Title Torsion of Round Bars Objective To investigate the deformation of wire subjected to static torsion.

Abstract In this experiment the following details are to be determined using three specimens given namely aluminium rod, iron rod and brass rod. a) Torque versus angle of twist curves of the materials given, along with identification of the critical regions on the plots. b) Quantification of torsional stiffness and deduction of Modulus of Rigidity. c) Understand the torsional behaviour of each material. To determine the relationship between torque, T and angle of twist, the following formula is used: = TL / GJ Where, T = torque L = length of rod G = modulus of rigidity of material J= D = diameter of rod The whole experiment is set up as seen in Figure 1. Before starting the experiment the diameter and length of each rod is measured and readings were noted for calculation purposes. From the results we obtained, it is seen that the relationship between torque, T and the angle of twist, of a circular cross section material is proved to be directly proportional to each another.

Groove

Disc Wire Drill Chuck

Pulley

Figure 1

Support

Introduction Torsion is known as the stress or deformation caused when one end of an object is twisted in one direction and the other end is held motionless or twisted in the opposite direction. This experiment mainly tests about torsion of round bars. Generally a torsion bar is a flexible spring that can be moved about its axis by twisting. Torsion bars are designed and based on the amount of torque used in the twisting of the spring, the angle of the twist, the overall dimensions of the torsion bar and what materials the torsion bar is made from. When a torsion bar is fixed at a static point and the other end is twisted, the torque builds up and torsion bar resisters the torque causing it to go back to its starting position once torque removed. The most common place to find a torsion bar is in the suspension of a car or truck, in machines used for production or in other precision devices. A torsion bar suspension is also known as a torsion spring suspension or torsion beam suspension which is a general term for vehicles that use torsion bar as the main weight bearing spring. One end of a long metal bar is attached firmly to the vehicle chassis; the opposite end terminates in a lever, the torsion key, and mounted perpendicular to the bar, which is attached to a suspension arm, a spindle, or the axle. Vertical motion of the wheel causes the bar to twist around its axis and is resisted by the bar's torsion resistance. The main advantages of a torsion bar suspension are durability, easy adjustability of ride height, and small profile along the width of the vehicle. When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a circular shaft remains plane and undistorted. Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts remain plain and undistorted because a circular shaft is axisymmetric. Cross-sections of noncircular (non-axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when subjected to torsion.

Theory Twisting, one end of the shaft will rotate about the longitudinal axis with respect to the other end. The magnitude of this rotation is measured in terms of the angle in radians by which one end rotates relative to the other. This is called the Angle of Twist. Considering the case of a shaft of length, L and of uniform cross section of radius, c subjected to a torque, T at its free end. The angle of twist, and the maximum shearing strain, max are related as follows: max = c / L In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear, is related by Hookes Law: max = max/ G = Tc / JG = TL/JG Note that all the relations here are based solely on the geometry of the circular shaft. Hence they are valid for any type of material.

Apparatus and Materials - Dynamometer - String - Aluminium rod - Iron rod - Brass rod - Refer to Diagram on Experiment Set-up (Figure 1)

Procedure

1. The tools used to conduct the experiment were set up as shown in Figure 1. The first material tested was aluminium rod. 2. The length and diameter of the aluminium, iron and brass rod were measured using a meter rule and vernier callipers respectively. 3. Aluminium rod was made sure to be attached tight at one rigid point and the other end fixed at a movable disc. A string is fixed to the disc and run on a pulley. 4. Force was applied against rod by pulling the dynamometer attached at end of string. The force is increased starting from 0.1N until 1.0N max for the aluminium rod. 5. The angle before and after twist were recorded and converted to radian form. 6. All data and measurement were collected and tabulated in table form for calculation purposes. 7. The whole experiment was repeated using Iron rod and Brass rod.

Result Aluminium Readings 0 1 2 3 4 5 Iron Readings 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.1400 Brass Readings 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Applied Force (N) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Release Force (N) 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 1 Angle, (radians) 0 0.0349 0.0436 0.0611 0.0785 0.1047 0.1134 0.1400 Torque (Nmm) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 Applied Force (N) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Release Force (N) 0 0 0 0 1 1.5 2 Angle, (radians) 0 0.00873 0.0175 0.0262 0.0436 0.0524 0.0698 Torque (Nmm) 0 0.0225 0.0450 0.0675 0.0900 0.1125 0.1350 Applied Force (N) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Release Force (N) 0 0 0 0 1 1 Angle, (radians) 0 0.00873 0.0175 0.0262 0.0524 0.0611 Torque (Nmm) 0 0.29 0.58 0.87 1.16 1.45

Length of the three rods = 50cm each Diameter: Aluminium Iron Brass 0.290cm 0.045cm 0.020cm

Analysis Aluminium rod: It is observed that aluminium has the lowest modulus of rigidity, G compared to Iron and Brass. Practically the diameter of aluminium rod used is also the biggest. G theoretical of Aluminium is 26200 N/mm2 . Iron rod: The modulus of rigidity, G theoretical of Iron is 63-66 GPa. Brass rod: Theoretical modulus of rigidity is 40GPa . Among the three the three rods used it is seen that iron rod meets plastic deformation first, then followed by the brass rod and finally aluminium rod which deformed at an angular twist of 3.0o. Theoretically, a material with a higher value of polar moment of inertia will achieve plastic deformation at a later stage compared to materials of lower value of polar moment of inertia. These results were expected after calculating the modulus of rigidity for all three specimens.

Calculations:-

Aluminium

= 188 GPa

Brass

Iron

Description of plasticity Plasticity is defined as the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. Plastic deformation is observed in most materials including metals, soils, rocks, concrete and others. In the experiment, for each specimen we found that there is a difference between the angle twisted after released force and the original angular reading before starting the experiment. It shows the plastic deformation happened on the material where it does not return to original state.

Tabulation of Graph Referring to all the three graphs plotted it is observed that the angle of twist against torque is increasing linearly for all the three types of rods, but it is not directly proportional as mentioned in theory. From formula: = TL/JG Angle of twist is directly proportional to torque in theory. It can be conclude that the experiment does not fulfil the torque/twist formula in theory. Furthermore the graph exhibits a purely elastic behaviour. The slope of the line in graph represents the quantity JG/L, from which the modulus of rigidity G is computed.

Problems Encountered During Experiment 1. The measuring tools used like dynamometer was not at zero. Hence it was set to zero scale after the first reading to ensure accuracy. Reading was taken again. 2. The string attached to disc and dynamometer was short causing difficulty in measurement. However with skilful adjustments made experiment was conducted smoothly. 3. The straightness of the rod could not be determined accurately at start of experiment as viewing was only with naked eye. Hence it is just assumed to be straight. Precautions: 1. Make sure that the rod is tighten properly at the drill chuck t ensure no slip occurs. 2. The pulley should be at perpendicular 0 angle approximately to the rod tested for calculation purpose. 3. Take readings with eye aligned to scale at disc when measuring angle to avoid any parallax errors. 4. Make sure rod tested is fixed straight from one end to the other. 5. Make sure to stop the experiment when you see the angle of twist deviates from the linear relationship it is suppose to have with the applied torque, or when the disc does not return to its rest position without slip.

Discussions The data values obtained are seen to be different than theoretical values. There are many of reasons why we got the different value compared to the theoretical value. Firstly, it depends on the temperature of the specimen while the experiment has been conducted. It may also have an error in taking diameter of the typical torsion of bars-test specimen. Beside, specimen malformation may probably occur. Secondly, environment factor plays an important role in order to get the best result in this experiment. In this case, we did this experiment in the room temperature which is 27 c. This temperature may yield different result compared with the theoretical value. Other than that, air resistance also affected our result. Although this is only a small factor, it would give error and consequently the result was not accurately. From the data obtained conducting the torsion test, it is proven that a material with higher torsional stiffness or polar moment of inertia will have a higher resistance to plastic deformation under torsional condition. In the result, we can see that aluminium has highest polar moment of inertia compared to iron and brass and it actually deformed at later stage compared to iron and brass. Comparing the calculation of polar moment of inertia, brass should deform faster than iron but the data showed vice versa. This may be due to the problems encountered during the experiment and certain precaution steps that were not strictly followed.

Conclusion Analysing this experiment gives a clear picture that each material used displays different torsional behaviour and plastic deformation referring to modulus of rigidity. However it is confirm that a material with greater torsional stiffness has a greater resistance to plastic deformation under torsional conditions.