Data Presentation The purpose of putting results of experiments into graphs, charts and tables is two-fold.

First, it is a visual way to look at the data and see what happened and make interpretations. Second, it is usually the best way to show the data to others. Reading lots of numbers in the text puts people to sleep and does little to convey information. From an educational standpoint, students at most levels are required to learn various data presentation methods, and learning to graph data one has collected oneself from ones own experiments is considerably more engaging and motivating than learning to graph using data that is given by the teacher. A. Tables Visual displays of numerical or non-numerical data arranged in vertical columns so that the data may be emphasized, compared, or contrasted. Of all nonverbal devices used in technical writing, tables are used most frequently because they present pure data with a minimum of interpretation. Tables allow presentation of exact results of experiments, surveys, or analyses and allow readers ton provide their interpretation. Tables of ten considerable time to design and compile. Any particular presentation of information will affect the way readers perceive it and the conclusion they draw. Usually tables function to enable readers to compare statistical information, but resourceful writers use them to present other kinds of information as well. Because tables can be used for many purposes, technical writers should always be on the alert for opportunities to utilize them. Writers should realize that when the construction of table seems extremely complicated, their readers interests as well as their own may often be serve best by dividing the material into two or more simple tables. 1. Types of tables a. INFORMAL i. Random tables- brief list of figures, dates, personnel, important points and the like may be displayed in vertical columns for visual clarity and quick reference.

 Random tables are used only for brief data. Each is introduced by an explanatory sentence. Each is intended 5 to 10 spaces from the left- and righthand margins of the page. The tabulated data may contain column headings, numbered data, or bullets. A random table does not include a table designation, number, or title. ii. Continuation tables- are one that contains prose data in displayed manner. It reads as a continuation of the text and includes the same punctuation marks which would be required if the data were represented in paragraph form. Each is introduced by a sentence followed by a colon if the last introductory word is not a verb.

 The tabular data is intended 5 to 10 spaces from the left and right margins. The continuation table presents an alignment of figures, dates, or other data. The data is punctuated by standards commas, semicolons, and periods as if the material were presented in paragraph form.

b. FORMAL - Used to present statistical information or to categorize and tabulate other written information Formal tables contain horizontal lines from margin to margin above the title optional), below the title, below the body of the table, and between the columns headings (the boxhead ) and the body of the table. The boxhead of vertical column headings indicates the body figure symbols in parentheses. [e.g. ($), (rpm), (hr), (ft)].

 Formal tables are not closed on the sides. The columns are always vertical. The first body column is called the stub. In modern practice the body does not contain leaders (spaced periods to aid the eye in following data from column to column) 2. Construction of Tables Every table should have a title, usually placed at the top. If more than one table exists, each should be numbered, using either Roman or Arabic numbers. If all data in the table are in the same unit of measurement, that unit should be listed in the title, or in parentheses under the title. A table should indicate all the factors that affect the data it contains. Each line and column should have headings that show accurately the nature of the contents. Figures in columns usually aligned under similar digits-usually the right hand digit or the decimal point. Fractions should be expressed as decimals. Do not use needless lines, especially solid lines, between columns of data, between lines, or at the bottom of the table. Standard symbols and abbreviations may be used to save space. When a note is needed to explain some part of a table, its presence may be indicated by a lower case letter (rather than a number) raised half a space above the line at the point where the notes applies. 3. Characteristics of a good table The criterion for inserting a table into a report is whether the reader will need to refer to it. If it is going to be used as the report is read then it should be included in the discussion. A table inserted as an illustration should be as short as possible so that it can be read easily. The captions at the head of each column should be clear specific and should includes measurement so that the units need not be repeated throughout the table.

The narrative should refer to the table and comment on its reason for being there.

Legend- complete Stands on own Note capitalization Period after "Table 2" Units included Legend above the table; Note clarifying footnote Lines of demarcation separate numerical data from text. Gridlines not present Limit total items/columns (But more than than 6-8 datapoints) No vertical lines Do not overload with headings Use captions/footnotes for definitions Strings of 0s or unchanging data might not be included Use restraint with decimal places

Obvious abbreviations can be included Dont repeat data in text, just call attention to main points General Suggestions 1. All tables should be referred to in the text so readers will know when to give them attention. 2. Each table (unless relegated to the appendix) should be placed shortly after the point where it is first referred to in the text, and on the same page if possible. 3. A table should not break into the normal margins of the page. 4. Tables should be complete on one page. When long tables are unavoidable, continued or cont. should be placed at the bottom of the first page to indicate the table has not been completed. Column headings must be repeated on the second page. The subtotals should be at the bottom of the first page and at the top of the second page and the word forward should be used at the left side of the subtotals to show that they are not final totals. 5. A table from outside source must be acknowledging, as one would acknowledge any other material. If the number and title are on one line, the footnote number follows the title; If they are in separate lines, the footnote number follows the number on the table. The term table means something more than a list, or two or three lists placed side by side. Well-informed people may sometimes call material that does not have left headings informal tables but they do not use the word table before the titles nor refer to them as tables in the text. Informal tables are not numbered and need not be referred to in the text. B. Figures To the technical writer, figures are functional rather than ornamental. It is used merely to arouse interest or improve the appearance of a page. Technical writers also should strive to produce attractive looking pages, and may think of figures with such a goal in mind, but that is not the main reason for their use.

Number and Caption Every figure have caption, which should be preceded by a number (usually Arabic) if more than one figure is used. The number and caption are normally placed underneath a figure but may be placed in a convenient on the location figure itself. The legend The term legend applies to the additional lines. Spacing of the Caption and Legend At least a double space should be between the figure and the caption. Reference to the figure The reference of a figure is placed in parentheses unless it is part of the sentence where it occurs. Placement of the figure in the text It should not come very far ahead of the point. Partial lines of type The type should be placed on the left and the figure on the right. Drawing the figure Figures should be drawn in India ink, that they should be no larger than is necessary for clarity, and that each figure should be placed within a border unless its own shape creates a natural boarder. Self-sufficiency of the figure A figure should be self-sufficient so that the reader for whom it is intended may study it without being forced to consult the text. Lettering on the figure Lettering must run at a right angle to the bottom of the figure should read with the right side of the figure down. Sidewise figure It must be turned broadside on the page it should be drawn so that the bottom of the figure comes on what is normally the right side of the page. Acknowledgement of source May be placed in parentheses after the caption, may also be means of footnote. Mounting a photograph Photograph or clipping is used as figure it should be mounted neatly, preferably by use of rubber cement, unless copy is being prepared for printing.

Preparation of figures The figures and caption are separately prepared and numbered and the manuscript is marked to show where the figures should be placed.

1. Charts and Graphs Bar Graphs One of the simplest and most useful types of figure is the bar chart, with which every reader is familiar. Bar charts best illustrates quantities at specific times, such as output per year, or quantities per item. The bars in the bar chart are sometimes vertical, sometimes horizontal. They may be shaded differently in different portions of their length so as to permit comparison of parts as well as of the whole. - Used to show differences in quantity visually and instantaneously. They are frequently made from a statistical table source. They are commonly used to show quantities of the same item at different times, quantities of different items for the same period, or quantities of the different parts of an item that make up the whole. All the headings, legends, and so forth are contained within a box. Bars of even width should be evenly spread. Partial cut-off lines separate headings from grid notations. The horizontal or vertical grids are usually shown, but not both in a single chart.

 Grid notations are centered on the grid lines. All headings read horizontally, if possible. Pie Diagram Another widely used device is the pie diagram, consisting of a circle divided into segments. The pie diagram should state amounts as well as picture them. These amounts may be quantities as well as percentages. - Also known as pie charts, circle charts, pie diagrams or sector charts, are used to compare the relative proportions of various factors to each other and to the whole. The circle represents 100 percent while the segments indicate the proportionate percentage of each factor to the whole. They are popular for illustrating financial information. - Effective without shading although you may use shading and hatching to add interest and to differentiate further each wedge to avoid crowding. Rules for pie charts: Avoid using pie charts. Use pie charts only for data that add up to some meaningful total. Never ever use three dimensional pie charts; they are even worse than two dimensional pies. Avoid forcing comparisons across more than one pie chart. Circles are usually no larger than 3 inches in diameter. The largest segment is placed in the upper-right-hand quadrant with the segments decreasing in size clockwise. Segment labels and the represented percent are usually typed outside of the segments, centered on the segment radius.

 Organization Charts - Are not concerned with statistical information. The very name organization chart shows what kind of information such a figure presents. The machines used are sometimes indicated by conventional circles or rectangles, sometimes by simplified drawings suggesting their actual appearance. - Show quantitative rather than qualitative. The organization chart is used to show the relationship of the organizations staff positions, units, or functions to each other. Organizations charts usually use rectangular boxes to enclose staff, unit, or function titles. Solid lines represent the relationship, line of authority, or chain of command between the units; a broken line may represent an open line of communication for reporting out of the chain of authority.

 A horizontal or vertical emphasis may be suggested by the chart layout.

Flow Charts - Used to show pictorially how a series of activities, procedures, operations, events, or other factors are related to each other. It shows the sequence, cycle, or flow of the factors and how they are connected in a series of steps from the beginning to end. The information is qualitative rather than quantitative as in bar charts, line, and circle graphs. Flow chart employ squares, boxes, triangles, circles, diamonds, and other shapes to enclose each step. Steps naming major activities are typed within the shapes. The flow of steps may be horizontal, vertical, circular, or a combination of directions. Lines or arrows connect the shapes to show the flow of activities. Basic Flow Chart Symbols Purposes Rectangles -denote a process

Symbols

Parallelograms -denote input or output operations Diamonds -denote a decision that can lead to different paths Ovals -denote start or end points Arrows -denote the direction or flow of the process

Line Graphs Or curves are used to show changes in two values. Most commonly, they show a change or trend over a given period or performance with a variable factor. Usually, all the information is boxed. Curves are always plotted from left to right. Horizontal and vertical grids are drawn in or indicated by stick marks. Major headings are capitalized; sub-headings or grid notations use initial letter capitals only. Grid notations are centered on the line or tick marks. Usually, partial cut-off lines separate headings from grid notations. All headings read horizontally, if possible.

Photographs In technical writing you may need to use photographs for either of two main purposes: to assist verbal description, and to prove the truth of assertions. The photograph is limited, however, by the fact that it can show only the surface, and that it may sometimes unavoidably present both significant and no significant facts of appearance with equal emphasis. useful to illustrate complex mechanisms and equipment or to provide evidences of such important details as damage or injuries to persons, automobiles, and buildings. actual appearance. Photographs can be powerful assets to a project. Basic photography skills and a serviceable digital camera can greatly enhance a technical writers toolbox. Used with care. Show attention-diverting and insignificant detail which detract from the emphasis you wish to impart. A photograph can do much to help a reader visualize shape, appearance complexity, or size.

 The criterion when selecting a photograph is that it be clear and contain no extraneous information that might distract the readers attention. When your research project has "jelled," consult the Imaging Technology Center concerning the best way to record the data photographically, if applicable, and to show your apparatus and research facilities to the best advantage. Photographs of similar objects should be sized for compatibility. Glossy prints taken with black-and-white film reproduce best. Prints that have already been screened are not usable. The use of color in printing is discouraged because it greatly increases publishing costs. Do not include a photograph of equipment which is so elementary that a sentence would describe it. Label the most important features being shown. Remember, equipment that seems simple to you may be complex to readers who are not familiar with it. Limit the labeling and the field of view to the main items discussed to avoid confusing readers with extraneous items. Mark up a copy of the photograph rather than the glossy print. If your photographs are Polaroid prints, have negatives and additional prints made before submitting them for use in a report, for slides, etc. You are then protected in case of damage or loss, and prints are readily available for additional uses. Include some object or scale in the photograph to help your readers judge the size of the objects shown. For photomicrographs and electron micrographs, use a scale instead of stating the magnification: (The size of photographs is often changed in reproduction, rendering the magnification meaningless.) Drawings - A simple line drawing is often clearer than a photograph because the former can give emphasis to the major parts. Diagrams of procedures can be useful for clarifying instructions - Exploded-view illustrations show the proper sequence in which parts fit together.

Most often used by electricians and electronic technicians. All drawings should be simple and uncluttered. All labels of pertinent parts are typed. Dotted lines are shown to indicate relationships of internal or connecting parts. When you use drawings or sketches to illustrate test equipment, try to keep them simple. Include only those features of the equipment that are essential to your readers' understanding, and avoid unnecessary detail. Arrange with the Publishing Services Coordination Office for complex drawings to be prepared by a technical illustrator while the report is in the rough-draft stage, if possible, to allow adequate time for the illustration to be prepared. -