Differential Protection

Differential protection is a unit scheme that compares the current on the primary side of a transformer with that on the secondary side. Where a difference exists (other than that due to the voltage ratio) it is assumed that the transformer has developed a fault and the plant is automatically disconnected by tripping the relevant circuit breakers. The principle of operation is made possible by virtue of the fact that large transformers are very efficient and hence under normal operation power-in equals power-out. Differential protection detects faults on all of the plant and equipment within the protected zone, including inter-turn short circuits. Principle of Operation The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the Merz-Price circulating current system as shown below. Under normal conditions I1and I2 are equal and opposite such that the resultant current through the relay is zero. An internal fault produces an unbalance or 'spill' current that is detected by the relay, leading to operation.

Design Objectives An ideal scheme is required to be: Extremely stable under through fault conditions Very fast to operate for an internal fault Design Considerations A number of factors have to be taken into account in designing a scheme to meet these objectives. These include: The matching of CT ratios Current imbalance produced by tap changing Dealing with zero sequence currents Phase shift through the transformer Magnetising inrush current Each of these is considered further below. The Matching of CT Ratios The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a

range of current transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1 etc. This could mean that the currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance perfectly. Any imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the application of biased relays (see below) and/or the use of the interposing CTs (see below). Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing A transformer equipped with an on-load tap changer (OLTC) will by definition experience a change in voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range. This in turn changes the ratio of primary to secondary current and produces out-ofbalance (or spill) current in the relay. As the transformer taps further from the balance position, so the magnitude of the spill current increases. To make the situation worse, as the load on the transformer increases the magnitude of the spill current increases yet again. And finally through faults could produce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay. However, none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable ie. it must not operate. Biased relays provide the solution (see below). Dealing with Zero Sequence Currents Earth faults down stream of the transformer may give rise to zero sequence current, depending upon winding connections and earthing arrangements. Since zero sequence current does not pass through a transformer, it will be seen on one side only producing spill current and possible relay operation for an out-of-zone fault. To prevent such occurrence, zero sequence current must be eliminated from the differential scheme. This is achieved by using delta connections on the secondary side of any CTs that are associated with main transformer windings connected in star. Where CT secondaries are connected in star on one side of a transformer and delta on the other, allowance must be made for the fact that the secondary currents outside the delta will only be 1/3 of the star equivalent. Phase Shift Through the Transformer Having eliminated the problem of zero sequence currents (see above) through faults will still produce positive and negative sequence currents that will be seen by the protection CTs. These currents may experience a phase shift as they pass through the transformer depending upon the transformer vector group. CT secondary connections must compensate to avoid imbalance and a possible mal-operation. Magnetising Inrush Current When a transformer is first energised, magnetising inrush has the effect of producing a high magnitude current for a short period of time. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only and could be interpreted as an internal fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection operation. Solutions include building a time delay feature into the relay and the use of harmonic restraint driven, typically, by the high level of second harmonic associated with inrush current.

Other Issues
Biased Relays The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating times even when a transformer is fitted with an on-load

tapchanger (see above). The effect of the bias is to progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the magnitude of through current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by the manufacturer. Interposing CTs The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. Interposing CTs are equipped with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the balance required. As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the main CT and the relay. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the power transformer being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is necessary. Modern Relays It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing CTs by enabling essentials such as phase shift, CT ratios and zero sequence current elimination to be programed directly into the relay. Tutorial Index

The Threat from Oxygen

Overview
The following notes are based upon a seminar presented by Lars 1 Arvidsson in the UK during March 2002 on the subject of Transformer Life Extension. They are written from the perspective of an asset manager and focus on the adverse effects of oxygen on the life of a transformer. It is Lars' view that oxygen has a far more detrimental effect on life expectancy than any other operational parameter.

It is important to be aware that these notes deal only with the effects of
oxygen. Other important factors that affect the life of a transformer (such as temperature and moisture) will be added later as separate topics in this series.

Oxidation
The laws of chemistry state that oxygen has a strong affinity for electrons. An

atom that has lost electrons to oxygen is said to be oxidised. In a transformer, oil and paper both degrade as a result of oxidation. Oxidation of Oil Transformer oil is produced to various specifications such as the paraffinic, naphthenic and ester types. Some oils possess a degree of natural protection against oxidation and are used without the addition of anti-oxidants. These are referred to as uninhibited oils. The more highly refined oils do not generally possess this natural protection and require anti-oxidants to be added. These are known as inhibited oils. Ageing and oxidation are synonymous. The ageing of oil begins slowly as the anti-oxidants that are present work to neutralise the harmful peroxides and radicals as they are formed. However, with time the anti-oxidants decrease in quantity and the ageing process increases exponentially. Ageing leads to the formation of acids, aldehydes, ketones, esters and eventually sludge (a mixture of long insoluble hydrocarbon molecules and particles). The process occurs in the presence of peroxides (unstable oxygen compounds) and free radicals and is accelerated by catalysts such as water and copper. Oxidised oil presents a maintenance requirement that demands action. Left unattended, oxidised oil continues to deteriorate and transports contamination to the cellulose insulation within the transformer. Here the effects are much more serious. Whilst oil can be changed, cellulose cannot. If the oil is not maintained, sooner or later the condition of the cellulose will deteriorate to the point where it has to be accepted that the transformer has reached the end of its working life. Oxidation of Cellulose (Paper) Cellulose degrades (oxidises) much faster than oil because it contains oxygen within its molecular structure. The degradation process generates water, carbon dioxide and furfurals, and is accelerated by external sources of oxygen, high temperature and high levels of oil acidity. The water that is generated combines with moisture drawn in from the atmosphere to further accelerate the degradation process and set up a vicious cycle. The end result is broken molecular chains, a lower degree of polymerisation (DP) and loss of mechanical strength. In the absence of oxygen, decomposition occurs more slowly through the process of pyrolysis.

Action to Minimise Oxidation

Set out below are practical steps that can be taken to reduce the harmful effects of oxygen and extend the life of a transformer: Be aware that less oxygen means more life Use sealed systems where practicable Consider measures to prevent the ingress of oxygen (eg a bag or membrane in the conservator) Eliminate the frequent cycling of forced cooling systems to avoid pumping in large quantities of air Consider de-gassing treatments for the oil - either as a continuous process or as a maintenance exercise Measure anti-oxidant concentrations in oil and add new inhibitor to old oil

where appropriate Measure the copper content in the oil (to reduce the catalytic acceleration of oxidation) Test oil for sulphur (sulphur behaves in a similar way to oxygen) Measure the peroxide number (PXN) of the oil

Conclusions and Observations

Oxygen has a seriously detrimental effect upon the life of a transformer. Oxidised oil can be maintained but once the effects have extended to the cellulose, the life of a transformer is at risk. Fortunately preventive measures are available that are cost effective and suitable for all asset management programmes. Index of Hot Topics Tutorial Index
1 Lars Arvidsson MSc. Chemistry, is chief executive of Vasteras PetroleumKemi AB, an independent chemical analysis and consultancy company based in Sweden. His many published papers include Microbiological Activity within Hydrocarbon Bulks and his pioneering work in the transformer field includes the development of unique methods for assessing the condition of transformers. Email: lars.arvidsson@petroleumkemi.se

Percentage Impedance (Z%)

The impedance of a transformer is marked on most nameplates - but what is it and what does the Z% figure mean? Definition The percentage impedance of a transformer is the volt drop on full load due to the winding resistance and leakage reactance expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage. It is also the percentage of the normal terminal voltage required to circulate full-load current under short circuit conditions Measuring Impedance The impedance is measured by means of a short circuit test. With one winding shorted, a voltage at the rated frequency is applied to the other winding sufficient to circulate full load current - see below:

The percentage impedance can then be calculated as follows:

Z% = Impedance Voltage x 100 Rated Voltage

Changing the Impedance Value The most economical arrangement of core and windings leads to a 'natural' value of impedance determined by the leakage flux. The leakage flux is a function of winding ampere turns and the area and length of the leakage flux path. These can be varied at the design stage by changing the volts per turn and the geometric relationship of the windings. The Effect of Higher and Lower Impedances The impedance of a transformer has a major effect on system fault levels. It determines the maximum value of current that will flow under fault conditions. It is easy to calculate the maximum current that a transformer can deliver under symmetrical fault conditions. By way of example, consider a 2 MVA transformer with an impedance of 5%. The maximum fault level available on the secondary side is: 2 MVA x 100/5 = 40 MVA and from this figure the equivalent primary and secondary fault currents can be calculated. A transformer with a lower impedance will lead to a higher fault level (and vice versa) The figure calculated above is a maximum. In practice, the actual fault level will be reduced by the source impedance, the impedance of cables and overhead lines between the transformer and the fault, and the fault impedance itself. As well as fault level considerations, the impedance value also: determines the volt drop that occurs under load - known as 'regulation' affects load sharing when two or more transformers operate in parallel Sequence Impedance (Z1 Z2 Z0)

The calculation above deals with a balanced 3-phase fault. Non-symmetrical faults (phase-earth, phase-phase etc) lead to more complex calculations requiring the application symmetrical component theory. This in turn involves the use of positive, negative and zero sequence impedances (Z 1, Z2 and Z0 respectively). As with all passive plant, the positive and negative sequence impedances (Z1 and Z2) of a transformer are identical. However, the zero sequence impedance is dependent upon the path available for the flow of zero sequence current and the balancing ampere turns available within the transformer. Generally, zero sequence current requires a delta winding, or a star connection with the star point earthed. Any impedance in the connection between the star point and earth increases the overall zero sequence impedance. This has the effect of reducing the zero sequence current and is a feature that is frequently put to practical use in a distribution network to control the magnitude of current that will flow under earth fault conditions.

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Tutorial Index

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

DGA is one of the most valuable diagnostic tools available. It is a procedure used to assess the condition of an oil-filled transformer from an analysis of the gases dissolved in the cooling/insulating medium. It is a well established technique that is cost effective, providing essential information from a relatively simple, non-destructive test based upon oil sampling. Whilst the analysis is normally done in a laboratory, on-line devices are also available. The results reveal much about the health of the plant including its present condition, any changes that are taking place, the degradation effects of overload, ageing, the inception of minor faults and the most likely cause of major failures. Oil sampling from transformers is equivalent to blood sampling from humans. It should be noted that a severe fault may also produce free gases that collect in the Buchholz relay. This closely associated topic is dealt with in Tutorial T5 Taking an Oil Sample It is important that oil samples are taken carefully to avoid contamination or the loss of gas. Techniques vary from the use of syringes to kits made up from bungs, tubes and sealed bottles. Opening a drain valve, filling a bucket and pouring the contents into a jar will not produce meaningful results.

In the Laboratory In the laboratory the mixture of gases must be extracted from the oil, for example by the application of a vacuum. The mixture is then passed through a chromatograph where the individual components are separated, identified and quantified. The results are normally presented in tabular form with each gas listed together with the quantity found in parts per million (ppm) by volume. Interpreting the Results Interpreting the results is a specialist science. With knowledge and experience the results of a DGA test can be used to produce a detailed and accurate profile of an individual item of plant. This is made possible by the fact that different conditions within a transformer give rise to different quantities and types of gas. For example, acetylene is only produced by arcing. The Gases Measured The main gases that are measured and their sources are as follows: From the oil Hydrogen Methane Ethane Ethylene Acetylene From the paper Carbon Dioxide Carbon Monoxide

H2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2 CO2 CO

The Application of DGA DGA can be used in a variety of ways such as: On-line sampling for continuous monitoring - see Catalogue One-off sampling with the results checked against statistical norms Periodic sampling of a single item to establish trends Selective sampling of large numbers with statistical predictions for the remainder Mass sampling on a routine basis to collect detailed historical data Fault analysis after a Buchholz alarm or trip

Responding to Abnormal Results Abnormal results are likely to require follow-up action in the form of more frequent sampling and closer monitoring. Internal conditions that produce gases include over-heating, partial discharges and arcing. Where discharges or arcing are taking place techniques that enable insulation defects to be located with accuracy have reached an advanced stage of development see Catalogue (Field Services) Other Information Available from Oil Sampling This tutorial deals briefly with the subject of DGA. However, transformer oil contains a great deal more information than is available from an understanding of the gases dissolved in it. Other parameters that need to be taken into account include moisture content, acidity, dielectric strength, the presence of furans etc. These are all important but outside the scope of this tutorial

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Tutorial Index

Moisture
The life of a transformer is dependent upon three crucial parameters; temperature, oxygen and moisture. This tutorial deals with moisture. Information about the detrimental effects ofoxygen is given elsewhere. Most power transformers use paper and oil as the main form of insulation and during manufacture stringent efforts are made to ensure that both are as dry as possible when new plant leaves the factory. Once in service the moisture content begins to increase. Excessive moisture can put the life of a transformer at risk. It is important to understand the source of this moisture, its effect and the preventive measures that can be taken. Source of Moisture Once in service a transformer is subjected to the following sources of moisture: external - from the atmosphere internal - from manufacture internal - from cellulose (paper) ageing External moisture is repeatedly drawn into a free-breathing transformer as the working temperature rises and falls with load. Internal moisture is generated as cellulose insulation ages. The process by which this occurs is extremely complex but can be summarised as follows. Cellulose consists of long chains of hydro-carbons. When these chains are broken the carbon and hydrogen combine with any oxygen present to form carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water. The gases are dissolved in the

oil - see Tutorial T3 DGA. The water remains largely in the paper where its presence contributes to further ageing as a vicious cycle is established. Effect of Moisture Moisture reduces the dielectric strength of paper and oil which in turn increases the risk of electrical failure. It also reduces the mechanical strength of the paper. Since hot oil is able to support more moisture than cold oil, percentage saturation is temperature dependent. If hot oil is cooled the relative saturation will increase and an emulsion of water and oil may form. Free water may also be produced which will have a serious effect on dielectric strength and can lead to the formation of rust where it collects, typically in the bottom of main tanks and conservators. Furthermore, when wet paper gets very hot, for example during a period of sustained over-loading, the possibility of bubble formation arises. When this occurs moisture in the paper is boiled off as water vapour introducing a risk of partial discharge and electrical breakdown. Moisture Dynamics Moisture in a transformer is very dynamic, moving with temperature between the paper and the oil. By far the greatest quantity is contained in the paper which acts like a sponge. The ratio of water in paper to oil is about 1000:1 (reducing to 500:1 if the oil is old). As the temperature rises moisture moves relatively rapidly from the paper to the oil. As the temperature falls the moisture moves back into the paper, but more slowly. After a period of prolonged steady temperature, the water in the paper and oil reaches equilibrium. At that point by measuring the moisture content of the oil it is possible to estimate the quantity of water in the paper from standard look-up tables. In a large transformer we are talking about tonnes of paper, thousands of litres of oil and hundreds of litres of water. Asset Management Dealing with the problem of moisture in a transformer is a very important part of effective asset management. For example: Always record the temperature when an oil sample is taken for moisture analysis. Never change oil because it is wet. The new oil will very quickly degrade to the same condition as the old as moisture leaves the paper to re-establish a condition of equilibrium. Consider: (a) Careful oil sampling and testing (b) The use of on-line moisture sensors (c) Silica gel breather design, application and maintenance (d) On-line conditioning and monitoring systems (e) Devices that continuously remove moisture from the air-space in the conservator (f) Continuous on-line moisture removal systems connected into the oil system

(g)

Specialist field drying services using heat and vacuum.

For further information visit our Catalogue of products and services or contact us

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Tutorial Index

Buchholz Relays
A Buchholz relay is a gas and oil operated device installed in the pipework between the top of the transformer main tank and the conservator. A second relay is sometimes used for the tapchanger selector chamber. The function of the relay is to detect an abnormal condition within the tank and send an alarm or trip signal. Under normal conditions the relay is completely full of oil. Operation occurs when floats are displaced by an accumulation of gas, or a flap is moved by a surge of oil. Almost all large oil-filled transformers are equipped with a Buchholz relay, first developed by Max Buchholz in 1921. General Arrangement Front View Rear View (Cover Removed)

A - Gas Collection Chamber

B - Upper Float C - Lower Float D - Oil Surge Detector

Conditions Detected A Buchholz relay will detect: Gas produced within the transformer An oil surge from the tank to the conservator

A complete loss of oil from the conservator (very low oil level) Fault conditions within a transformer produce gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and a range of hydrocarbons (Tutorial T3). A small fault produces a small volume of gas that is deliberately trapped in the gas collection chamber (A) built into the relay. Typically, as the oil is displaced a float (B) falls and a switch operates normally to send an alarm. A large fault produces a large volume of gas which drives a surge of oil towards the conservator. This surge moves a flap (D) in the relay to operate a switch and send a trip signal. A severe reduction in the oil level will also result in a float falling. Where two floats are available these are normally arranged in two stages, alarm (B) followed by trip (C). Gas and Oil Flows Buchholz relays are equipped with a number of gas and oil inputs and outputs, including test and sampling facilities

Gas sampling - a graduated sight glass provides an indication of the volume of gas that has accumulated, typically 100-400cm3. After an alarm or trip signal has been received this must be collected and analysed before the transformer is returned to service. Gas collection can be done at the relay, or at ground level if suitable arrangements exist. Clearly the latter is a safer and more convenient option. Functional Tests - a test petcock enables dry air to be admitted into the relay to check correct operation. A trickle of air is equivalent to a gradual accumulation of gas. A blast simulates an oil surge. These tests are sometimes referred to as 'blowing the Buchholz'. On completion it is important that the relay is bled to remove the air that has been introduced. Draining - a valve in the bottom of the relay enables an oil sample to be taken or the relay to be drained. As with gas sampling, this facility can be brought down to ground level for enhanced operator safety and convenience. Accessories A range of accessories and services are available to assist with the safe and correct operation of Buchholz relays including: Ground level oil and gas sampling kits Gas sampling devices - automatic

Gas sampling devices - manual On-site gas testers - simple air/fault gas analysis On-site gas testers - complex fault gas composition Relay test kits Recalibration

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Tutorial Index

Vector Groups
Transformer nameplates carry a vector group reference such at Yy0, Yd1, Dyn11 etc. This relatively simple nomenclature provides important information about the way in which three phase windings are connected and any phase displacement that occurs. Winding Connections HV windings are designated: Y, D or Z (upper case) LV windings are designated: y, d or z (lower case) Where: Y or y indicates a star connection D or d indicates a delta connection Z or z indicates a zigzag connection N or n indicates that the neutral point is brought out Phase Displacement The digits ( 0, 1, 11 etc) relate to the phase displacement between the HV and LV windings using a clock face notation. The phasor representing the HV winding is taken as reference and set at 12 o'clock. It then follows that: Digit 0 means that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor Digit 1 that it lags by 30 degrees Digit 11 that it leads by 30 degrees etc All references are taken from phase-to-neutral and assume a counter-clockwise phase rotation. The neutral point may be real (as in a star connection) or imaginary (as in a delta connection) When transformers are operated in parallel it is important that any phase shift is the same through each. Paralleling typically occurs when transformers are located at one site and connected to a common busbar (banked) or located at different sites with the secondary terminals connected via distribution or transmission circuits

consisting of cables and overhead lines Basic Theory An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked by a magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which way round the coils are connected. The voltages will either be inphase or displaced by 180 deg as below:

In phase

180deg displacement

When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil voltages can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or not. Example - Dyn11 We now know that this transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D) a star connected secondary (y) with the star point brought out (n) and a phase shift of 30 deg leading (11). Connections and vector diagrams are as follows:: HV

LV

Other Configurations By connecting the ends of the windings in other ways a wide range of options

becomes available as set out below. Phase shift (deg) 0 30 lag 60 lag 120 lag 150 lag 180 lag 150 lead 120 lead 60 lead 30 lead Yy0 Yd1 Dd2 Dd4 Yd5 Yy6 Yd7 Dd8 Dd10 Yd11 Connections Dd0 Dy1 Dz2 Dz4 Dy5 Dd6 Dy7 Dz8 Dz10 Dy11 Yz11 Yz5 Dz6 Yz7 Dz0 Yz1

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