes harmful effects towards one’s health.

The various causes of air pollution that releases harmful gases into the
atmosphere are caused due to the increasing number of power plants
and manufacturing units or industries that mostly have activities
related to the burning of fuels. Besides, as mentioned earlier, most
automobiles, marine vessels, activities that involve the burning of
wood, fumes that are released from aerosol sprays, military activities
that involve the use of nuclear weapons, all are the numerous causes
of air pollution.

Carbon monoxide is another such gas which, although was present in

the atmosphere earlier, is now considered to be a major pollutant. An
excess of the same has a harmful effect on our system. There are
many reasons why carbon monoxide can be released into the
atmosphere as a result of human activities. This is also produced due
to any fuel burning appliance and appliances such as gas water
heaters, fireplaces, woodstoves, gas stoves, gas dryers, yard
equipments as well as automobiles, which add to the increased
proportion of this gas into the atmosphere.

Sulfur dioxide is yet another harmful pollutant that causes air pollution.
Sulfur dioxide is emitted largely to the excessive burning of fossil fuels,
petroleum refineries, chemical and coal burning power plants etc.
Nitrogen dioxide when combined with sulfur dioxide can even cause a
harmful reaction in the atmosphere that can cause acid rain.

Nitrogen dioxide is one more gas that is emitted into the atmosphere
as a result of various human activities. An excess of nitrogen dioxide
mainly happens due to most power plants seen in major cities, the
burning of fuels due to various motor vehicles and other such sources,
whether industrial or commercial that cause the increase in the levels
of nitrogen dioxide.

These and a number of other hazardous air pollutants are emitted with
the various numbers of activities that we carry out during the day
which are the main causes of air pollution.

How you can help to prevent Air Pollution:

 Carpool- This will help to reduce the number of vehicles on the

already congested roads.
 Always keep your car tuned properly so that it remains in a good
condition.
 Save energy- Try to use minimum amounts of natural gas and even
electricity. Whenever possible, avoid the use of air conditioner and
use a fan instead.
 Always buy recycled products.
 Reuse things such as paper and plastic bags, paper etc. This will
contribute a lot towards reducing the effects of air pollution and
global warming.
 Avoid the use of firecrackers. You don’t really need it to express your
feeling of happiness.
 Go in for water-based paints instead of varnishes.
 If you really cannot avoid using your car, plan your work
systematically to reduce air pollution.
The causes of air pollution can be many to name if one really
scrutinizes this subject closely. With a little effort from our side, we can
help to reduce the harmful effects of air pollution so that we can
breathe in a clean and healthy environment.

How can air pollution hurt my health?

Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term
and long-term effects. Different groups of individuals are affected by
air pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much more
sensitive to pollutants than are others. Young children and elderly
people often suffer more from the effects of air pollution. People with
health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease may also
suffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individual
is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the
damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and the
concentration of the chemicals must be taken into account.

Examples of short-term effects

include irritation to the eyes, nose
and throat, and upper respiratory
infections such as bronchitis and
pneumonia. Other symptoms can
include headaches, nausea, and
allergic reactions. Short-term air
pollution can aggravate the medical
conditions of individuals with asthma
and emphysema. In the great "Smog
Disaster" in London in 1952, four
thousand people died in a few days
due to the high concentrations of
pollution.

Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung

cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or
kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of
growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions
in the elderly. It is estimated that half a million people die prematurely
every year in the United States as a result of smoking cigarettes.

Research into the health effects of air pollution is ongoing. Medical

conditions arising from air pollution can be very expensive. Healthcare
costs, lost productivity in the workplace, and human welfare impacts
cost billions of dollars each year.

Additional information on the health effects of air pollution is available

from the Natural Resources Defense Council. A short article on the
health effects of ozone (a major component of smog) is available from
the B.A.A.Q.M.D.

3. LAND POLLUTION
Land pollution is basically about the contamination of the land surface
and soil of the Earth. Read more about it here.

Land pollution basically is about contaminating the land surface of the

Earth through dumping urban waste matter indiscriminately, dumping
of industrial waste, mineral exploitation, and misusing the soil by
harmful agricultural practices. Land pollution includes visible litter and
waste along with the soil itself being polluted. The soil gets polluted by
the chemicals in pesticides and herbicides used for agricultural
purposes along with waste matter being littered in urban areas such as
roads, parks, and streets.

Land Pollution Comprises Of: Solid Waste and Soil Pollution

Solid Waste: Semisolid or solid matter that are created by human or

animal activities, and which are disposed because they are hazardous
or useless are known as solid waste. Most of the solid wastes, like
paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, and even used cars and
electronic goods are not biodegradable, which means they do not get
broken down through inorganic or organic processes. Thus, when they
accumulate they pose a health threat to people, plus, decaying wastes
also attract household pests and result in urban areas becoming
unhealthy, dirty, and unsightly places to reside in. Moreover, it also
causes damage to terrestrial organisms, while also reducing the uses
of the land for other, more useful purposes.

INTRODUCTION

Overcrowding in GJ causes exploitation of the land beyond its capacity,

which leads to land pollution. This exceeds the capacity of sewer
systems and landfill sites. Sewage problems mainly exist in large parts
of Alexandra and Soweto townships. South and southwest of Jhb, dust
pollution from mine dumps, are the main sources of land degradation,
whiles the CBD experiences continuous overflowing of sewers,
especially in Hillbrow, New Town and Jeppestown. All these activities
reduce the quality of the land. The main sources of land pollution were
identifies as informal settlements, waste disposal sites, mining
activities and activieties in CBD’s.

DRIVING FORCE

Mining

Mining activities and the extraction of gold, chiefly in the north western
area of the SMLC (where ore has a relatively high uranium content),
artificially enhances the concentrations of naturally occurring
radioactive elements in mine tailing dams. Radioactive minerals from
the mine tailings could enter the environment by airborne dust and
leaching into waterways. The key mining issues are:

Dust from mines, particularly apparent in informal settlements which

are presently located in the peripheral areas and the smoke emanating
from this area trap the dust particles blowing from the mines)

Informal Settlements

A number of Informal Settlements occur within Greater Johannesburg

Metropolitan area as outlined in table ____ that impact on the
environment mainly through land pollution in the form of:
Dust from gravel roads
Lack of clean running water
Lack of regular refuse removal
Broken and non-maintained sewerage pipes
Lack of regular refuse removal and excessive loads of refuse to be
treated due to overcrowding
Absence of toilet facilities and ignorant littering

The overcrowding of the inner city with migrants who are unemployed
and unable to pay the housing rents leads to a serious decay of the
flats/buildings in the inner city. The measure of serious decay includes
accommodation which does not have functioning toilets (7%),
electricity (3%), drains that block regularly (20%), and leaking water
pipes (25%). High density and poor living conditions with insufficient
provision of services, due to urbanization contribute to environmental
health.

Pressure

No standards exist for the prevention of land pollution which can be

used to determine the pressure of land pollution. However the key
causative factors are the exploitation of land (overcrowding) beyond its
capacity, together with the inability to increase the sewer capacity and
degradation of the sewer system. This particular cause for concern is
especially evident in large parts of Alexandra and Soweto townships,
which appears to have suffered complete breakdown. The lack of
maintenance or upgrading/expansion and the mushrooming of squatter
and informal settlements without formal services in these areas
exacerbate the already dismal situation of soil pollution.

Inadequate service deliver coupled with poverty and overcrowding

often result in a breakdown of services which result in overflown and
broken sewerage pipes, illegal dumping and blockage of systems. With
the high percentage of communities who do not have access to
adeqaute sanitation high levels of land pollution occur.

IMPACT

Mining

The environmental impacts of mining are particularly severe in

Gauteng Province. The effects of water resources and soil quality are
possibly the most important. Although many of the mines are no longer
operational, the environmental legacy of mining impacts still needs to
be addressed. Currently there are smaller mining operations, such as
quarries, which can have large negative impacts on the environment
and which need to be controlled and managed by the Department f
Environmental Planning in the South in co-ordination with other
government bodies (Mining Engineering and the Provincial
Environmental Directorate).

Johannesburg City has its roots in gold mining. The consequential

legacy is a proliferation of mine tailings in a broad belt spanning the
South of the CBD and abutting the residential areas to the South.
Whilst relatively less mining is taking place now than in the past, older
mine dumps are being reworked and shifted as the gold price and
technology make this process viable. However, natural decomposition
of the iron pyrites contents of these tailings leads to acidic leachate
contamination of the area’s surface water.

Dust from the mine dumping, another environmental pressure, faces

local communities, specifically in situations where no or inadequate
mitigation measures have been applied to tailing services. With the
improvement in extraction technology, many of the mine tailings have
been and are being reprocessed for its residual gold content.
Consequently, exposed land may become available for development
where there are no shallow mines or where radioactive contaminated
soil is not a mitigating factor.

Central Business District

Soil pollution from the residential of Greater Johannesburg generally

relates to litter and the product of overflowing sewers during rainfall
events and most importantly ignorance (lack of litter awareness). Soil
pollution from city center areas-Alexandra, Hillbrow, Newtown and
Jeppestown-result from the contamination of raw sewage which occurs
on a continuous basis, irregular maintenance to sewers and
overcrowding which puts immense strain on urban services.
 Informal Settlements - Sewerage
In Alexandra some people still use bucket system.
Which can increase the risk of environmental contamination from
sewage.
Through direct contact with bacterial agents found in excreta people
may become predisposed to a wide range of illnesses e.g. diarrhoeal
diseases, cholera, tyhoid fever and helminthic infections.

Solid Waste
Inappropriate disposal of waste may lead to fatal injuries amongst
young children as well as poisonings and incidents of suffocation.
Organic waste attracts vectors such as rodents and insects and may
cause gastrointestinal and parasitic diseases.
Most frequent complaints from Alexandra area are related to mice, rat
and "bedbug" infestations.

Causes of land pollution:

 Increase in urbanization. Construction uses up forestland. More

constructions means increase in demand for raw materials like
timber. This leads to the exploitation and destruction of forests.
There is more demand for water. Reservoirs are built leading to
the loss of land.
 Increase in agricultural land. As the human population grew there
was a greater demand for food. This caused more land allocated
to agriculture. Forests were cut down for this purpose.
 Domestic waste. Every single day, tons and tons of domestic
waste is dumped ranging from huge pieces of rubbish such as
unused refrigerator to fish bones. If all these wastes are not
disposed of properly, the damage they can do to the
environment and humankind can be devastating. While waste
collected from homes, offices and industries may be recycled or
burnt in incinerators, a large amount of rubbish is neither burnt
nor recycled but is left in certain areas marked as dumping
grounds. We throw away more things today and there is an
increase in the quantity of solid waste. This has given rise to
problems as new dumping grounds have to be found.
 Agricultural activities. Besides domestic waste, pesticides and
herbicides used by farmers to increase crop yields also pollute
the land when they are washed into the soil.
 Industrial activities. Industrial activities also are a contributing
factor to land pollution. For example, in open cast mining, huge
holes are dug in the ground and these form dangerously deep
mining pools. Heaps of mining waste are left behind and these
 waste often contain several poisonous substances that will
contaminate the soil.

4.NOISE POLLUTION

Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- or

machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human
or animal life. A common form of noise pollution is from transportation,
principally motor vehicles.[1] The word "noise" comes from the Latin
word nausea meaning "seasickness", referring originally to nuisance
noise.

Thousands of people in Britain and around the world are dying

prematurely from heart disease triggered by long-term exposure to
excessive noise, according to research by the World Health
Organisation. Coronary heart disease caused 101,000 deaths in the UK
in 2006, and the study suggests that 3,030 of these are caused by
chronic noise exposure, including to daytime traffic. Deepak Prasher,
professor of audiology at University College London, told the New
Scientist magazine: "The new data provide the link showing there are
earlier deaths because of noise. Until now, noise has been the
Cinderella form of pollution and people haven't been aware that it has
an impact on their health." The WHO's working group on the Noise
Environmental Burden on Disease began work on the health effects of
noise in Europe in 2003. In addition to the heart disease link, it found
that 2% of Europeans suffer severely disturbed sleep because of noise
pollution and 15% can suffer severe annoyance. Chronic exposure to
loud traffic noise causes 3% of tinnitus cases, in which people
constantly hear a noise in their ears. Research published in recent
years has shown that noise can increase the levels of stress hormones
such as cortisol, adrenaline and noradrenalin in the body, even during
sleep. The longer these hormones stay in circulation around the
bloodstream, the more likely they are to cause life-threatening
physiological problems. High stress levels can lead to heart failure,
strokes, high blood pressure and immune problems. "All this is
happening imperceptibly," said Prof Prasher. "Even when you think you
are used to the noise, these physiological changes are still happening."
The WHO came to its figures by comparing households with abnormally
high exposure to noise with those in quieter homes. It also studied
people with problems such as coronary heart disease and tried to work
out if high noise levels had been a factor in developing the condition.
This data was then combined with maps showing the noisiest European
cities. According to the WHO guidelines, the noise threshold for
cardiovascular problems is chronic night-time exposure of 50 decibels
(dB) or above - the noise of light traffic. For sleep disturbance, the
threshold is 42dB, for general annoyance it is 35dB, the sound of a
whisper. Ellen Mason, a cardiac nurse at the British Heart Foundation,
said: "Our world is undoubtedly getting busier and noisier. Some
people find noise pollution more stressful to live with than others do.
Noise cannot directly kill us, but it may add to our stress. Occasionally,
stressful events can trigger a heart attack in someone with underlying
heart disease. We know that stressed people are more likely to eat
unhealthily, exercise less and smoke more, and these can increase the
risk of developing heart disease in the first place."

Human health effects

Noise health effects are both health and behavioural in nature. The
unwanted sound is called noise. This unwanted sound can damage
physiological and psychological health. Noise pollution can cause
annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus,
hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.
Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to health
problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe
depression and at times panic attacks.

Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older

males exposed to significant occupational noise demonstrate
significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers,
though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the
two groups are indistinguishable by age 79. A comparison of Maaban
tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or
industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed that chronic
exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes
to hearing loss.
High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure
to moderately high levels during a single eight hour period causes a
statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase in
stress and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure
noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery
disease.

Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish

researchers found that in urban areas households are willing to pay
approximately four Euros per decibel per year for noise reduction.

Environmental effects

Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress,

increasing risk of mortality by changing the delicate balance in
predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by interfering with their
use of sounds in communication especially in relation to reproduction
and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or
permanent loss of hearing.

An impact of noise on animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that

noisy areas may cause, which in the case of endangered species may
be part of the path to extinction. One of the best known cases of
damage caused by noise pollution is the death of certain species of
beached whales, brought on by the loud sound of military sonar.

Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called

Lombard vocal response. Scientists and researchers have conducted
experiments that show whales' song length is longer when submarine-
detectors are on. If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice
will be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might
be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one
species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species' voice,
causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.

Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to

traffic noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by
selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities
and thus lead to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.

Sources of noise

The overarching cause of most noise worldwide is generated by

transportation systems, principally motor vehicle noise, but also
including aircraft noise and rail noise. Hybrid vehicles for road use are
the first widely sold automobiles in 100 years to achieve significant
noise source reduction. Poor urban planning may also give rise to noise
pollution, since juxtaposition of industrial to residential land uses, for
example, often results in adverse consequences for the residential
acoustic environment.

Besides transportation noise, other prominent sources are office

equipment, factory machinery, appliances, power tools, lighting hum
and audio entertainment systems. With the popularity of digital audio
player devices, individuals in a noisy area might increase the volume in
order to drown out ambient sounds. Construction equipment also
produces noise pollution.

Noise from recreational off-highway vehicles (OHVs) is becoming a

serious problem in rural areas. ATVs, also known as quads or four
wheelers, have increased in popularity and are joining the traditional
two wheeled dirt motorcycles for off-road riding.

The noise from ATV machines is quite different from that of the
traditional dirt bike. The ATVs have large bore, four stroke engines that
produce a loud throaty growl that will carry further due to the lower
frequencies involved. The traditional two stroke engines on dirt bikes
have gotten larger and, while they have higher frequencies, they still
can propagate the sound for a mile or more. The noise produced by
these vehicle is particularly disturbing due to the wide variations in
frequency and volume.

Recreational off-road vehicles are generally not required to be

registered and the control of the noise they emit is absent in most
communities. However, there is a growing awareness that operation of
these machines can seriously degrade the quality of life of those within
earshot of the noise and some communities have enacted regulations,
either by imposing limits on the sound or through land use laws. Rider
organizations are also beginning to recognize the problem and are
enlightening members as to future restrictions on riding if noise is not
curtailed.