B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 Dated 02.02.09

PART 66 CATEGORY B1.
1
MODULE 3 : ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
ELECTRON THEORY (EASA Ref : 3.1)
B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09
Slide No 2
EASA Ref:3.1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE smallest part of an element (solar system) element, molecules and compound nucleus consists of PROTONS and NEUTRONS electrons around the orbit of an atom Charge of proton positive Charge of electron negative Charge of neutron neutral Proton and Neutron makes up app. 98% of the mass
Slide No 3
EASA Ref :3.1
Slide No 4
EASA Ref :3.1
Slide No 5
EASA Ref :3.1
Slide No 6
EASA Ref :3.1
IONISATION FACTORS AFFECTING IONISATION: HEAT LIGHT ELECTRIC FIELDS MAGNETIC FIELDS CHEMICAL ACTION PRESSURE CAN BE: POSITIVE ION (LOSS OF ELECTRON) or NEGATIVE ION (GAIN OF ELECTRON) MOVEMENT OF ELECTRON IS CURRENT FLOW
Slide No 7
EASA Ref :3.1
Slide No 8
EASA Ref :3.1
Slide No 9
EASA Ref :3.1
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR A MATERIAL WHICH ALLOW ELECTRONS TO FLOW IS KNOWN AS CONDUCTOR. EX: GOLD, COPPER, SILVER and ALUMINUM A MATERIAL WHICH PREVENTS ELECTRON FLOW IS KNOWN AS INSULATOR. EX: DRY AIR, MICA, EBOLITE, PORCELIN and RUBBER A MATERIAL WHICH RESTRICTS ELECTRON FLOW IS KNOWN AS SEMICONDUCTOR. EX: SILICON, GERMANIUM and TELLURIUM
Slide No 10
STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTION ( EASA Ref : 3.2 )
Slide No 11
EASA Ref : 3.2
STATIC ELECTRICITY AND DISTRIBUION OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES FRICTION: RUBBING OF 2 DIFFERENT MATERIALS, WHEREBY ONE MATERIAL LOSSES ELECTRONS AND THE OTHER GAINS ELECTRONS MATERIAL WITH LESS ELECTRONS IS CALLED POSITIVELY CHARGED MATERIAL WITH GAINED ELECTRONS IS CALLED NEGATIVELY CHARGED
Slide No 12
EASA Ref : 3.2
MATERIALS THAT ACQUIRE A CHARGE OF STATIC ELECTRICITY: GLASS,AMBER, HARD RUBBER,WAXES, NYLON,RAYON, SILK, FLANNEL. EX: HARD RUBBER RUBBED AGAINST FUR. ROD NEGATIVE CHARGE FUR POSITIVE CHARGE
Slide No 13
EASA Ref : 3.2
ELECTROSTATIC LAW OF ATRACTION AND REPULSION: (COULOMBS LAW) LIKE CHARGES REPELS and UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACTS
COULOMBS LAW UNITS OF CHARGE: QUANTITY (UNIT OF CHARGE) OF ELECTRICITY = COULOMB SYMBOL FOR COULOMB = Q 1 COULOMB = 6,290,000,000,000,000,000 ELECTRONS = 6.29 x1018 ELECTRONS
Slide No 14
EASA Ref : 3.2
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN SOLIDS ELECTRONS IN LIQUIDS POSITIVE IONS OR NEGATIVE IONS IN GASES ELECTRONS AND IONS IN A VACUUM ELECTRONS AND IONS
Slide No 15
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY (EASA Ref : 3.3 )
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY, UNIT and AFFECTIVE FACTORS: DIFFERENCE IN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGE = POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (PD) UNIT OF PD - VOLTS 120 VOLTS WITH 0 VOLTS = A PD of 120 VOLTS - 120 VOLTS WITH 0 VOLTS = A PD of 120 VOLTS
+ 120 VOLTS WITH - 120 VOLTS = A PD of 240 VOLTS THIS PD CAN FORCE ELECTRONS TO FLOW FROM NEGATIVE CHARGE TO POSITIVE CHARGE DUE TO ELECTRICAL PRESSURE
Slide No 16
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 17
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 18
EASA Ref : 3.3
CONVERSION OF ENERGY: CHEMICAL ENERGY CONVERTED TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONVERTED TO LIGHT ENERGY LIGHT ENERGY CONVERTED TO HEAT ENERGY
Slide No 19
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 20
EASA Ref : 3.3
EMF CAN BE MEASURED WHEN NO CURRENT FLOWS PD CAN BE DETERMINED Reason: voltage will be dropped across the internal resistor of the battery EMF = PD + INTERNAL VOLTAGE DROP NO CURRENT FLOWS , EMF =PD UNIT FOR EMF AND PD IS VOLTS
Slide No 21
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 22
EASA Ref : 3.3
VOLTAGE:
ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL = JOULES PER COULOMB (VOLTS) CURRENT:
1 AMPERE = 1 COULOMB PER SECOND (Q = AMPERE X TIME) , Q=I/t UNIT FOR CURRENT = AMPERE (Amp)
SYMBOL FOR CURRENT = I
Slide No 23
EASA Ref : 3.3
PREFIXES: 0.1 Amp = 100 milliamp 0.010 Amp = 10 milliamp 0.001 Amp = 1 milliamp 0.000001 Amp = 1 microamps
3 TYPES OF CURRENT: DIRECT CURRENT (DC) PULSATING CURRENT (PULSATING DC ) ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
Slide No 24
EASA Ref : 3.3
DC - CURRENT FLOWS CONTINUOUSLY IN ONE DIRECTION
PULSATING DC - CURRENT FLOWS IN ONE DIRECTION BUT VARIES IN AMPLITUDE BUT DOES NOT GO BELOW ZERO
AC - CURRENT FLOWS IN ONE DIRECTION , THEN IN THE OTHER DIRECTION AND CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE AND THEN POSITIVE AGAIN AND SO FORTH
Slide No 25
EASA Ref : 3.3
FREQUENCY:
1 HERTZ = 1 CYCLE PER SECOND UNIT FOR FREQUENCY = HERTZ (Hz)
Slide No 26
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 27
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 28
EASA Ref : 3.3
RESISTANCE: THE PROPERTY OF A MATERIAL WHICH OPPOSSES ELECTRON FLOW. DIFFERENT MATERIAL HAVE DIFFERENT VALUE OF RESISTANCE SILVER = VERY LOW RESISTANCE RUBBER = VERY HIGH RESISTANCE SYMBOL = R UNIT = OHMS ( )
Slide No 29
EASA Ref : 3.3
Prefixes: 1 MICRO OHM = 0.000001 OHM = 1 1 milliohm = 0.001 OHM = 1 m 1000 ohms = 1 kilo ohm = 1 k 1000000 ohm = 1 M
Note: resistor are used to control current flow
Slide No 30
EASA Ref : 3.3
3 FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE: LENGTH CROSS-SECTION MATERIAL (rho)
Rho = the resistance of 1 meter of the material and the cross-section of 1 millimeter square
Slide No 31
EASA Ref : 3.3
CONDUCTANCE: OPPOSITE TO RESISTANCE THE EASE OF CURRENT FLOW IT IS THE RECIPROCAL OF RESISTANCE UNIT FOR CONDUCTANCE = SIEMENS (S)
G= 1/R G= V / I
or
R = 1/G
Slide No 32
EASA Ref : 3.3
ELECTRIC CHARGES: ELECTRIC CHARGES GIVES A MATERIAL ITS ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES
PROTON - POSITIVE CHARGE ELECTRON - NEGATIVE CHARGE NEUTRON - ZERO CHARGE / NEUTRAL
Slide No 33
EASA Ref : 3.3
2 TYPES OF CURRENT FLOW:
ELECTRON FLOW - ELECTRONS FLOW FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW - HOLES TRAVEL FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE
Slide No 34
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 35
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 36
EASA Ref : 3.3
WHEN A BATTERY IS CONNECTED TO A LOAD ELECTRONS FLOW FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE AT THE TERMINALS.
CURRENT (ELECTRONS) FLOWS FROM THE POSITIVE ROD TO THE NEGATIVE ROD INSIDE THE BATTERY THROUGH THE ELECTROLYTE.
Slide No 37
EASA Ref : 3.3
Slide No 38
GENERATON OF ELECTRICITY ( EASA Ref : 3.4 )
6 BASIC MEANS OF GENERATING ELECTRICITY FRICTION PRESSURE HEAT LIGHT MAGNETISM CHEMICAL ACTION
Slide No 39
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 40
EASA Ref : 3.4
FRICTION:
WHEN 2 DIFFERENT MATERIALS ARE RUBBED TOGETHER ELECTRONS TEND TO TRANSFER FROM ONE MATERIAL TO ANOTHER ONE BECOMES POSITIVE AND THE OTHER WILL BE NEGATIVE
Slide No 41
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 42
EASA Ref : 3.4
MAGNETISM
WHEN A MAGNET IS MOVED INTO A COIL AND REMOVED, A VOLTAGE IS PRODUCED KNOWN AS INDUCED VOLTAGE. THE PROCESS IS KNOWN AS INDUCTION THE VALUE OF VOLTAGE INDUCED DEPANDS ON THE SPEED OF MOVEMENT AND NUMBER OF COILS FREE ELECTRONS ARE FORCED TO MOVE WITHIN THE WIRE
Slide No 43
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 44
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 45
EASA Ref : 3.4
HEAT: WHEN HEAT IS APPLIED TO A JUNCTION OF 2 DIFFERENT MATERIAL, ELECTRONS ARE FORCED TO MOVE. 2 JUNCTIONS, COLD AND HOT JUNCTION THE EFFECT IS KNOWN AS THERMO-ELECTRIC EFFECT USED IN ENGINES, EXHAUST GASES, OVENS and FURNACES
Slide No 46
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 47
EASA Ref : 3.4
PRESSURE: WHEN QUARTZ PLATE IS COMPRESSED, A VOLTAGE IS PRODUCED WHEN A VOLTAGE IS APPLIED, COMPRESSION OF THE QUARTZ IS PRODUCED THIS EFFECT IS KNOWN AS PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT USED FOR TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATION IN WATER (SONAR, ECHO SOUNDER )
Slide No 48
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 49
EASA Ref : 3.4
LIGHT
WHEN LIGHT STRIKES A PHOTO-VOLTAC MATERIAL, A VOLTAGE IS THIS EFFECT IS KNOWN AS PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT
PRODUCED
USED IN PHOTO-DIODES, PHOTO-TRANSISTORS, SOLAR CELLS AND SILICON CELLS ALSO SMOKE DETECTOR.
Slide No 50
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 51
EASA Ref : 3.4
CHEMICAL EFFECT WHEN 2 DISSIMILAR METALS ARE PLACED SIDE BY SIDE, ELECTRONS TEND TO FLOW. ELECTRONS FROM THE NEGATIVE POLARITY WILL MOVE TOWARDS THE POSITIVE POLARITY. WHEN 2 PLATES OF DISSIMILAR METALS ARE PLACED IN AN ELECTROLYTE, OPPOSITE ELECTRIC CHARGES WILL BE ESTABLISHED ON THE PLATES, RESULTING AN ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE(PD)
Slide No 52
EASA Ref : 3.4
Slide No 53
DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY ( EASA Ref : 3.5 )
DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY: WHEN 2 DISSIMILAR METALS ARE PLACED IN A CHEMICAL (ELECTROLYTE), AN ELECTRIC CELL IS FORMED KNOWN AS SIMPLE CELL WHEN MORE THAN 2 CELLS JOINT TOGETHER, IT IS KNOWN AS A BATTERY WHEN CERTAIN SUBSTANCES ARE DISSOLVED IN WATER +ION OR -ION IS PRODUCED. THIS EFFECT IS KNOWN AS ELECTROLYTIC DISSOCIATION AND THIS SUBSTANCE IS KNOWN AS ELECTROLYTE THEY CAN BE ACID OR ALKALINE
Slide No 54
EASA Ref : 3.5
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISSIMILAR METALS IS KNOWN AS ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES.
EX: A NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERY NICKEL = -0.22V CADMIUM = - 0.40V PD OF THE CELL = - 0.22 (- 0.40) = 0.18V
Slide No 55
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 56
EASA Ref : 3.5

ENERGY CONVERSION: CHEMICAL ENERGY IS CONVERTED TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY AS ZINC DISSOLVES, THE +IONS MOVE TOWARDS THE COPPER ELECTRODE (ZINC BECOMES EVEN MORE NEGATIVE WITH RESPECT TO THE ELECTROLYTE 1.1 V IS PRESENT AT THE TERMINALS (ANODE AND CATHODE ) 2 CONDITIONS WHEN ELECTRICITY CAN BE EXHAUSTED a) ZINC FULLY DISSOLVED or b) ELECTROLYTE EXHAUSTED (THE IONS USED UP)
Slide No 57
EASA Ref : 3.5
HYDROGEN BUBBLES FORM WHEN ELECTRIC CURRENT IS GENERATED
BUBBLES FORM BARRIER AT THE ANODE CAUSING A REDUCTION IN CURRENT FLOW
THIS EFFECT IS KNOWN AS POLARIZATION FORMATION OF HYDROGEN BUBBLES AT THE ANODE OF THE CELL
Slide No 58
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 59
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 60
EASA Ref : 3.5
CLASSES OF CELLS
PRIMARY CELL = NOT RECHARGEABLE = CAN BE USED ONLY ONCE SECONDARY CELL = RECHARGEABLE = CAN BE REUSED MANY TIMES
Slide No 61
EASA Ref : 3.5
CELLS CAN BE CONNECTED IN 2 WAYS
SERIES = EX: 3 CELLS OF 1.2V = 3.6V, HIGHER OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND CAPACITY OUTPUT (AH )THE SAME PARALLEL = EX: 3 CELLS OF 1.2V = 1.2V ,OVERALL VOLTAGE THE SAME BUT CAPACITY OUTPUT ( AH ) INCREASED
Slide No 62
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 63
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 64
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 65
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 66
EASA Ref : 3.5
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF BATTERY Ri = 0.5 RT = 0.5 + 5.5 = 6 IT = EMF/RT = 12/6 = 2Amp Uri = IT X Ri = 2 X 0.5 = 1V PD = 12 1 V = 11V Rex = 5.5 EMF = 12 V
Slide No 67
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 68
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 69
EASA Ref : 3.5
AIRCRAFT BATTERIES A device composed of two or more cells that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. has 2 terminals: - negative terminal with excess of electrons - positive terminal with lack of electrons -output is steady DC voltage -purpose on aircraft: - stand-by power - auxiliary power start up
Slide No 70
EASA Ref : 3.5
Dry cell also known as leclanche cell -produced by a French, Georges leclanche in 1839-1889 -commonly used but can be used only once (primary cell)
Slide No 71
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 72
EASA Ref : 3.5
Secondary cell also called storage batteries -can be recharged -do not produce electrical energy but can be recharged by storing in chemical form -after a certain number of charges and discharges the battery should be replaced e.g. - lead acid battery nickel cadmium battery etc
Slide No 73
EASA Ref : 3.5
Lead Acid
Slide No 74
EASA Ref : 3.5
LEAD ACD BATTERIES
positive plate is made of lead peroxide (PbO2) negative plate is made of pure spongy lead (Pb) the electrolyte is made up of sulphuric acid (30%) and distilled water (70%) the 2 plates are separated by plates known as separators purpose of the porous separators is to prevent short circuit offer minimum resistance to current flow due to the material of the separators (porous )
Slide No 75
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 76
EASA Ref : 3.5
Lead acid battery construction -consists of a group of lead acid cells connected in series. -the positive plates are connected together to a plate strap, the negative plates are also connected together to a different plate strap -they are both insulated from each other
Slide No 77
EASA Ref : 3.5
Lead acid
Slide No 78
EASA Ref : 3.5
the 3 elements are placed inside a hard rubber of plastic composite container the container are sealed to prevent leakage or spillage and loss of electrolyte ventilation caps are located at the top to let the gasses due to chemical action.
Slide No 79
EASA Ref : 3.5
Construction
Slide No 80
EASA Ref : 3.5
Specific Gravity Test Procedure
wear goggles to protect eyes ventilation caps to be removed squeeze the hydrometer rubber bulb hard and insert it into the cell hole closest to the positive terminal. (to be repeated at all cell holes) release the bulb slowly without removing the tube out of the electrolyte the float movement should not be restricted observe the reading at eye level.
Slide No 81
EASA Ref : 3.5
Specific gravity
Slide No 82
EASA Ref : 3.5
Lead Acid Battery Inspection and Service -inspect for cracks on supporting structure -inspect for corrosion and evidence of leakage by opening the covers -refill electrolyte if the level is below the level -check for defect by carrying out load test or hydrometer test -check that the terminals are not corroded -check that the cables are in good condition (not cracked or broken) -check that the ventilation of the aircraft and battery box is good
Slide No 83
EASA Ref : 3.5
Lead acid
Slide No 84
EASA Ref : 3.5
ALKALINE BATTERIES positive plate, nickel hydroxide , NI(OH)2 negative plate, metallic cadmium (Cd) electrolyte, potassium hydroxide (KOH) plates are made by sintering process active material impregnated into the plate by chemical deposition
Slide No 85
EASA Ref : 3.5
Alkaline Battery
Slide No 86
EASA Ref : 3.5

Nickel cadmium battery
Slide No 87
EASA Ref : 3.5
Connections of cells
Slide No 88
EASA Ref : 3.5
Different capacity batteries
Slide No 89
EASA Ref : 3.5
Inspection of Alkaline Battery -inspections are based on: flying hours annual inspection periodic inspection (normally 28 days)
-what is to be inspected: the case proper airflow of the vent system the cells (clean if required) the cell connector for corrosion, cracks and overheating the cell caps are clean and not clogged for correct electrolyte level
Slide No 90
EASA Ref : 3.5
CHARGING OF BATTERY 2 methods (constant voltage or constant current) constant voltage charging voltage is held constant always. current diminishes as the battery is charged the electron flow resistance is reduced as the charge increases as the battery voltage increases, the charger current reduces on the aircraft, batteries are normally constant voltage charged. if more than one battery is to be charged at one time, they must be connected in parallel
Slide No 91
EASA Ref : 3.5
Constant Current Charging
current is held constant but voltage varies equipment monitors the current constant while the voltage decreases if more than one battery is to be charged, it should be in series over charging is to be prevented
Slide No 92
EASA Ref : 3.5
THERMOCOUPLES -a sensor for the measure of temperature -consists of 2 dissimilar metals (also in the form of alloy wires) -voltage is formed either heated or cooled and correlated back to temperature -a voltage produced by heating is known as Peltier Seeback Effect (thermoelectric effect )
Slide No 93
EASA Ref : 3.5
Operation of Thermocouples voltage depends on: -types of material used -temperature difference between hot and cold junctions Connected in a closed loop parallel circuit: -when heated the resistance changes at a known rate -voltage is proportional to the temperature
Slide No 94
EASA Ref : 3.5
Measuring and Reference junctions -measuring junction is the hot junction exposed to temperature -reference junction is the cold junction where the temperature is held constant
Slide No 95
EASA Ref : 3.5
Thermocouple
Slide No 96
EASA Ref : 3.5
Types of Thermocouple surface contact type measures temperatures of solid components cylinder head temperature-indicating systems of air cooled engines
immersion type measures gases and liquid temperatures (engine oil) gas temperature-indicating system of turbine engines
Slide No 97
EASA Ref : 3.5
Thermocouples
Slide No 98
EASA Ref : 3.5
Copper Constantan (T curve) Thermocouples
-copper wire is positive and constantan is negative wire -used in mildly oxidizing and reducing temp. of up to 400 C -suitable at moist and low temp. areas -due to the low temp. the homogeneity of the component wire can be maintained. -errors are very low
Slide No 99
EASA Ref : 3.5
Chromel-Alumel (K Curve) -chromel : 90% nickel, 10% chromium -alumel : 95% nickel, 2% maganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon -positive is the chromel wire and the negative is the alumel wire -used in clean oxidizing atmosphere -operating temp. for the largest wire size is 1260C -smaller wires operate at lower temp.
Slide No 100
EASA Ref : 3.5
Voltages produced by Thermocouples C tungstan rhenium = 15 V / C E chromel constantan = 68 V / C J iron constantan = 52 V / C K chromel alumel = 41 V / C R platinum radium (13% platinum) = 10 V / C S platinum rhodium (10% platinum) = 10 V / C T copper constantan = 42 V / C N nicrosi (nickel, chromium and silicon) = 40 V /C
Slide No 101
EASA Ref : 3.5
Temperature versus Voltage
Slide No 102
EASA Ref : 3.5
Slide No 103
EASA Ref : 3.5
PHOTOCELLS -also known as Solar Cell or Photovoltaic cell -converts ultra violet and infra red light directly into voltage uses of photocells (known as electric eye) -light activated counters -automatic door opener -intrusion alarms
Slide No 104
EASA Ref : 3.5
Construction of photocell -P-type Silicon the metal rib is the positive electrode , metal backing is the negative electrode (N type Silicon) -each solar cell can produce about 1 watt of power and 0.5 volts
Slide No 105
EASA Ref : 3.5
Operation of photocell -P-type and N-type semiconductor are sandwiched together -produces low power -reacts to light in a short time period - accurately controlling a great number of operations Used in: -video camera -automatic manufacturing process controls -door openers -burglar alarms -smoke detector
Slide No 106
DC CIRCUITS ( EASA Ref : 3.6 )
DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS A DC circuit is necessary for DC electricity to exist
Types of DC circuits: series parallel combination of series and parallel
Slide No 107
EASA Ref : 3.6
Simple circuits:
If a load is connected to a battery, current flows from the pos. term. to the neg. terminal. the load, if it is a bulb, it should light up until the battery is discharged or the bulb has blown. keeping in mind that electron flow from cathode to anode whereas conventional flow holes travel from anode to cathode
Slide No 108
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 109
EASA Ref : 3.6
Sources of DC power supply: battery DC generator rectifier output
3 components associated with a circuit: voltage => unit volts current => unit amperes or amps resistance => ohms
Slide No 110
EASA Ref : 3.6
Conductors: wires are normally made of copper but it can also be aluminum or any other low resistance elements tungsten is also a conductor but has a very high resistance to current therefore it heats and lights up
Slide No 111
EASA Ref : 3.6
Series circuit
Slide No 112
EASA Ref : 3.6
SERIES DC CIRCUIT when 2 or more components are connected one after the other in a line, it is said that they are in series the current that flows in this circuit is the same in all components but the voltage is divided among them components cannot be controlled individually disadvantage is that if one component fails, than all will not function
Slide No 113
EASA Ref : 3.6
schematic
Slide No 114
EASA Ref : 3.6
SCHEMATIC The circuit elements in fig. 51 are connected end to end The current flows through each element is the same, but volt drops different. A component (ex. Bulb) will be represented as a resistor and drawn as a rectangular block or zig-zag line.
Slide No 115
EASA Ref : 3.6
parallel
Slide No 116
EASA Ref : 3.6
PARALLEL DC CIRCUIT
2 or more components are connected side by side with each other.
if any one fails than the others will still be operational all components can be controlled individually
Slide No 117
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 118
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 119
EASA Ref : 3.6
When the series circuits and the parallel circuits are connected together, they are said to be a combination.
Slide No 120
EASA Ref : 3.6 OHMS LAW the current passing thru a conductor from one terminal to another is directly proportional to the PD across the 2 terminals and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor between the 2 points it is true only for lower current and voltage at high current and voltages the law does not apply (due to heat) Formula: I = V/R
Slide No 121
EASA Ref : 3.6
sometimes the potential difference is also known as the voltage drop, abbreviated as E or U instead of V when 1 amp of current flows thru an ohm resistor with 1 volt is known as one volt per ampere.
Slide No 122
EASA Ref : 3.6
Figure 54 :Ohms Law
Slide No 123
EASA Ref : 3.6
Using the equation when 2 variables are known, the 3rd variable can be calculated. voltage = current x resistance current = voltage / resistance resistance = voltage / current
B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09 Slide No 124
EASA Ref : 3.6
Figure 55 : Solving Circle
Slide No 125
EASA Ref : 3.6
To find resistance:
R=V/I = 6V / 2A =3
Slide No 126
EASA Ref : 3.6
I= E/R = 1.5V / 10 = 0.15 Amp = 150mA
Slide No 127
EASA Ref : 3.6
ANALOGY:
E = I X R (constant)
(constant) E = I X R (constant) E =I X R
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 129
EASA Ref : 3.6
KIRCHHOFFS LAW KIRCHHOFFS LAW IS DIVIDED INTO 2 CURRENT LAW VOLTAGE LAW
KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW = KIRCHHOFFS JUNCTION LAW = KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW STATES: THE ALGEBRAIC SUM OF CURRENT INTO ANY JUNCTION IS ZERO (This also means that the sum of current flowing into a junction equals the sum of current flowing out of the junction)
Slide No 130
EASA Ref : 3.6
i1
i2 i3
i1=5amp, i2=5amp, i3=8amp, i4=5amp, i5=4amp, i6=11amp

OUT FLOWING
i6 i4 i5 SUM:
IN FLOWING
i1 + i2 +i4 + i5 = i3 + i6 => 5A + 5A + 5A + 4 A = 8A + 11A => 19A = 19A ALGEBRAIC: i1 + i2 - i3 + i4 + i5 - i6 = 0 => 5A + 5A -8A + 5A + 4A - 11A =0 => 0 = 0
Slide No 131
EASA Ref : 3.6
KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW
Slide No 132
EASA Ref : 3.6
KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW STATES: THE ALGEBRAIC SUM OF THE VOLTAGE (POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES) IN ANY LOOP MUST EQUAL ZERO VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 18 V => 6V + 6V + 6V = 18V 6V + 2K R 1 3 mA _+ 6V 2K R 2 _+ 6V 2K R 3 _ => 18V = 18V => 0 = 0
18V
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 134
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 135
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 136
EASA Ref : 3.6
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A SUPPLY
NEW BATTERIES WITHOUT INTERNAL RESISTANCE WILL PRODUCE AN EMF THAT IS EQUAL TO THE PD. WHEN THE RESISTANCE OF THE ELECTOLYTE INCREASES THE PD WILL DECREASE AS THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE INCREASES EVEN MORE, THE VOLTAGE DROP WITHIN THE BATTERY INCREASES EVEN MORE.
Slide No 137
EASA Ref : 3.6
EX: NEW BATTERY VOLTAGE = 12V AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE = 1 . THE LOAD TAKES UP 0.5 Amp. WHAT IS THE INTERNAL VOLTAGE DROP? INT. VOLT DROP = 0.5 Amp X 1 VOLTAGE = 12V 0.5 V = 11.5V FORMULA: V = E (I X r)
BULB I =0.5 Amp
= 0.5 V AND THEREFORE, THE TERMINAL
E = 12 VOLTS
r=1
Slide No 138
EASA Ref : 3.6
Slide No 139
RESISTANCE / RESISTORS ( EASA Ref : 3.7 )
RESISTORS and RESISTANCE COMES IN MANY SHAPES SIZES VALUES WATTAGES
Slide No 140
EASA Ref : 3.7
SYMBOLS
Slide No 141
EASA Ref : 3.7
SI UNIT for RESISTANCE Ohm 1 OHM = 1 VOLT OF PRESSURE THAT CAN PUSH 1 AMP OF CURRENT THRU A RESISTOR IN A SECOND 18 1 AMP OF CURRENT = 6.24150629 X 10 ELECTRONS PER SEC MULTIPLES: Ex: 1K = 1000 1M = 1000000 170K =170000 1M5 = 1500000 = 1 X 10
6
SI => Systeme international dunites or International system of unit Body responsible => bureau international des poits et mesures (BIPM)
Slide No 142
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 143
EASA Ref : 3.7
IF A RESISTOR HAS A NUMBER SUCH AS 10, 15 or 110 , IT MEANS THAT IT IS 10 15 110 or 10R 15R AND 110R R CAN ALSO BE REPRESENTED BY THE LETTER E. i.e: 10R 15R AND 110R. IT CAN BE REPRENENTED BY 10E 15E AND 110E 1.1 = 1E1 or 1R1 2.5 = 2E5 or 2R5 9.7 = 9E7 or 9R7
Slide No 144
EASA Ref : 3.7
IDEAL RESISTOR DOES NOT CHANGE IN RESISTANCE IN THE CIRCUIT IN ANY CIRCUMTANCES. RESISTANCE VALUES ARE AFFECTED BY THE APPLIED VOLTAGE, CURRENT, TEMPERATURE AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS EVERY RESISTOR OPERATES WITHIN THE TOLERENCE IT IS MEANT TO. IF IT EXCEEDS THE WATTAGE TOLERENCE IT WILL BE DAMAGED WATTAGE FOR CARBON FILM OR METAL FILM RESISTORS ARE 1/8, 1/4 OR 1/2 WATT METAL FILM AND CARBON FILM RESISTORS ARE MORE STABLE WITH TEMPERATUE CHANGE THAN CARBON RESISTORS LARGER ONES ARE HIGHER POWERED ex: WIRE WOUND AND CERAMIC RESISTORS
Slide No 145
EASA Ref : 3.7

VARIABLES AFFECTING ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE LENGTH RESISTANCE INCREASES WITH LENGTH CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE WIRE RESISTANCE DECREASES WITH INCREASE IN AREA THE RHO OF THE MATERIAL DIFFERENT MATERIALS HAVE DIFFERENT RESISTANCE (CONDUCTIVE ABILITY) RESISTIVITY: DEPENDS ON THE MATERIALS ELECTRICAL STRUCTURE AND ITS TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE MOST MATERIALS USED AS CONDUCTORS INCREASE IN RESISTANCE VALUE AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES. BUT THERE ARE MATERIALS THAT THEIR RESISTANCE DECREASE AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES
Slide No 146
EASA Ref : 3.7
RESISTIVITY
Slide No 147
EASA Ref : 3.7
LOWER RESISTIVITY =>HIGHER CONDUCTIVITY => HIGHER ELECTRON FLOW HIGHER RESISTIVITY => LOWER CONDUCTIVITY => LESS ELECTRON FLOW TEMPERATURE: EFFECTS RESISTANCE THE MOST MOST CONDUCTORS INCREASE IN RESISTANCE WITH INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE CARBON DECREASES, CONSTANTAN AND MANGANIN CHANGES VERY LITTLE WITH TEMPERATURE.
Slide No 148
EASA Ref : 3.7
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT: with the increase of the temp. by 1 degree from 0 degree causes one ohm to be increases in a conductor is known as temperature coefficient. when the resistance increases with the increase in temperature it is known as positive temperature coefficient. Ex: silver, aluminum and copper when the resistance decreases with the increase of temperature is known as negative temperature coefficient ex: insulators, semiconductors and thermistors manganin and constantan changes very little over their working temperature
Slide No 149
EASA Ref : 3.7
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE (RESISTIVITY)
THE RESISTANCE OFFERED BY A UNIT VOLUME. i.e *CIRCULAR-MIL-FOOT or CENTIMETER CUBE, THAT RESIST CURRENT FLOW IS KNOWN AS SPECIFIC RESISTANCE RESISTIVITY IS THE RECIPROCAL OF CONDUCTIVITY FORMULA: R= L/A ( specific resistance in ohms per circular mil foot, L length in feet and A circular area in circular mils) * Circular mils => 1 thousandth of an inch
Slide No 150
EASA Ref : 3.7
SELECTION OF WIRE IF THE PROPER WIRE IS NOT SELECTED, THERE CAN BE A SEVERE DAMAGE TO AIRCRAFT OR OTHER EQUIPMENT EX: IF THE SUPPLY IS 28VDC AND THE LOAD REQUIRES A MIN. OF 26VDC WITH 5 AMP, WHAT IS THE MAXIMUM RESISTANCE THE WIRE CAN HAVE (2 WAYS)? R = E / I = 2V/5A = 0.4 IF THE LENGTH OF THE WIRE IS 20FT LONG AND THE RHO FOR STEEL IS 100 Ohm cmil / ft , what is the area? A=XL R = 100 -cm/ft X 2O = 5000cmil 0.4
Slide No 151
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 152
EASA Ref : 3.7
Ex 1: IN AN ALUMINUM WIRED CIRCUIT, AL 000 SWG IS USED. THE Rho OF THIS MATERIAL IS 0.920 cmil/ft AND WITH AN AREA OF 168872 cmil. THE LENGTH OF THE WIRE IS 20 ft. WHAT IS THE RESISTANCE OF THIS WIRE? R = L = 0.920 -cmil/ft X 20ft A 168872 cmil = 108.958
Ex 2: IN AN ALUMINUM WIRED CIRCUIT, AL 6 SWG IS USED. THE RESISTANCE IS 641 , AREA IS 28280 cmil AND THE LENGTH IS 30 ft. WHAT IS THE Rho OF THIS MATERIAL.
= R X A = 641 L
X 28280cmil = 0.60425 30ft
-cmil/ft
Slide No 153
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 154
EASA Ref : 3.7
Figure 68
Slide No 155
EASA Ref : 3.7

BUSBAR (ALUMINUM)
3CM 4CM 125CM
AREA = WIDTH X HEIGHT SPECIFIC RESISTANCE: R=pL/A
A = 4CM X 3CM = 12 CM
2.65 -cm x 125cm / 12cm R = 27.604
Slide No 156
EASA Ref : 3.7
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
4 COLOUR BANDS 3 BAND FOR OHMS => 1st AND 2nd BANDS FOR VALUE THE 3rd BAND AS MULTIPLIER ( NUMBER OF ZEROES ) 4th BAND FOR TOLERANCE 5%, 2% AND 1%
Slide No 157
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 158
EASA Ref : 3.7
4 CODED RESISTORS
1001 = 100 + 0 = 1000 1002 = 100 + 00 = 10000
= 1K = 10K = 100K = 49.9K
1003 = 100 + 000 = 100000 4992 = 499 + 00 = 49900
Slide No 159
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 160
EASA Ref : 3.7
5 BAND RESISTORS
FOR MILITARY USE 1st, 2nd AND 3rd BANDS DETERMINE THE FIRST 3 DIGITS 4th BAND IS THE MULTIPLIER 5th BAND IS THE TOLERANCE
Slide No 161
EASA Ref : 3.7
TOLERANCE FOR 5 CODED RESISTORS (BS 18520)
B = 0.1 % C = 0.25 % D = 0.5 % F=1% G=2% J=5% K = 10 % M = 20 %
Slide No 162
EASA Ref : 3.7
CYLINDRICAL SMD RESISTOR
1st, 2nd AND 3rd DIGITS ARE THE VALUE 4th BAND IS THE MULTIPLIER 5th BAND IS THE TOLERANCE 6th TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
Slide No 163
EASA Ref : 3.7
SURFACE MOUNTED DEVICE
563
THE SPACE AVAILABLE ON THE DEVICE IS LIMITED 3 DIGIT CODE HAS A 5% TOLERANCE 4 DIGIT CODE HAS A 1% TOLERANCE CERTAIN CIRCUITS TOLERANCES IS NOT IMPORTANT CERTAIN CIRCUITS TOLERANCE IS IMPORTANT
Slide No 164
EASA Ref : 3.7
WATTAGE RATINGS WHEN CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH A RESISTOR, IT HEATS UP. IF THE TEMPERATURE EXCEEDS A CERTAIN CRITICAL VALUE THE RESISTOR WILL BE DAMAGED WATTAGE RATINGS OF A RESISTOR THE POWER THE RESISTOR CAN DISSIPATE OVER A LONG PERIOD OF TIME THEY ARE PRINTED ONLY ON LARGE RESISTORS
Slide No 165
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 166
EASA Ref : 3.7
WATTAGE RATING
-1/16W, 1/8W, 1/2W, 1/4W RESISTORS ARE USED FOR ELECTRONICS -1W, 2W, 5W, 10W etc ARE USED FOR HEAVY DUTY CIRCUITS LIKE THE POWER SUPPLY. -IF REQUIRED A SMALL WATTAGE RESISTOR CAN BE REPLACE WITH A LARGER WATTAGE RESISTOR FOR THE SAME VALUE.
Slide No 167
EASA Ref : 3.7
WATTAGE CALCULATION: 1. P = VxI 2. P = V / R 3. P =IxR
IF THE VOLATGE ACROSS A 250R RESISTOR IS 6 VOLTS, BATTERY POWER IS 15V, WHAT IS THE POWER DESSIPATED BY THIS RESISTOR? P = V / R = 6 / 250 = 36 / 250 = 0.144 Watts = 144mW (RESISTOR REQUIRED IS Watt RESISTOR) NORMALLY POWER DESSIPATION IS CALCULATED WITH THE BATTERY POWER P = V / R = 15 / R = 225 / 250 = 0.9Watts = 900mW (RESISTOR REQUIRED IS 1 Watt RESISTOR)
Slide No 168
EASA Ref : 3.7
RESISTORS CIRCUIT PATTERNS
RESISTORS ARE FOUND IN ALL ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS IN THE FORM OF: -SERIES -PARALLEL -SERIES PARALLEL COMBINATION
Slide No 169
EASA Ref : 3.7
SERIES CONFIGURATION
-CURRENT IS CONSTANT BUT THE VOLTAGE IS VARIABLE ACROSS EACH RESISTOR -THE RESISTORS ARE FITTED ONE AFTER THE OTHER - ELECTRONS FLOW ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION -THE TOTAL RESISTANCE IS THE SUM OF ALL THE RESISTORS R1 + R2 + R3 + .Rn
Slide No 170
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 171
EASA Ref : 3.7

SERIES CONFIGURATION
V1=5V
I=1A V2=8V V3=7V
R1 = V1/I = 5V/1A = 5 Ohms
R2 = V2/I = 8V/1A = 8Ohms
R3 = V3/I = 7V/1A = 7 Ohms
RT = 30 Ohms R4 = 30 5 8 7 = 10 Ohms THEREFORE V4 = I x R4 = 1 x 10 = 10V
THE TOTAL VOLTAGE IS = 5 + 8 + 7 + 10 = 30Volts
Slide No 172
EASA Ref : 3.7
PARALLEL CONFIGURATION -BRANCHED OUT FROM A SINGLE NODE AND RECOMBINE IN ANOTHER POINT -CURRENT DIVIDES BETWEEN THE BRANCHES WHEREAS THE VOLTAGE IS THE SAME FOR ALL BRANCHES 1 = Req 1 + 1 + 1 +. 1 R1 R2 R3 Rn
-symbol for parallel is //
Slide No 173
EASA Ref : 3.7
FORMULA -SINCE R1 // R2, Req = R1 x R2 R1 + R2 -IN A PARALLEL CCT THE TOTAL RESISTANCE IS LESS THAN THE SMALLEST RESISTOR.
Slide No 174
EASA Ref : 3.7

PARALLEL CONFIGURATION
Slide No 175
EASA Ref : 3.7
EMF = 12 V. SINCE VOLTAGE IS THE SAME IN ALL BRANCHES OF A PARALLEL CCT, R1, R2 AND R3 GETS 12V EACH
V1 = V2 = V3 = 12V
Ohms LAW STATES THAT I = V/R I2 = 12/3 = 4A I3 = 12/6 = 2A
THEREFORE I1 = 12/2 =6A
KIRCHHOFFS LAW STATES: CURRENT INTO A JUNCTION IS EQUAL TO THE CURRENT OUT OF THE JUNCTION. IT =I1+I2+I3 = 6+4+2 = 12A
Slide No 176
EASA Ref : 3.7
COMBINATION CONFIGURATION (SERIES PARALLEL)
FORMULA: Req = (R1 // R2) + R3 = R1xR2 +R3 R1+R2
Slide No 177
EASA Ref : 3.7
COMBINATION
RAB = R1 + R2 (SERIES)
RTOTAL= RAB x R3
(PARALLEL)
RAB + R3
Slide No 178
EASA Ref : 3.7
1/RAB = 1/R1 + 1/R2
1/RCD = 1/R4 + 1/R5
RTOTAL =RAB +R3 + RCD
Slide No 179
EASA Ref : 3.7
COMBINATION 1/RAB = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/10 + 1/4.0 = 0.35 Therefore RAB=1/0.35 = 2.857 Ohms 1/RCD = 1/R4 +1/R5 = 1/8 +1/1 1.125 Therefore RCD = 1/1.125 = 0.889 Ohms
Slide No 180
EASA Ref : 3.7
RTOTAL = RAB + R3 + RCD = 2.857 + 3 + 0.889 = 6.7 Ohms
Slide No 181
EASA Ref : 3.7
EXAMPLE 2
RAB = R1 +R2 =1+2 = 3 Ohms
REF = R4 + R5 =4+5 = 9 Ohms
Slide No 182
EASA Ref : 3.7
1/RTot = 1/RAB + 1/R3 + 1/REF 1/RTot = 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/9 RTot = 1.286 Ohms
Slide No 183
EASA Ref : 3.7
FIXED RESISTORS -USED TO REDUCE CURRENT FLOW IN SOME PARTS OF A CIRCUIT -THE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IS CONSTANT AT THE OUTPUT IF THE INPUT IS KEPT CONSTANT -COMES IN DIFFERENT VALUES - USED IN MOST ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT AND ELECTRICAL DEVICES
INPUT
OUTPUT
Slide No 184
EASA Ref : 3.7
TOLERANCES AND LIMITATIONS

CONDUCTING MATERIAL RESISTING MATERIAL CONDUCTING MATERIAL
RESISTANCE IS PROPORTIONAL TO LENGTH AND Rho OF THE MATERIAL AND INVERSE TO THE X-SECTIONAL AREA -OHMS LAW APPLIES -3 FACTOR WHEN SELECTING A RESISTOR: -TOLERANCE -POWER RATING -STABILITY
EASA Ref : 3.7
TOLERANCE
TOLERANCE SPECIFIES THE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUE OF RESISTANCE A RESISTOR VALUE IS 1K Ohm AND HAS A TOLERANCE OF 20%. THEREFORE THE ACTUAL VALUE OF THE RESISTOR WILL BE WITHIN THE RANGE OF: 20% OF 1000 = 200 Ohms THEREFORE THE VALUE IS WITHIN 800 Ohms AND 1200Ohms
Slide No 186
EASA Ref : 3.7
POWER RATING
POWER RATING
2 WATTS 1/4 WATT
INDICATES THE MAXIMUM POWER THE RESISTOR CAN HANDLE AT ROOM TEMPERATURE SHOULD NOT EXCEED THE RATING OR ELSE IT WILL BE DAMAGED FOREVER RATING CAN BE OF MANY VALUES Ex: W, W, 1 W, 2W etc BIGGER THE RESISTOR, THE LARGER IS THE RATING
Slide No 187
EASA Ref : 3.7
STABILITY -THE ABILITY TO MAINTAIN THE RESISTANCE OF THE CIRCUIT -CHANGES VERY LITTLE WITH CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE -IMPORTANT IN ELECTRONIC PRECISION CIRCUITS
Slide No 188
EASA Ref : 3.7

CONSTRUCTION METHODS
LOW POWER RESISTORS CARBON FILM RESISTOR IS MADE OF GRAPHITE CUT INTO BLOCKS OR WRAPPED OR GRAFTED INTO REQUIRED SHAPE X-SECT. DETERMINES THE POWER RATING TYPES OF CARBON FILM RESISTORS STANDARD FILM BARREL OR CIRCULAR TYPE WITH PINS ON THE OPPOSITE SIDES CHIP TYPE COMES UP TO 6 LAYERS NETWORK TYPE CAN HAVE 12 RESISTORS IN 1 COMPACT SPACE. MAX VALUE 10 M Ohms. TOLERANCE +- 5%. RATINGS 0.125 W TO 1 WATT WITH GOOD STABILITY
Slide No 189
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 190
EASA Ref : 3.7

HIGH POWER RESISTORS POWER RATING OF 5 TO 50 WATTS
-USED IN POWER SUPPLIES AND AMPLIFIERS GETS VERY HOT USES RESISTANT WIRE WRAPPED WITH CERAMIC MATERIAL SYMBOL IN CIRCUIT IS THE SAME AS OTHER CONVENTIONAL RESISTORS LOW TOLERANCE AND HIGH STABILITY MADE OF MAGANIN, NICHROME OR CONSTANTAN WIRE WOUND ON A FORMER AND A PROTECTIVE COATING VALUES - 1 Ohm TO 25K Ohms, POWER RATING O- 10 TO 20 WATTS
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 192
EASA Ref : 3.7
VARIABLE RESISTORS RHEOSTATS -2 TERMINALS ( 1 MOVEABLE TERMINAL AND THE OTHER ONE CONNECTED TO THE TRACK END -MOVABLE TERMINAL PROVIDES THE VARIED RESISTANCE BY TURNING A SPINDLE -USED TO VARY CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT. Ex : VARY THE BRIGHTNESS OF A LAMP OR TO VARY THE CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR -2 TERMINALS FOR RIGIDITY OF WHICH 1 IS FOR INPUT. WIPER IS THE OUTPUT -USED WITH HIGH POWERED DEVICE > WATT
Slide No 193
EASA Ref : 3.7
POTENTIOMETER -HAS 3 TERMINALS ( 2 FIXED AND 1 SLIDING TERMINAL ) -USED TO VARY VOLTAGES. Ex: VARY THE VOLUME OF AN AMPLIFIER, TO SET AS A PRESET TO A SENSOR -VOLTAGE CAN BE TAPPED ACROSS THE 2 FIXED TERMINALS -OUTPUT VOLTAGE CAN BE VARIED WITH THE WIPPER ROTATION FROM 0 UP TO THE SUPPLY VOLTAGE
Slide No 194
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 195
EASA Ref : 3.7
PRESETS -VARIABLE RESISTORS BUT IN A MINIATURE FORM -MOUNTED ON THE CIRCUIT BOARD DIRECTLY -USED IN ALARM TONE SETTING, SENSITIVITY OF LIGHT SENSITIVE CIRCUITS ETC -DOES NOT HAVE SPINDLES BUT VALUE ADJUSTED WITH A SMALL SCREWDRIVER -CHEAP AND VERY ACCURATE -CAN BE 1 TURN TYPE OR MULTI TURN (10X) TYPE FOR FINE ADJ.
Slide No 196
EASA Ref : 3.7
Figure 87
Slide No 197
EASA Ref : 3.7
POTENTIOMETER CONSTRUCTION -2 TYPES: COATED TYPE -STRIP (ARC) OF INSULATING MATERIAL WITH A SLIDER MOVING OVER THE STRIP WHICH INCREASES AND DECREASES THE RESISTANCE AS IT MOVES OVER IT. RESISTANCE IS EITHER LINEAR, LOGARITHMIC (COMMONLY USED), INVERSE-LOGARITHMIC etc. USED FOR BALANCE, TONE AND VOL CONTROLS COILED TYPE -CONDUCTIVE WIRE WOUND OVER AN INSULATOR. BY MOVING THE SLIDER THE OUTPUT IS VARIED ACCORDINGLY. USED IN ACCURATE AND CONSTANCY CIRCUITS FUNCTIONS. USED FOR HIGH CURRENT APPLICATION WITH HIGHER POWER DISSIPATION
Slide No 198
EASA Ref : 3.7
RESISTANCE VALUE,TOLERANCE AND WATTAGE
RANGES FROM E6 SERIES = 1,2.2 AND 4.7. NORMALLY USED IN ELECTRONICS (1K, 2K, 5K, 10K, 1M, 10M, 50M etc) TOLERANCES RANGE FROM 30%, 20%, 10%, AND 5% (COILED POTS)
COMES IN DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES AND WATTAGE FROM WATTS (COATED POTS FOR VOLUME CONTROL) TO 10s OF WATTS (REGULATING HIGH CURRENT )
Slide No 199
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 200
EASA Ref : 3.7

POTENTIOMETERS
MONO POTENTIOMETER SYMBOL
STEREO POTENTIOMETER
RULER POTENTIOMETER
COILED POT (20W RHEOSTAT) REGULATES CURRENT
Slide No 201
EASA Ref : 3.7
TRIMMER POTENTIOMETERS (TRIMMERS) -GIVES VERY ACCURATE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES -ADJUSTABLE BY ADJ. SCREWS THAT HAS A SLIDING CONTACT -WATTAGE RANGE 0.1 TO 0.5 WATTS -NORMALLY USED FOR FINE ADJ. WITH MANY TURNS OF THE SCREW
Slide No 202
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 203
EASA Ref : 3.7
OPERATION AND USE OF POTENTIOMETER (POTS) AND RHEOSTAT -HAS 3 TERMINALS USED FOR VOLTAGE REGULATORS AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS (VOLUME CONTROL) AND VOLTAGE DIVIDERS OR VARIABLE RESISTOR (USES 2 TERMINALS) -POTENTIOMETER CONVERTED TO VARIABLE RESISTORS ARE ALSO KNOWN AS RHEOSTAT (ONLY 2 TERMINALS ARE USED)
Slide No 204
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 205
EASA Ref : 3.7
CONVERSION OF A POT TO RHEOSTAT -ONLY 2 TERMINAL ARE USED OF WHICH ONE IS THE WIPER -THE RESISTANCE CHANGES WITH THE POSITION OF THE WIPER -IF END TERMINALS ARE USED, IT BEHAVES AS A FIXED RESISTOR
Slide No 206
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 207
EASA Ref : 3.7
Slide No 208
EASA Ref : 3.7
MOTOR CONTROLS
-IF A BULB IS CONNECTED TO THE 2 TERMINALS (ONE WIPER) IN SERIES AND THE RESISTANCE IS VARIED, THE BULB WILL CHANGE IN BRIGHTNESS. -IF A MOTOR IS CONNECTED TO THE 2 TERMINALS IN SERIES, AND THE RESISTANCE IS VARIED, THE SPEED OF THE MOTOR WILL VARY BUT WITH POWER WASTAGE AT THE RHEOSTAT -NORMALLY WHEN THE POT IS USED AS A RHEOSTAT THE UNUSED TERMINAL IS CONNECTED TO THE WIPER TO PREVENT COMPLETE OPEN CIRCUIT
Slide No 209
EASA Ref : 3.7
MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLER
Slide No 210
EASA Ref : 3.7
SPEED CONTROL
Slide No 211
EASA Ref : 3.7
WIPER TERMINAL DISCONNECTED
Slide No 212
EASA Ref : 3.7
THERMISTORS -RESISTOR THAT SENSES TEMPERATURE -MADE OF SINTERED SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL -2 TYPES OF THERMISTORS - POSITIVE COEFFICIENT (PTC) RESISTANCE INCREASES WITH TEMPERATURE. USED IN TV DEMAGNETIZING COIL AND POLYSWITCH AS SELF REPAIR FUSE. - NEGATIVE COEFFICIENT (NTC) RESISTANCE DECREASES AS TEMPERATURE INCREASE. USED IN TEMPERATURE DETECTORS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Slide No 213
EASA Ref : 3.7
-NTC, MADE OF OXIDES OF NICKEL, MANGANESE, COPPER, COBOLT AND OTHER SIMILAR MATERIAL. -COMES IN THE FORM OF BEADS, RODS OR DISC -USED IN AIRCRAFT AS TEMP SENSORS. Ex; IN HEATING, AIRCONDITIONING AND BATTERY SYSTEMS -PTC, MADE OF BARIUM TITANATE TO PREVENT OVER CURRENT IN CIRCUIT DUE TO TEMP RISE
Slide No 214
EASA Ref : 3.7
BENEFITS OF TERMISTORS -ACCURATE BUT WORKS WITH A TEMP RANGE OF 0 TO 100 DEGREES C -STABLE THEREFORE IS NOT EFFECTED BY AGING.
Slide No 215
EASA Ref : 3.7
VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTORS (VARISTOR) -THE RESISTANCE IS INVERSLY PROPOTIONAL TO VOLTAGE -MADE OF SILICON CARBIDE -USED IN : -
VOLTAGE STABILIZATION CIRCUITS TRANSIENT VOLTAGE SUPPRESSION SWITCH CONTACT PROTECTION
-CONNECTED ACROSS THE PROTECTED DEVICE DUE TO SURGE CURRENT
Slide No 216
EASA Ref : 3.7
METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV) -CONTAINS CERAMIC MASS OF ZINC OXIDE GRAINS IN A MATRIX OF OTHER METAL OXIDES. i.e. BISMUTH, MANGANESE AND COBALT. -IT IS SANDWICHED BET. 2 METAL PLATES (ELECTRODES) LIKE THE DIODE JUNCTION - CURRENT FLOWS ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION -USED FOR SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Slide No 217
EASA Ref : 3.7
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION -CONSISTS OF 4 RESISTORS. i.e. 2 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS -BOTH DIVIDERS HAVE THE SAME VOLTAGE SUPPLY -A GAGE IS CONNECTED BETWEEN THE 2 DIVIDERS TO DETECT THE CURRENT WITH A GALVANOMETER -BALANCED CONDITION = VOLTAGE AT BOTH DIVIDERS ARE EQUAL. THEREFORE NO CURRENT FLOWS THRU THE METER. -UNBALANCED CONDITION= VOLTAGE IS NOT THE SAME IN BOTH DIVIDERS. THEREFORE CURRENT FLOWS THRU THE METER.
Slide No 218
EASA Ref : 3.7
FIGURE 97 : WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

EASA Ref : 3.7
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE OPERATION
I
I1
A
I2
27K
R1 R2
B
I4
R3 RX
C
I3
27K D
2.7K
Slide No 220
EASA Ref : 3.7
APPLICATION OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE -TO MEASURE THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE ACCORDANCE TO PRESSURE OR TEMPERATURE STRAIN -LOCATING BREAKS IN POWER LINES -ACTING AS TEMP. CONTROL DEVICE -MEAUREMENT OF ACFT WEIGHT AND C of G POSITION -MEASURING ELECTRICAL VALUES IN INSTRUMENTS
Slide No 221
POWER ( EASA Ref : 3.8 )
POWER AND ENERGY -VOLTAGE DROPS ACROSS A RESISTOR BUT DOES NOT PASS THRU -CURRENT PASSES THROUGH A CIRCUIT BUT NOT ACROSS -ENERGY IS THE CAPABILITY OF DOING WORK = ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS USED TO BE CONVERTED TO LIGHT OR HEAT ENERGY. ANOTHER IS THE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRIC MOTORS TO DO SOMETHING -TYPES MECHANICAL ENERGY -POTENTIAL ENERGY -KINETIC ENERGY
Slide No 222
EASA Ref : 3.8
POTENTIAL ENERGY
A BODY HAS BY VIRTUE OF ITS POSITION, POTENTIAL ENERGY
Slide No 223
EASA Ref : 3.8
Slide No 224
EASA Ref : 3.8
KINETIC ENERGY
-IF THE BOX IS KNOCKED OF THE TABLE, THE BOX HAS KINETIC ENERGY WHILE MOVING THRU SPACE. -POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY ARE CAPABLE OF DOING WORK ELECTRICAL ENERGY JOULE(WATT/SEC ) - POWER IS = V X I BUT WORK IS DONE OVER A PERIOD OF TIME. THEREFORE, ENERGY = VOLTAGE X AMPERE X TIME W=UXIXt -CAN BE EXPRESSED IN Watt Seconds (Ws) OR Watt Hours (Wh)
Slide No 225
EASA Ref : 3.8
KINETIC ENERGY
Slide No 226
EASA Ref : 3.8
POWER -RATE OF ENERGY BEING USED OR WORK DONE WITH RESPECT TO TIME -POWER IS = ENERGY / TIME -SINCE ENERGY IS V X I X t, POWER = (V X I X t) / t -THEREFORE POWER IS = V X I, P = IR, P = V / R
Slide No 227
EASA Ref : 3.8

POWER TRANSFER
Slide No 228
EASA Ref : 3.8
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER WHEN THE Ri = RLOAD , MAX POWER IS TRANSFERRED THIS CONDITION IS KNOWN AS RESISTANCE MATCHING P = V X I , I X R X I, IR
Slide No 229
CAPACITANCE / CAPACITORS ( EASA Ref : 3.9 )
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE OPERATION AND FUNCTION -A DEVICE THAT STORES ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN THE FORM OF ELECTRIC FIELD BETWEEN 2 CONDUCTING BODIES USES OF CAPACITORS -DC BLOCKER -STORES MEMORY IN COMPUTER CHIPS -STORE CHARGE FOR CAMERA FLASH -TUNED CIRCUIT IN RADIOS
Slide No 230
EASA Ref : 3.9
DESCRIPTION OF A CAPACITOR CONSISTS OF : -2 PLATES (1 NEG. AND 1 POS.) -1 DIELECTRIC WHEN POWERED: -THE NEG. PLATE GAINS ELECTRONS -THE POS. PLATE LOSES ELECTRONS ONCE THE PLATES ARE AT THE SOURCE VOLTAGE, THE CHARGING STOPS
Slide No 231
EASA Ref : 3.9
COMES IN: DIFF. SIZES -DIFF. ARRANGEMENT OF PLATES -DIFF. TYPES OF DIELECTRIC DIELECTRICS MADE OF: -PAPER -CERAMIC -AIR -MICA -ELECTROLYTIC MATERIALS TYPES: -FIXED -ADJUSTABLE
Slide No 232
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAPACITORS:
Slide No 233
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 234
EASA Ref : 3.9
VARIABLE CAPACITOR
VARIABLE CAPACITOR
Slide No 235
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAPACITOR
Slide No 236
EASA Ref : 3.9
- AS THE CHARGE ON THE PLATES INCREASE, THE ELECTRIC FIELD ALSO INCREASES -THE ELECTRIC FIELDS CREATES A POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BET. THE PLATES V=Exd or E=V/d or d=E/V
Slide No 237
EASA Ref : 3.9
PARALLEL PLATES
Slide No 238
EASA Ref : 3.9
SYMBOLS
Slide No 239
EASA Ref : 3.9
ANALOGY
Q=VxC
Slide No 240
EASA Ref : 3.9
DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
-THE DIELECTRIC IS AN INSULATOR, IT PREVENTS DC CURRENT FROM FLOWING BET. THE PLATES -IT STORES ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES -DIELECTRICS ABILITY TO SUPPORT ELECTROSTATIC FORCES IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Slide No 241
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 242
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAPACITANCE
-ELECTRONS ARE REMOVED FROM 1 PLATE AND DEPOSITED ON THE OTHER. -AS THIS GOES ON, THE CHARGE INCREASES -THIS CHARGE IS STORED IN THE DIELECTRIC IN THE FORM OF ELECTRIC FIELDS -THEREFORE THE PLATES POSSESES A CERTAIN CAPACITANCE -CAPACITANCE IS THE CHARGE CAUSED BY A UNIT OF POTENTIAL (V) ON A CONDUCTOR (PLATE) -UNIT FOR CAPACITANCE IS THE FARADS (F)
Slide No 243
EASA Ref : 3.9
DEFINATION: -1 FARAD IS THE CONDUCTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR (PLATE) WITH A POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF 1 VOLT WHEN IT CARRIES A CHARGE OF 1 COULOMB (6.28 x 10 ELECTRONS). -1 FARAD CAPACITOR STORES 1 COULOMB OF CHARGE WHEN A POTENTIAL OF 1 VOLT IS APPLIED ACROSS THE TERMINALS OF THE CAPACITOR CAPACITANCE (C) = CHARGE (Q) / VOLTAGE (V) CHARGE = CAPACITANCE x VOLTAGE VOLTAGE = CHARGE / CAPACITANCE (Q = QTY OF STORED ELECTRICAL CHARGE IN COULOMB; C = CAPACITANCE IN FARADS AND V = POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN VOLTS)
Slide No 244
EASA Ref : 3.9

FARADS (F) -1 FARAD IS TOO LARGE -THEREFORE SMALLER VALUE ARE USED: (MICRO) MEANS 1 MILLIONTH OF A FARAD n (NANO) MEANS 1 THOUSAND MILLIONTH => 1000nF = 1 f P (PICO) MEANS 1 MILLION MILLIONTH => 1000 pF = 1 nF
Slide No 245
EASA Ref : 3.9
PERMITTIVITY OF SPACE (ABSOLUTE) 0 = 8.854 x 10 F/m PERMITTIVITY OF DIELECTRIC MATERIAL r or k = DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
C = Q/V OR C = A/d = k 0 A/d
Slide No 246
EASA Ref : 3.9

STORED ENERGY -WHEN OPPOSITE CHARGES ACCUMULATE ON THE PLATES, THERE WILL BE ELECTRIC FIELDS FORMED. THEREFORE A VOLTAGE IS DEVELOPED ENERGY STORED = CV ( JOULES ) -THE CAP. CAN BREAKDOWN IF THE MAX. WORKING VOLTAGE IS EXCEEDED AND THIS IS LIMITED BY THE ELECTRIC FIELD OF THE DIELECTRIC (JOULES OF ENERGY PER CUBIC METER) Ex: WHAT IS THE ENERGY STORED BY A CAP. OF 20 F, IF THE VOLTAGE IS 24V. E = CV = x 20F x 24V = 5.7mJ
Slide No 247
EASA Ref : 3.9
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE DEPANDS ON 3 FACTORS: -AREA OF THE PLATES -DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PLATES -DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF THE MATERIAL
0 A C = k
d
Slide No 248
EASA Ref : 3.9
AREA THE LARGER THE AREA , THE LARGER IS THE CHARGE AND CAPACITANCE
DISTANCE THE CLOSER THE PLATES THE STRONGER IS THE ELECTROSTATIC LINES OF FORCE, THEREFORE THE CHARGE STORAGE IS GREATER DIELECTRIC CONSTANT DIELECTRIC IS AN INSULATOR. DIFF. MATERIALS HAVE DIFF. CONSTANT VALUES HIGHER THE CONSTANT, HIGHER IS THE INSULATION
Slide No 249
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 250
EASA Ref : 3.9
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Slide No 251
EASA Ref : 3.9
ABSOLUTE CONSTANT -ABSOLUTE CONSTANT = 0 = 8.854 x 10 F/m IF A CAPACITOR HAS AIR AS DIELECTRIC, THE AREA OF THE PLATE IS 2 Sq m AND A DISTANCE OF 1 cm, WHAT IS THE CAPACITANCE?
C = 0 KA
d = 8.854 x 10 F/m (1 x 2)
0.01m = 1771 pF
Slide No 252
EASA Ref : 3.9
C = 0 KA/d
Slide No 253
EASA Ref : 3.9
C = 0 KA/d
PicoFarads
Slide No 254
EASA Ref : 3.9
C = 0 KA/d
Bakelite 4.8
0.1 sq m
1 cm
..picoFarads
Slide No 255
EASA Ref : 3.9
C = 0 KA/d
Mica 5.4
0.085 sq m
0.1 cm
.picoFarads
Slide No 256
EASA Ref : 3.9
C = 0 KA d
THE CAPACITANCE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE DIELECTRIC AND THE AREA BUT INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE DISTANCE
Slide No 257
EASA Ref : 3.9
VOLTAGE RATING -SELECTION OF CAPACITOR DEPANDS ON:

CAPACITANCE
WORKING VOLTAGE
DESIRED CAPACITANCE IN THE CIRCUIT HOW MUCH VOLTAGE THE CAPACITOR CAN HANDLE (WORKING VOLTAGE) IN THE CIRCUIT -IF THE VOLTAGE RATING IS SMALLER THAN THE REQUIRED VALUE THEN THE CAPACITOR WILL BE DAMAGED AND ARCING WILL TAKE PLACE WITHIN THE CAPACITOR -IF THIS HAPPENS THAN IT CAN DAMAGE OTHER COMPONENTS -THICKER THE DIELECTRIC, LOWER IS THE CAPACITANCE -FREQUENCY INCREASES, THE LOSSES AND HEATING EFFECT INCREASES
Slide No 258
EASA Ref : 3.9
VOLTAGE RATING -20 VRMS = 28.28V PEAK. THEREFORE A 50 V CAPACITOR WILL BE MOST APPROPRIATE (30V CAP. WILL ALSO DO) -50 % OF THE RMS VALUE IS VERY SAFE
ONAS KONAS KONAS KONAS KO
CAPACITANCE
WORKING VOLTAGE
Slide No 259
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAPACITOR LOSSES 2 TYPES OF DIELECTRIC LOSSES HYSTERESIS LOSSES DUE TO THE RAPID CHANGE IN ELECTRON CHANGE -OVER IN THE CIRCUIT. LOSSES DEPANDS ON THE TYPE OF DIELECTRIC LEAKAGE LOSSES ALTHOUGH THE DIELECTRIC IS AN INSULATOR, CURRENT CAN STILL PASS THROUGH BUT IN A VERY SMALL AMOUNT. IF THE LEAKAGE IS TOO HIGH, THAN OVER HEATING TAKES PLACE AND IT CANNOT RETAIN THE CHARGE
Slide No 260
EASA Ref : 3.9
TYPE, CONSTRUCTION AND FUNCTION 2 TYPE OF CAPACITORS POLARIZED > ELECTROLYTIC UNPOLARIZED > NON ELECTROLYTIC POLARIZED CAPS HAS HIGHER POWER HANDLING CAPABILITY MUST BE CONNECTED ACCORDING TO THE POLARITY, OTHER WISE CAN CAUSE BODILY INJURIES THEY HAVE VERY LARGE VALUES (> 1 MICRO F). VALUE AND WORKING VOLTAGE IS PRINTED ON THE BODY NOT DAMAGED DUE TO HEAT WHILE SOLDERING
Slide No 261
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 262
EASA Ref : 3.9
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS -FIXED CAPACITIVE VALUE -RANGE FROM 1 TO SEVERAL 1000 MICRO FARADS -USED IN RECTIFIERS AS SMOOTHING CIRCUIT -2 DESIGNS OF E CAPS => AXIAL AND RADIAL (SMALLER)
+ + + KONAS KONAS + +
5000 f 25 v 1000 F 50V
KONAS KONAS
-WORKING VOLTAGE CAN BE AS LOW AS 6 VOLTS -CHOOSE THE CAP ACCORDING TO THE POWER SUPPLY
Slide No 263
EASA Ref : 3.9
E CAPS
Slide No 264
EASA Ref : 3.9
TANTALUM BEAD CAPACITOR SPECIAL TYPE OF ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR HANDLES LOW VOLTAGES ONLY SMALL IN SIZE BUT LARGE CAPACITANCE AND EXPENSIVE BEAD CAPS ARE PRINTED WITH CAPACITY, VOLTAGE AND POLARITY IN FULL OLD TYPE USES COLOUR CODES (BODY, TIP AND SPOT)
Slide No 265
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAP CODING
4 and 7 X 1000000 47,000,000 pF = 47F with a WV of 35V
Slide No 266
EASA Ref : 3.9
COLOUR CODES SPOT => GREY MEANS X BY 0.01 AND WHITE MEANS X BY 0.1
VALUES OF LESS THAN 10 MICRO F CAN BE READ THIRD COLOUR STRIPE INDICATES VOLTAGE RATING YELLOW MEANS 6.3 V BLACK MEANS 10 V GREEN MEANS 16 V BLUE MEANS 20 V GREY MEANS 25 V WHITE MEANS 30 V and PINK MEANS 35 V
Slide No 267
EASA Ref : 3.9
SPOT NUMBER OF ZEROS TIP 2ND DIGIT BODY 1ST DIGIT VOLTAGE RATING
READING IN MICRO FARADS
Slide No 268
EASA Ref : 3.9
EXAMPLE: BLUE, GREY, BLACK AND YELLOW MEANS 68 MICRO F WITH A WORKING VOLTAGE OF 6.3 V BROWN, GREEN, WHITE AND PINK MEANS 1.5 MICRO F WITH WORKING VOLTAGE OF 35 V YELLOW, VIOLET, GREY AND GREEN MEANS 0.47 MICRO F WITH 10 WORKING VOLTS
Slide No 269
EASA Ref : 3.9
UNPOLARISED CAPACITOR CAN BE CONNECTED IN EITHER WAY ITS ROBUST CAN STANDS HEAT DURING SOLDERING EXCEPT FOR THE POLYSTYRENE TYPE FROM 50 WORKING VOLTS TO 250 WORKING VOLTS 47 MEANS 47 MICRO F = 47000 NANO F 0.1 MEANS 0.1 MICRO F = 100 NANO F 4.7 n F CAN ALSO BE STATED AS 4n7
Slide No 270
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 271
EASA Ref : 3.9
POLYSTYRENE CAPACITOR
VALUES ARE NORMALLY IN PICOFARADS ( pF) CAN BE DAMAGED DUE TO HEAT ONLY CERTAIN VALUES ARE POSSIBLE (E 3 SERIES) 10,22,47 => 100,220,470 =>1000,2200,4700 => 10000,22000,47000 (E 6 SERIES) 10,15,22,33,47,68 => 100,150,220,330,470,680 => 1000,1500,2200, 3300,4700,6800 => 10000,15000,33000,47000,68000
Slide No 272
EASA Ref : 3.9
READ IN PICOFARADS
Slide No 273
EASA Ref : 3.9

MICA CAPACITOR
MICA SHEET
TIN FOIL PLATES
CAN BE MADE BY DEPOSITS OF SILVER FILM ON MICA OR INTERLEAVED SHEETS OF METAL FOIL (TIN,AL etc) POSSESES: HIGH STABILITY LOW TOLERANCE ( +_ 1% ) HIGH WORKING VOLTAGE LOW LEAKAGE CURRENT RANGE => 0.01F TO 10 nF
Slide No 274
EASA Ref : 3.9

CERAMIC CAPACITOR: MANY SHAPES WITH CERAMIC DIELECTRIC OR BARIUM TITANATE DIELECTRIC DISC ROD PLATE SMALL IN CAPACITANCE (1pF TO 1 MICRO F) LARGE WORKING VOLTAGE (TO A FEW THOUSAND VOLTS)
BARIUM TITANATE HAS V. HIGH CAPACITANCE ( DUE TO V. HIGH DIELECTRIC CONSTANT) BUT SMALL IN SIZE
HAS POOR STABILITY AND TOLERANCE
Slide No 275
EASA Ref : 3.9

VARIABLE CAPACITOR (TUNING CAPACITOR) CAPACITANCE CAN BE CHANGED IN VALUE, MECHANICALLY USED IN THE RF AND OSCILLATOR STAGE OF THE RADIO HAS A STATOR (IMMOBILE) AND A ROTOR (MOBILE) CONNECTED WITH A COMMON AXIS SMALL IN VALUE, IN THE RANGE OF 100pF AND 500pF (0.0001 F TO 0.00005 micro F ) HIGHER THE MESH, HIGHER IS THE CAPACITANCE CAPACITORS CONTAINED IN PLASTIC CONTAINERS HAVE VALUES OF 12 pF TO 218pF
Slide No 276
EASA Ref : 3.9
GANGED DUAL CAPACITORS
SINGLE CAPACITANCE QUADRUPLE CAPACITANCE 2 VARIACS AND 2 TRIMMERS
Slide No 277
EASA Ref : 3.9
PRESET (TRIMMER) CAPACITORS MINIATURE CAP. WITH VERY SMALL CAPACITANCE = 2 TO 100 pF USED FOR FREQUENCY FINE TUNING IN TRANSCIEVERS AND OSCILLATORS CCT BOARD MOUNTED ADJUSTED WITH NON-MAGNETIC SCREWDRIVER SPECIFIED BY THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VALUES
Slide No 278
EASA Ref : 3.9
PRESET (TRIMMERS) CAPACITORS
Slide No 279
EASA Ref : 3.9

COLOUR CODING (CERAMIC) (JOINT ARMY-NAVY AND RADIO MANUFACTURERS CODE) CAPACITORS ARE MARKED WITH NUMBERS FOR: VALUE WORKING VOLTAGE TOLERANCE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT SMALL CAPS ARE MARKED WITH COLOURS LIKE THE RESISTOR CODING 1ST 2 COLOURS REPRESENT THE 1ST 2 DIGITS 3RD COLOUR REPRESENTD THE MULTIPLIER 4TH COLOUR REPRESENTS TOLERENCE 5TH COLOUR REPRESENT WORKING VOLTAGE DISC CERAMIC AND TUBULAR CAPS DOES NOT HAVE WORKING VOLTAGE- USED IN LOW OR NODC VOLTAGE IF 5 COLOUR RING, THEN 1ST RING IS THE TEMP COEFF. AND THE OTHER 4 ARE AS THE NUMBERING SYSTEM
Slide No 280
EASA Ref : 3.9
10 nF
Slide No 281
EASA Ref : 3.9

MICA OR MOULDED PAPER CAPACITORS COMES WITH 3 DOTS OR 6 DOTS 3 DOT REPRESENTS 1ST, 2ND DOTS FOR 1ST 2 DIGITS 3RD DOT FOR MULTIPLIER 6 DOTS REPRESENTS 1ST (OR TYPE), 2ND, AND 3RD DOTS FOR FIRST 3 DIGITS 4TH DOT FOR MULTIPLIER 5TH DOT FOR TOLERENCE 6TH DOT FOR VOLTAGE RATING ALWAYS SELECT A CAP OF A VALUE ABOVE THE SUPPLY VOLTAGE
Slide No 282
EASA Ref : 3.9
FIRST DOT
BLACK OR WHITE FOR MICA SILVER OR BODY COLOUR FOR PAPER
IN PICOFARADS
Slide No 283
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 284
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 285
EASA Ref : 3.9
WHAT IS THE VALUE?
MICA CAP WITH 1.2 nF +- 6%

EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 287
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 288
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAPS NUMBER CODING 1ST AND 2ND NUMBER IS THE DIGITS 3RD NUMBER IS THE NUMBER OF ZEROS LETTER STANDS FOR TOLERENCE READINGS IN PICOFARADS WORKING VOLTAGE, 25 VOLTS
10000 p F (0.01 F), 20%, 25V
103M 25V
Slide No 289
EASA Ref : 3.9
WHAT IS THE VALUE OF EACH CAPACITOR
26 mF OR 260,000 pF
630 pF
9600 pF
683J
68000 pF
Slide No 290
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAPS IN SERIES BY CONNECTING IN SERIES THE PLATES ARE SEPERATED, THEREFORE CAPACITANCE IS REDUCED THE CAPACITANCE IS FELT ACROSS THE LEFT PLATE OF C1 AND RIGHT PLATE OF C2 THE FORMULA FOR SERIES CAPACITANCE IS THE SAME AS FOR RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
KONAS KONAS
1000 F 50V
KONAS KONAS
1000 F 50V
SERIES CAPACITANCE - 1/CT = (1/C1) + (1/C2) + (1/C3) .OR CT = C1XC2 C1+C2
C1 C2
NEUTRAL
Slide No 291
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 292
EASA Ref : 3.9
AS FOR RESISTANCE, THE CAPACITANCE SHOULD BE CONVERTED TO FARADS FIRST THE TOTAL CAPACITANCE SHOULD BE BELOW THE SMALLEST CAPACITANCE CALCULATE THE TOTAL CAPACITANCE 1. 2. C1 = 0.47 F , C2 = 0.68p F, AND C3 = 50n F C1 = 10F, C2 = 0.47F
Slide No 293
EASA Ref : 3.9
CAPS IN PARALLEL CONNECTING CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL ADDS UP THE TOTAL AREA OF THE CAPACITORS,THEREFORE THE AREA IS BIGGER. TOTAL CAPACITANCE OF THE CAPACITORS IS: CT = C1 + C2 + C3 ALL CAPS SHOULD BE CONVERTED TO THE SAME UNIT CALCULATE THE TOTAL CAPACITANCE 1. 2. C1 = 68F, C2 = 0.01nF AND C3 = 47pF C1 = 0.25F, C2 = 0.03F, C3 = 2F
KONAS KONAS
1000 F 50V
KONAS KONAS
1000 F 50V
Slide No 294
EASA Ref : 3.9
Slide No 295
EASA Ref : 3.9
WHEN PARALLELED THE TOTAL CHARGE INCREASES ENERGY STORED = 0.5 X C X V WHEN MORE THAN 2 CAPS ARE CONNECTED IN SERIES THE OVERALL WORKING VOLTAGE WILL ADD UP
Slide No 296
EASA Ref : 3.9
75V 1.667m F
5000 f 25 v
5000 f 25 v
5000 f 25 v
KONAS KONAS
KONAS KONAS
KONAS KONAS
75V 1.667m F
5000 f 25 v
5000 f 25 v
5000 f 25 v
25V 5 mF
KONAS KONAS
KONAS KONAS
KONAS KONAS
75V 1.667m F
5000 f 25 v
5000 f 25 v
5000 f 25 v
KONAS KONAS
KONAS KONAS
KONAS KONAS
3 X 3 MATRIX OF CAPACITORS
Slide No 297
EASA Ref : 3.9
CHARGING OF THE CAPACITOR
OFF CHARGE
NO POWER CONNECTED TO CAP BOTH PLATES ARE NEUTRAL
NO ELECTRIC FIELDS BETWEEN THE PLATES
Slide No 298
EASA Ref : 3.9
ON CHARGE POWER IS CONNECTED ACROSS THE PLATES CAP WILL CHARGE UP AT 5 TIMES CONSTANT ELECTRONS ARE REMOVED FROM THE POSITIVE PLATE AND FED TO THE NEGATIVE PLATE. THE BUILD UP OF CURRENT OPPOSES THE SOURCE VOLTAGE THE CAP CONT. TO CHARGE UNTIL SOURCE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT STOPS FLOWING
Slide No 299
EASA Ref : 3.9
DISCHARGING OF THE CAPACITOR CHARGE ON THE 2 PLATES SHOULD BE NEUTRALIZES THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD WILL VANISH THE SOURCE ENERGY IS RECOVERED FROM THE CAPACITOR WHEN DISCHARGED CAPACITORS DO NOT CONSUME POWER, IT ONLY STORES ENERGY
Slide No 300
EASA Ref : 3.9
RESISTOR / CAPACITOR TIME CONSTANT
FORMULA: 1TC = R x C
Slide No 301
EASA Ref : 3.9
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF THE CHARGE
Slide No 302
EASA Ref : 3.9
CHARGING THE CURRENT WILL BE MAX AND THE VOLTAGE WILL BE MIN AS SOON AS THE VOLTAGE IS APPLIED TO THE CAP (INITIALLY)
THE VOLTAGE WILL BE MAX AND THE CURRENT WILL BE MIN WHEN THE CAP IS FULLY CHARGED
Slide No 303
EASA Ref : 3.9
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
CHARGING
Slide No 304
EASA Ref : 3.9
DISCHARGING THE VOLTAGE WILL BE MAX. AND THE CURRENT WILL ALSO BE MAX. AS SOON AS THE LOAD IS APPLIED (INITIALLY)
THE VOLTAGE WILL BE MIN. AND THE CURRENT WILL ALSO BE MIN. WHEN THE CAP. HAS FULLY DISCHARGED
Slide No 305
EASA Ref : 3.9
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
C DIS
IN RG HA
Slide No 306
EASA Ref : 3.9
TESTING OF CAPACITORS
MULTIMETER (EITHER ANALOGUE OR DIGITAL) SHOULD BE AT VERY HIGH RANGE NON-POLARIZED
Slide No 307
MAGNETISM ( EASA Ref : 3.10 )
MAGNETISM CAN PRODUCE ELECTRICITY OR ELECTRICITY CAN PRODUCE MAGNETISM CONVERTING A METAL INTO A MAGNET IS THE PROCESS OF CONVERTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY. Ex; GENERATOR MOVING A MAGNET THROUGH A COIL CAUSES AN ELECTRIC CURRENT TO FLOW. THIS PROCESS IS THE CONVERTION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY. Ex; MOTOR
Slide No 308
EASA Ref : 3.10
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETISM NATURE OF MAGNETISM IT IS AN ELECTRIC CHARGE IN MOTION (ELECTRONS)
ELECTRONS ARE MAGNETS SPINNING ON ITS AXIS SOME SPIN CLOCKWISE AND EQUAL AMOUNT IN ANTICLOCKWISE THEY ARE MAGNETICALLY NEUTRAL, THEREFORE NO MAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS
Slide No 309
EASA Ref : 3.10
SUSPENDED MAGNET (PERMANENT MAGNET) EARTH IS A MAGNET ITSELF WHEN SUSPENDED THE MAGNET LIES IN THE NORTH-SOUTH DIRECTION MAGNETIC FIELDS (INVISIBLE) ARE ALSO KNOWN AS LINES OF FORCE
Slide No 310
EASA Ref : 3.10
Magnet in earth magnetic field

Magnetic field and poles of the earth

Slide No 311
EASA Ref : 3.10
SHAPES OF MAGNETS MADE OF STEEL COMPASS NEEDLES BARS RODS HORSE SHOES RINGS (CIRCULAR)
Slide No 312
EASA Ref : 3.10
Shapes of magnets
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC POLES
MAGNETS HAVE 2 ENDS, 1 NORTH SEEKING POLE AND 1 SOUTH SEEKING POLE WHEN SUSPENDED THE END THAT POINTS TO THE NORTH POLE OF THE EARTH IS NORTH POLE. THE ONE THAT POINTS SOUTH IS SOUTH POLE
Slide No 314
EASA Ref : 3.10

MAGNETISM BY INDUCTION ANOTHR NAME FOR NATURAL MAGNET -LODESTONE THEY CAN PICK UP IRON AND STEEL WHEN A SOFT IRON IS PLACED NEXT TO A MAGENT IT GETS INDUCED AND SLIGHTLY MAGNETIZED IF THE MAGNET IS STROKED A NUMBER OF TIMES, IT WILL BE EVEN MORE INDUCED AND MORE MAGNETIZED
Slide No 315
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC SHIELDING ALSO CALLED MAGNETIC SCREENING SOFT IRON IS USED AS MAGNETIC SCREEN FOR SHIELDING THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATING THE FLUX TO PREVENT STRAY MAGNETIC FIELDS CAUSING INACCURATE OPERATION.
Slide No 316
EASA Ref : 3.10

SCREENING OF COMPONENTS SINCE MAGNETIC FLUX CAN BE CONCENTRATED INTO IRON, THE CENTER PART OF THE IRON RING HAS NO MAGNETIC FLUX OUTSIDE THE IRON CORE THE ABILITY OF THE SOFT IRON TO CONCENTRATE THE MAGNETIC FLUX IS KNOWN AS PERMEABILITY. SOFT IRON HIGH PERMEABILITY AND AIR - LOW PERMEABILITY
Slide No 317
EASA Ref : 3.10
TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS CAN ATTRACT OTHER KIND OF METALS LIKE IRON, NICKEL AND COBOLT PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS CANNOT ATTRCT OTHER KINDS OF METAL, PAPER OR WOOD DIAMANGNETIC MATERIAL REPELS ITSELF FROM MAGNETS (NOT IN USE) IF AN IRON IS MAGETIZED BY A LOADSTONE, THAT IRON IS KNOWN AS ARTIFICIAL MAGNET. THEY LOSE THEIR MAGNETISM EASILY (SOFT IRON) SOME IRONS CAN RETAIN THEIR MAGNETISM FOR A LONG PERIOD OF TIME. THEY ARE KNOWN AS PERMANENT MAGNET
Slide No 318
EASA Ref : 3.10
TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

EASA Ref : 3.10
RELAY CONSISTS OF A TEMPERORY MAGNET, COIL, ARMATURE AND CONTACTS CAN BE NORMALLY OPEN OR NORMALLY CLOSED TYPE
Slide No 320
EASA Ref : 3.10
CONSTRUCTION OF RELAY
Slide No 321
EASA Ref : 3.10
CIRCUIT SYMBOL AND CONTACTS OF A RELAY
Slide No 322
EASA Ref : 3.10
OPERATION CURRENT FED TO THE COIL SORF IRON BECOMES MAGNET ATTRACTS THE ARMATURE CONTACTS EITHER CLOSES OR OPENS CURRENT DISRUPTED IRON LOSSES MAGNETISM ARMATURE RELEASED DUE TO SRINGY ACTION CONTACTS EITHER OPENS OR CLOSES
Slide No 323
EASA Ref : 3.10
Slide No 324
EASA Ref : 3.10
USES OF RELAY REMOTE SWITCHING HIGH VOLTAGE DROP CAN BE EXPERIENCED IN LONG WIRES A RELAY CAN BE USED TO CONTROL EQUIPMENT AT A DISTANCE SINCE RELAY TAKES ONLY A SMALL CURRENT POWER LOSS AT THE EQUIPMENT WILL BE LESS
Slide No 325
EASA Ref : 3.10
REMOTE SWITCHING USING A RELAY

EASA Ref : 3.10
HEAVY WORKING CURRENT SWITCHING EQUIPMENT CAN BE SWITCHED ON AND OFF WITH SMALL CURRENT CAN BE HEAVY DUTY RELAY OR LIGHT DUTY RELAY. USED IN PROTECTIVE CIRCUITS INDICATING SYSTEMS POWER CONTROL SYSTEMS TELEGRAPHIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
Slide No 327
EASA Ref : 3.10
HEAVY WORKING CURRENT SWITCHING

EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC FIELDS ON CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS CURRENT FLOWS, A MAGNETIC FIELD IS PRODUCED
2 METHODS TO DETERMINE THE FIELD DIRECTION RIGHT HAND RULE WIRE GRASPED WITH RIGHT HAND THUMB POINTS TO THE DIRECTION OF CURRENT FINGERS POINT TO THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS
Slide No 329
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR

EASA Ref : 3.10
RIGHT HAND RULE

EASA Ref : 3.10
CORKSCREW RULE WHEN THE CORKSCREW IS SCREWED INTO THE PAPER, THE CURRENT WILL FLOW INTO THE PAPER THE DIRECTION THE CORKSCREW IS TURNED , IS THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS (CLOCKWISE) WHEN THE CORKSCREW IS REMOVED, THE CURRENT WILL FLOW OUT OF THE PAPER THE DIRECTION OF THE CORKSCREW IS THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS (ANTI-CLOCKWISE)
Slide No 332
EASA Ref : 3.10
COCKSCREW RULE
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF) THE FORCE THAT TENDS TO PRODUCE A MAGNETIC FIELD UNIT FOR MMF IS THE GILBERT, SYMBOL IS F 1 GILBERT IS EQUAL TO THE MAGNETIC FORCE THAT IS REQ. TO ESTABLISH AFLUX DENSITY OF 1 MAXWELL IN A FLUX PATH OR MAGNETIC CCT. HAVING A RELUCTANCE OF 1 UNIT
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Slide No 334
EASA Ref : 3.10
FIELD STRENGTH MAGNETIC FIELDS ARE CONTINOUS, THEY CAN PASS THRU THE CORE AND ALSO THE AIR GAP SYMBOL FOR MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH IS H (UNIT IS TESLA) SYMBOL FOR MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY IS B (LIKE THE VOLTAGE) (UNIT IS WEBER) H = AMPERES x TURNS = IN/L Tesla
LENGTH (MAGNETIC CCT)
Slide No 335
EASA Ref : 3.10

OUTSIDE THE MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE TRAVEL FROM NORTH SEEKING POLE TO THE SOUTH SEEKING POLE INSIDE THE MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE TRAVELS FROM SOUTH TO NORTH
Slide No 336
EASA Ref : 3.10
FLUX DENSITY (SYMBOL B) MAGNETIC FLUX THE ENTIRE GROUP OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES, WHICH CAN BE CONSIDERED TO FLOW OUTWARD FROM THE NORTH POLE OF A MAGNET, IS CALLED MAGNETIC FLUX SYMBOL IS (phi)
A STRONG FIELD HAS MORE LINES OF FORCE AND MORE FLUX THAN A WEAK MAGNETIC FIELD
Slide No 337
EASA Ref : 3.10
PERMEABILITY THE ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO BECOME A MAGNET IS THE PERMEABILITY. DIFFERENT MATERIAL HAVE DIFFERENT PERMEABILITY. WHEN AN IRON BECOMES A MAGNET IT PRODUCES MAGNETIC FIELDS OF ITS OWN, HENCE INCREASING THE FLUX DENSITY THE MULTIPLYING FACTOR OF A MATERIAL IS (mu) =B/H RANGES FROM 1 (AIR) TO A FEW THOUSANDS
Slide No 338
EASA Ref : 3.10
EFFECT OF IRON IN MAGNETIC FIELD
Slide No 339
EASA Ref : 3.10
HYSTERESIS LOOP
WHEN A SOFT IRON IS SUBJECTED TO CURRENT AROUND IT, IT BECOMES A MAGNET IF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS ARE INCREASED EVEN MORE INTO SATURATION, TME IRON IS FULLY MAGNETIZED NOW IF THE CURRENT IS REMOVED, THE IRON STILL HOLDS SOME RESIDUAL MAGNETISM. THIS EFFECT IS KNOWN AS HYSTERESIS IT CAN BE SAID THAT THE LAG OF FLUX DENSITY (B) BEHIND THE MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (H) IS HYSTERESIS
Slide No 340
EASA Ref : 3.10
B-H CURVE ONCE AT SATURATION AND THE MAGNETISM IS REMOVED THE B DOES NOT DROP TO ZERO, INSTEAD IT HOLDS VALUE OF B. THIS VALUE OF B IS KNOWN AS REMNANT OR RESIDUAL MAGNETISM. KEEP IN MIND, ONLY IF IT REACHES SATURATION.
REMNANT OR RESIDUAL MAGNETISM WILL REDUCE TO ZERO QUITE FAST UNDER NORMAL CONDITION.
IF THE INCREASE OF THE H STRENGTH IS NOT TO SATURATION AND REMOVED, IT IS KNOWN AS REMNANT FLUX DENSITY
Slide No 341
EASA Ref : 3.10
B-H CURVE
INITIAL BEFORE MAGNETISM
AFTER INCREASING TO MAX. MAGNETISM (SATURATION)
Remanence or Residual Magnetism

EASA Ref : 3.10
RETENTIVITY WHEN THE MAGNETISM IS HELD FOR A LONG PERIOD OF TIME, IT IS KNOWN AS RETENTIVITY RESIDUAL / REMNANT IS NOT THE SAME AS RETENTIVITY. IN NORMAL CONDITIONS THE REMNANT CAN DECREASE TO ZERO BUT THE RETENTIVE MAGNETISM MAY LAST A VERY LONG TIME DEPANDING ON THE TYPE OF MATERIAL USED
Slide No 343
EASA Ref : 3.10
COERCIVE FORCE
TO REMOVE THE REMNANT MAGNETISM, A NEGATIVE MAGNETISING FORCE IS REQUIRED
THE AMOUNT OF NEGATIVE FORCE REQUIRED IS KNOWN AS COERCIVE FORCE
IF THE FIRST TIME IT REACHED SATURATION, THAN THIS VALUE IS KNOWN AS COERCIVITY OF THE MATERIAL.
Slide No 344
EASA Ref : 3.10
COERCIVE FORCE
Slide No 345
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC ATTRACTION
WHEN 2 UNLIKE POLES ARE PLACED CLOSE TOGETHER, THEY ATTRACT EACH OTHER. MAGNETIC FIELDS COMBINE
Slide No 346
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC POLES
Slide No 347
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC REPULSION
WHEN 2 LIKE POLES ARE PLACED CLOSE TOGETHER, THEY REPEL MAGNETIC FIELDS REPEL EACH OTHER
Slide No 348
EASA Ref : 3.10
REPULSION
Slide No 349
EASA Ref : 3.10
SATURATION POINTS
A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF FORCE IS REQUIRED TO REMOVE THE RESIDUAL MAGNETISM. IF THE FORCE IS TOO HIGH, THAN THE IRON WILL BE SATURATED IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION (NEGATIVE SATURATION) TO REMOVE THE MAGNETISM OF A PERMANANT MAGNET, A LARGE FORCE IS REQUIRED HARD IRON REQUIRES A LARGE FORCE TO ENERGIZE AND DEENERGIZE
Slide No 350
EASA Ref : 3.10
NEGATIVE SATURATION
EASA Ref : 3.10
EDDY CURRENT
IN A TRANSFORMER, WHEN THE MAGNETIC FIELD EXPENDS AND COLLAPSES, THE CORE IS INDUCED WITH VOLTAGE. THIS VOLTAGE IN TURN ESTABLISHES A CURRENT. THIS CURRENT IS KNOWN AS EDDY CURRENT THAT FLOWS IN A CIRCULAR PATH.
Slide No 352
EASA Ref : 3.10
CARE AND STORAGE OF MAGNETS
TO PREVENT THE LOSS OF MAGNETIC ENERGY OF A PERMANENT MAGNET A KEEPER IS REQUIRED
A KEEPER CAN BE A SOFT IRON OR EVEN ANOTHER MAGNET
WITH THE KEEPER, THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT IS COMPLETE. THEREFORE THERE IS NO STRAYING OF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS
Slide No 353
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNET WITH KEEPERS

EASA Ref : 3.10
DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW IN A WIRE WHEN CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH A WIRE, ELECTRONS (HOLES) SHOULD FLOW FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE (CONVENTIONAL)
ARROW SYMBOLIZES THE TAIL AS POSITIVE AND THE HEAD AS NEGATIVE
Slide No 355
EASA Ref : 3.10
DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW
Slide No 356
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC FIELDS IN A COIL A PIECE OF STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING CURRENT HAS MAGNETIC FIELDS AROUND IT , BUT VERY SMALL FOR PRACTICAL USE IF THE SAME WIRE IS TWISTED INTO A LOOP, THE MAGNETIC FIELDS WILL BE CONCENTRATED INTO A SMALL AREA ONCE CONCENTRATED, IT WILL HAVE 3 PROPERTIES BRINGS THE FLUX LINES TOGETHER CREATES NORTH AND SOUTH POLES CONCENTRATES THE FLUX LINES IN THE CENTRE
Slide No 357
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC FIELDS IN A COIL
Slide No 358
EASA Ref : 3.10

RIGHT HAND GRASP RULE USING THE RIGHT HAND AND GRASPING THE COIL IN THE DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW, THE THUMB POINTS TO THE NORTH THE FLUX DENSITY DEPANDS ON: VALUE OF THE CURRENT IN THE COIL NUMBER OF TURNS IN THE COIL THE TYPE OF CORE MATERIAL IF A CORE IS USED, THE MAGNETIC FORCE STRENGTH IS INCREASED IF THE NUMBER OF TURNS INCREASE, THE MAGNETIC FORCE STRONGER TOO. (STRONGER ELECROMAGNETS) THE LEVEL OF CURRENT CAN ALSO VARY THE STRENGTH OF THE MAGNETIC FORCE
Slide No 359
EASA Ref : 3.10
RIGHT HAND GRASP RULE
Slide No 360
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS RELUCTANCE (S) (IT IS THE SAME AS RESISTANCE IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT) IT IS THE OPPOSITE TO MAGNETIC FLUX IT IS RECIPROCAL OF THE PERMEABILITY FORMULA : PERMEABILITY = 1/ RELUCTANCE S=1/ OR = 1/S Ex: IF THE RELUCTANCE IS 0.0002, WHAT IS THE PERMEABILITY OF THIS MATERIAL. = 1 / 0.0002 = 5000
Slide No 361
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2 TYPES OF USEFUL MAGNETIC MATERIALS FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL MATERIAL THAT CAN BECOME MAGNET ( NICKLE, COBALT, IRON etc). THEY HAVE THE ABILITY OF CONCECNTRATING AND MULTIPLING THE FLUX NON-FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS MATERIAL THAT CANNOT BECOME MAGNET ( ALLUMINUM WATER AIR etc). IT CANNOT CONCENTRATE THE MAGNETIC FLUX AND DOES NOT HAVE THE ABILITY OF MULTIPLING THE FLUX. - AIR HAS A OF 1
Slide No 362
EASA Ref : 3.10
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH/ FLUX DENSITY CURVE ( B-H CURVE )
Slide No 363
EASA Ref : 3.10
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH BECAUSE AIR HAS A PERMEABILITY OF 1
Slide No 364
EASA Ref : 3.10
B-H CURVE OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL
Large increase of H causes a small increase of B
Small increase of H causes a large increase of B
Large increase of H causes a small increase of B
Slide No 365
EASA Ref : 3.10

CLASSIFICATION OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS 2 TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS: HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALMAKES A GOOD PERMANENT MAGNET, HIGH RETENTIVITY LARGER HYSTERESIS LOSSES ALNICO MAKES A GOOD PERMANENT MAGNET ALNICO CONSISTS OF ALU, COBALT, NICKEL AND IRON SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIAL LOW RETENTIVITY, LOW HYSTERESIS LOSSES AND HIGH PERMEABILITY SUITABLE WITH AC DEVICES ex; ELECTRIC MOTOR,GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER STEEL ALLOYS (PERMALLOY OR STALLOY) FOR AC USE SORT IRON FOR DC USE,HAS HIGH PERMEABILITY BUT RELATIVELY HIGH HYSTERESIS LOSS
Slide No 366
EASA Ref : 3.10
HYSTERESIS LOOP
Slide No 367
EASA Ref : 3.10
HYSTERERIS LOOP
Slide No 368
INDUCTANCE / INDUCTOR ( EASA Ref : 3.11)
INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTOR BY THE MOVEMENT OF A CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD, ELECTRICAL ENERGY CAN BE PRODUCED BY MOVEMENT OF A MAGNET INTO A COIL, ELECTRICAL ENERGY CAN BE PRODUCED TOO. Ex; GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER
Slide No 369
EASA Ref : 3.11

INDUCING A VOLTAGE WHEN A CONDUCTOR IS MOVED INTO A MAGNETIC FIELD AT 90 THE ELECTRONS ARE FORCED TOWARDS THE RIGHT OF THE CONDUCTOR, WHILE LACK OF ELECTRONS AT THE LEFT. A PD IS DEVELOPED. WHEN THE CONDUCTOR IS MOVED OUT OF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, THE ELECTRONS MOVE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION AND THE PD DISAPPEARS WHENTHE CONDUCTOR IS OUT OF THE FIELDS IF THE CONDUCTOR STOPS IN THE FIELDS, THERE WILL BE NO PD THEREFORE PD IS CREATED ONLY WHEN THE CONDUCTOR IS MOVED MECHANICAL FORCE IS CONVERTED TO ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE BY ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Slide No 370
EASA Ref : 3.11
Slide No 371
EASA Ref : 3.11
EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH ON THE INDUCED VOLTAGE WHEN THE CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT AND THE MAGNETIC FLUX ARE IN THE SAME DIRECTION, THERE WILL BE NO EMF INDUCED IN THE OTHER CIRCUIT
Slide No 372
EASA Ref : 3.11
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH
Slide No 373
EASA Ref : 3.11
EFFECT OF RATE OF CHANGE OF FLUX ON INDUCED VOLTAGE
MOVING THE COIL AT 45 DEG. WILL INCREASE THE INDUCTION AND WHEN MOVED TO 90 DEG., THE INDUCTION WILL BE INCREASED TO MAXIMUM. TURNING A FURTHER 90 DEG. WILL PRODUCE ZERO INDUCTION
Slide No 374
EASA Ref : 3.11
Slide No 375
EASA Ref : 3.11
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF CHANGE OF FLUX SPEED OF CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT THRU THE FIELDS THE STRENGTH OF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE CONDUCTOR AND FIELD THE LENGTH (# OF TURNS) OF THE CONDUCTOR IN THE FIELD
FARADAYS LAW: WHEN A CONDUCTOR CUTS OR IS CUT BY THE MAGNETIC FLUX, THERE WILL BE INDUCED EMF PRODUCED. THIS IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE RATE OF MOVEMENT THRU THE FIELDS FORMULA: EMF = B x I x V
Slide No 376
EASA Ref : 3.11
LENZS LAW
WHEN A CURRENT IS SET UP IN AN INDUCED EMF CLOSED CIRCUIT, THE CONDUCTOR WILL PRODUCE ITS OWN MAGNETIC FIELDS THE MAGNETIC FIELDS IN FRONT OF THE CONDUCTORS MOTION IS STRENGTHENED BEHIND THE CONDUCTORS MOTION IS WEAKENED
Slide No 377
EASA Ref : 3.11
Slide No 378
EASA Ref : 3.11
FIELDS OF PARALLEL CONDUCTORS CARRYING CURRENT CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS MAGNETIC FIELDS WILL ATTRACT EACH OTHER IF THEY ARE IN THE SAME DIRECTION CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS MAGNETIC FIELDS WILL REPEL EACH OTHER IF THEY ARE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELDS ARE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE RIGHT HAND AND CORKSCREW RULE
Slide No 379
EASA Ref : 3.11
FIELDS OF PARALLEL CONDUCTORS
Slide No 380
EASA Ref : 3.11
FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD A CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT IS PUT INTO THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, INTERACTION BETWEEN THE 2 FIELDS TAKE PLACE THE CONDUCTOR HAS ITS OWN FIELDS, THEREFORE ON 1 SIDE IT AIDS THE MAGNETIC FIELDS AND ON THE OTHER SIDE IT OPPOSES THE AIDED SIDE HAS A GREATER FORCE COMPARED TO THE OPPOSED SIDE. THEREFORE THE CONDUCTOR IS FORCED TOWARDS THE WEAKER SIDE ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS CONVERTED TO MECHANICAL ENERGY
Slide No 381
EASA Ref : 3.11
Slide No 382
EASA Ref : 3.11
THE CORKSCREW RULE IS USED TO DETERMINE THE FELD DIRECTION OF THE CONDUCTOR ANOTHER WAY TO DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF FORCE IS BY THE LEFT HAND RULE
MAGNETIC FLUX IS FROM NORTH TO SOUTH THE DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW IN THE CONDUCTOR (DIRECTION OF THE FINGERS) WHEREBY THE THUMB DETERMINE THE DIRECTION OF FORCE
Slide No 383
EASA Ref : 3.11
LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE
Slide No 384
EASA Ref : 3.11
MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE THE MAGNITUDE IS PROPORTIONAL TO 3 FACTORS: THE FLUX DENSITY OF THE MAGNETS POLES THE FLUX DENSITY OF THE CONDUCTOR (PROPORTIONAL TO THE CURRENT) LENGTH OF THE CONDUCTOR THEREFORE FORCE IS EQUAL TO (FORMULA): FORCE = FLUX DENSITY (B) x CURRENT (I) x LENGTH (l) = B. I. l NEWTONS
Slide No 385
EASA Ref : 3.11
LENZS LAW
AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD INTERACTING WITH A CONDUCTOR WILL GENERATE ELECTRICAL CURRENT THAT INDUCES A COUNTER MAGNETIC FIELD THAT OPPOSES THE MAGNETIC FIELD GENERATING THE CURRENT ( THE INDUCED CURRENT ALWAYS OPPOSES THE MOTION OR CHANGE PRODUCING IT )
Slide No 386
EASA Ref : 3.11
LENZS LAW
Slide No 387
EASA Ref : 3.11
DETERMINATION OF THE INDUCED CURRENT FLOW WITH LENZS LAW
FIRST THE DIRECTION OF THE CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT SHOULD BE KNOWN THE DIRECTION OF THE FIELD IN THE CONDUCTOR SHOULD ALSO BE KNOWN USING THE RIGHT HAND OR THE CORKSCREW RULE IN REVERSE TO DETERMINE THE INDUCED CURRENT
Slide No 388
EASA Ref : 3.11
BACK EMF WHEN A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR MOVES THROUGH THE MAGNETS MAGNETIC FIELDS, THE CONDUCTORS FIELD WILL CHANGE (RATE OF CHANGE OF FLUX). THIS CHANGE WILL INDUCE AN EMF (BACK EMF) WHICH WILL OPPOSE THE APPLIED EMF AND IN TURN, THE CURRENT OF THE CONDUCTOR. THIS CAUSES THE CONDUCTOR TO MOVE BACK EMF IS ALSO KNOWN AS EMF or COUNTER EMF FORMULA: -EMF = B x I x V
Slide No 389
EASA Ref : 3.11

MAGNETIC LINE OF FLUX AROUND A LOOP IF CURRENT IS CHANGED IN A LOOP, THE FLUX ALSO CHANGES IN STRENGTH THE CHANGE CAUSES AN EMF (BACK) THAT OPPOSES THE EMF IF THE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT INCREASES THE OPPOSITION ALSO INCREASES AND VICE VERSA IF THE CURRENT INCREASES IN AN INDUCTOR, THE ENERGY IS STORED IN THE FIELDS AND WHEN THE CURRENT DECREASES, THE FIELD GIVES UP THE ENERGY. ENERGY STORED IN THE MAGNETIC FIELDS DEPEND ON THE INDUCTANCE AND COIL CURRENT
Slide No 390
EASA Ref : 3.11

INDUCTANCE THE OPPOSITION TO A CHANGE OF CURRENT OR FLUX ANY IRCUIT WHICH HAS AN EMF INDUCED INTO IT BY A CHANGE OF CURRENT THROUGH THAT CCT POSSESS SELF INDUCTANCE. A COIL IS AN INDUCTOR SYMBOL FOR INDUCTANCE IS L AND THE UNIT FOR INDUCTANCE IS HENRYS (H) IF 1 AMPERE FLOWS IN A CIRCUIT FOR 1 SECOND PRODUCES 1 VOLT EMF THE CCT IS SAID TO HAVE AN INDUCTANCE OF 1 HENRY. FORMULA: - EMF(V ) INDUCTANCE = RATE OF CHANGE OF CURRENT (A) RATE OF CHANGE OF TIME (S)
Slide No 391
EASA Ref : 3.11
INDUCTANCE OF A CORED COIL WHEN CURRENT FLOWS IN A COIL INCREASES , THE INDUCTANCE INCREASES BUT WHEN THE COIL IS INSERTED WITH A CORE, THE INDUCTANCE INCREASES UNTIL SATURATION. FURTHER INCREASE IN THE CURRENT WILL DRASTICALLY REDUCE THE INDUCTANCE NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS SUCH AS AIR, COPPER AND ALUMINUM DOES NOT MULTIPLY FLUX, THEREFORE THE CORE DOES NOT SATURATE. IT IS INDEPENDENT OF CURRENT
Slide No 392
EASA Ref : 3.11
Slide No 393
EASA Ref : 3.11

WHEN CURRENT FLOWS IN A COIL, A BACK EMF WILL BE PRODUCED THIS BACK EMF IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE AMOUNT OF MAGNETIC FORCE (RATE OF CHANGE) THAT CUTS THE COIL THE INDUCTANCE CUTTING DEPENDS ON: NUMBER OF TURNS (GREATER THE NUMBER OF TURNS, GREATER IS THE CUTTING AND THEREFORE BACK EMF) CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE CORE (THE GREATER THE A, THE GREATER IS THE FLUX THAT CUTS THE CONDUCTOR) PERMEABILITY (GREATER IS THE MU, THE GREATER IS THE FLUX CUTTING CONDUCTOR AND THEREFORE GREATER EMF LENGTH OF THE CORE (SHORTER THE CORE, LESS IS THE FLUX)
Slide No 394
EASA Ref : 3.11
FORMULA L = N2 A Henrys H l
Slide No 395
EASA Ref : 3.11
FORMULA:
L = N x A x Henrys H l Ex : 1 IF AN INDUCTOR HAS AIR AS ITS CORE AND THE NUMBER OF TURNS IT HAS IS 100 WITH A X-SECTIONAL AREA OF 0.2 x 10 ,WHAT IS THE INDUCTANCE OF THIS INDUCTOR ( OF AIR = 1.26 X 10) 6 N x A x L = l 100 X ( 0.2 x 10 )x (1.26 X 10) 6 L= 0.2 = 12.6 X 10 6or 12.6 H
Slide No 396
EASA Ref : 3.11

CALCULATION: Ex: 2 IF N = 100 TURNS, A = 3 METERS, l = 0.5 METERS, AND THE FERRITE CORE HAS mu=1000. FIND THE INDUCTANCE. N x A x L = l
(100) X (3 X 10 )6X (1.26 X 10 ) 6X 1000 = 0.5 = 756 mH or 0.756 H
Slide No 397
EASA Ref : 3.11
Inductor symbol
Slide No 398
EASA Ref : 3.11
TIME CONSTANT as discussed earlier, the current that flows in an inductor is opposed by the induced current as the current is increased, the opposed current also increases therefore this causes the current to delay in the circuit
Slide No 399
EASA Ref : 3.11
RISE TIME WHEN POWER IS APPLIED TO AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT, THE CURRENT INCREASES AT A HIGH SPEED IN 1 TIME CONSTANT. IT IS 63.2% AS THE CURRENT INCREASES THE BACK EMF WILL BE REDUCED FROM MAXIMUM. INITIALLY WHEN POWER IS APPLIED: TIME IS 0 RATE OF CURRENT CHANGE IS MAXIMUM BACK EMF AND THE APPLIED VOLTAGE ARE ALMOST EQUAL THAT IS MAXIMUM THE VOLTAGE DROP (I X R) ACROSS R IS MINIMUM FORMULA: t = L (Henrys) R (OHMS)
EASA Ref : 3.11
5 TIME CONSTANT
THE VOLTAGE IS MAX. WHEN THE APPLIED CURRENT WAS MIN. IN 1 TC THE EMF HAS DROPPED FROM 100% TO 63.2%, THEREFORE THE BACK EMF IS 36.8% IT TAKES 5 TC TO INCREASE THE CURRENT TO MAX. WHERE THE VOLTAGE DROPS TO ALMOST ZERO. L FORMULA: 5TC = 5 X R
Slide No 401
EASA Ref : 3.11
AT 5 TC BACK EMF OF THE INDUCTOR IS MINIMUM RATE OF CURRENT CHANGE IS MINIMUM CURRENT FLOW IS MAXIMUM APPLIED VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS THE R IS MAXIMUM
Slide No 402
EASA Ref : 3.11
Time constant
Slide No 403
EASA Ref : 3.11

DECAY TIME WHEN POWER IS REMOVED FROM THE CIRCUIT, THE CURRENT WILL DROP FROM MAX. TO 36.8 % OF THE MAX VALUE. THAT IS CURRENT FLOWS FROM THE COLLAPSING MAGNETIC FIELDS THE BACK EMF IS MAX AND IT TRIES TO KEEP THE CURRENT FLOW IT TAKES 1 TC TO DROP 63.2%. THEREFORE THE VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS THE R IS 36.8% THE BACK EMF IS ALSO 36.8% AT 5 TC THE CURRENT IS ALMOST ZERO AND ALL THE ENERGY IS DISCHARGED THRU THE RESISTOR SMALLER RESISTOR VALUE MAKES THE DECAY TIME LONGER BACK EMF (MANY TIMES HIGHER THAN THE APP. VOLTAGE) CAN BE DANGEROUS AND CAN CAUSE DAMAGE TO EQUIPMENT AND PERSONAL
Slide No 404
EASA Ref : 3.11
Example INDUCTANCE = 10 H AND RESISTANCE IS 1K. WHAT IS THE 5 TC OF THIS CIRCUIT L Formula: 5TC = 5 R 5 x 10/1000 = 5 x 0.01 = 0.05 seconds
Slide No 405
EASA Ref : 3.11
Example 2
IF THE INDUCTOR IS 10 H AND THE RESISTANCE IS 10 OHMS, WHAT IS THE TIME REQUIRED TO RISE THE CURRENT TO MAXIMUM. L Formula: 5TC = 5 x R = 5 x 10 / 10 =5x1 = 5 seconds
Slide No 406
EASA Ref : 3.11
Decay time
Slide No 407
EASA Ref : 3.11
INDUCTANCE IN SERIES WHEN 2 OR MORE INDUCTORS ARE CONNECTED IN SERIES, THE TOTAL VOLTAGE IS THE SUM OF THE VOLTAGE ACROSS EACH INDUCTOR UT = U1 + U2 + U3 +..Un WHEN 2 OR MORE INDUCTORS ARE CONNECTED IN SERIES THEY SHOULD BE ADDED UP JUST LIKE RESISTORS IN SERIES LT = L1 + L2 + L3 +Ln TO CALCULATE, FIRST OF ALL THE VALUES OF THE INDUCTORS SHOULD BE CONVERTED TO THE SAME DENOMINATION 10 H + 100 mH = 10 H + 100000 H = 100010 H Or 0.01mH + 100 mH = 100.01mH
Slide No 408
EASA Ref : 3.11
MUTUAL INDUCTION WHEN TWO INDUCTORS ARE PLACED CLOSE TO ONE ANOTHER,THE FLUX GENERATED WHEN A CHANGING CURRENT FLOWS INTHE FIRST INDUCTOR WILL CUT THROUGH THE OTHER INDUCTOR. THE CHANGING FLUX WILL INDUCE A CURRENT IN THE SECOND INDUCTOR. THIS EFFECT IS KNOWN AS MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Slide No 409
EASA Ref : 3.11
THE EFFECT OF THE RATE OF CHANGE OF PRIMARY CURRENT AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE ON INDUCED VOLTAGE
INDUCED VOLTAGE = MUTUAL INDUCTANCE X RATE OF CHANGE PRIMARY CURRENT = M di dt
Slide No 410
EASA Ref : 3.11
FACTORS AFFECTING MUTUAL INDUCTANCE 1. NUMBER OF TURNS OF COIL 2. PHYSICAL SIZE OF COIL 3. PERMEABILITY OF COIL 4. POSITION OF COIL WITH RESPECT TO EACH OTHER
Slide No 411
EASA Ref : 3.11
PRINCIPLES USES OF INDUCTORS 1. TUNED CIRCUITS 2. FILTERS 3. TRANSFORMERS 4. CHOKES
Slide No 412
DC MOTOR / GENERATOR THEORY ( EASA Ref : 3.12)
FORCE ON CONDUCTOR N A MAGNETIC FIELD
Slide No 413
EASA Ref : 3.12
BASIC MOTOR THEORY WHEN THE CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IS PLACED WITHIN THE MAGNETIC FIELD,THE TWO FIELDS CANNOT EXIST INDEPENDENTLY A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR HAS A MAGNETIC FIELD SURROUNDING IT. THE FIELD IS CLOCKWISE- CURRENT IN COCKSCREW RULE THE MAGNETIC FIELD BETWEEN THE TWO POLES OF A BAR MAGNET MOVES FROM NORTH TO SOUTH THE RESULT WILL BE,STRONG FIELDS ON THE LEFT WHILE FIELDS ON THE RIGHT BECOMES WEAK( OPPOSE EACH OTHER ). THEREFORE, THE CONDUCTOR WILL BE FORCED TO MOVE TOTHE RIGHT HAND SIDE. FLEMINGS LEFT HAND RULE
Slide No 414
EASA Ref : 3.12
Slide No 415
EASA Ref : 3.12
THE PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRIC MOTOR THE FORCE ON THE CONDUCTOR , F = B I l NEWTONS F = FORCE ON CONDUCTOR, IN NEWTONS (N ) B = FLUX DENSITY OF MAGNETIC FIELD, IN TESLA I = CURRENT FLOW IN CONDUCTOR, IN AMPERES l = LENGTH OF CONDUCTOR , IN METERS FLUX DDENSITY ,B =/A F =Il A
Slide No 416
EASA Ref : 3.12
A PRACTICAL DC MOTOR The construction of a dc motor is identical to that of a dc generator. It consists of : a) Armature assembly ( shaft, iron core, armature winding and commutator) b) Field assembly ( pole pieces , yoke, fields windings) c) Brushes assembly ( brushes, brush holders, brush rockers and brush spring ) d) Bearings
Slide No 417
EASA Ref : 3.12
POWER POWER IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE TORQUE AND THE SPEED STRONG TORQUE AT LOW SPEED, LOW TORQUE AT HIGH SPEED TORQUE TORQUE IS PROPORTIONAL TO X Ia OUTPUT TORQUE (SHAFT TORQUE ) =ARMATURE TORQUE LOST TORQUE LOST TORQUE WILL VARY WITH SPEED
Slide No 418
EASA Ref : 3.12
BACK EMF BACK EMF IS THE INDUCED EMF OPPOSES THE APPLIED VOLTAGE (LENZS LAW ) BACK EMF PUSHING ONE WAY AND APPLIED VOLTAGE THE OTHER WAY, SO THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THESE TWO ACTUALLY DRIVES CURRENT THROUGH THE ARMATURE CCT KNOWN AS EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE OR ARMATURE VOLTAGE EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE = APPLIED VOLTAGE BACK EMF EX. A 28 VOLTS DC MOTOR HAS A 1 OHM ARMATURE RESISTANCE AND ARMATURE CURRENT OF 2 AMPS FLOWING. FIND THE BACK EMF BACK EMF = APPLIED VOLTAGE EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE = 28 2X 1 = 26 VOLTS
Slide No 419
EASA Ref : 3.12
SPEED CONTROL OF A DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL MAY BE OBTAINED BY CONTROLLING THE FIELD CURRENT OR ARMATURE CURRENT BY INSERTING VARIABLE RESISTORS IN THE FIELD CCTS OR ARMATURE CCTS
Slide No 420
EASA Ref : 3.12
TO REVERSE THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION OF A MOTOR IS TO REVERSE THE DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW THROUGH THE ARMATURE OR THE FIELDS IF THE CURRENT FLOW THROUGH THE ARMATURE AND THE FIELD ARE BOTH REVERSED THE MOTOR CONTINUES IN THE SAME DIRECTION ON AIRCRAFT IT IS NORMAL TO REVERSE THE DIRECTION OF CURRENT THROUGH THE ARMATURE BY MEANS OF REVERSING RELAYS USE TWO FIELDS BOTH WOUND ON THE SAME POLE PIECES BUT WITH ONE GIVING OPPOSITE POLARITY TO THE OTHER
Slide No 421
EASA Ref : 3.12
TYPES OF DC MOTORS 1. SERIES MOTOR The field is connected in series with the armature, so the torque is proportional to the square of the armature current Large starting torque, High torque at low speed starting an a/c engine The motor must be connected to a load permanently as the off load speed will be very high On engine starter motors a small shunt winding is incorporated to limit this off load speed as the starter is disconnected from the engine.
Slide No 422
EASA Ref : 3.12
SERIES MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

EASA Ref : 3.12
2. SHUNT MOTOR The field is connected in parallel with the armature and of fairly high resistance. Considered to be a constant speed machine It is a self regulating machine,( when a new load is placed on the motor the motor automatically adjusts its own effective voltage) Starting torque is small- slow build up of the field strength and restricted armature current Should be started on light load or no load conditions. Used in inverter drives, windscreen wipers and fuel pumps
Slide No 424
EASA Ref : 3.12
SHUNT MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Slide No 425
EASA Ref : 3.12
3.COMPOUND WOUND MOTOR Has two windings wound on the same pole pieces .They are wound to assist one another (cumulative ) or to oppose one another (differential ) a)Cumulative Compound i )Predominantly shunt field winding, the series winding enables a fairly high starting torque and a constant torque machine Used on fuel pumps and heavy duty actuators ii) Shunt limited type high torque at low speed. When the motor is disconnected from the load ,the minor shunt limits the off load speed.
Slide No 426
EASA Ref : 3.12
b) Differential Compound The shunt and series field windings are wound to oppose one another. Fairly constant speed/load characteristic which is fairly constant but increases speed as the load becomes too great Low starting torque, but if overloaded, the series field winding will cancel the shunt field winding. There will be no torque the motor will stop even though taking excessive current. Has a problem on starting.
Slide No 427
EASA Ref : 3.12
COMPOUND MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

EASA Ref : 3.12
BASIC GENERATOR THEORY When a conductor cuts a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor (Faradays Law ) A single coil which can be rotated between a magnetic field, the ends of the coil are connected to slip rings, brushes spring on the slip rings make the connection to the external circuit (load The loop is rotated through 360 degrees and an alternating emf is generated. The magnitude of the emf generated depends on : - B = Flux Density in Tesla -l = length of conductor in meters v = velocity (speed ) of conductor in meters/sec e= B l v
Slide No 429
EASA Ref : 3.12
FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE TO FIND THE DIRECTION OF THE INDUCED EMF (HENCE THE CURRENT ) OF A CONDUCTOR ROTATED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD FIRST FINGER DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD SECOND FINGER DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW (CONVENTIONAL) THUMB - DIRECTION OF CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT
Slide No 430
EASA Ref : 3.12
FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE
Slide No 431
EASA Ref : 3.12
CONSTRUCTION AND PURPOSE OF COMPONENTS IN DC GENERATOR 1. ARMATURE ASSEMBLY a) Shaft b) Iron Core - provides low reluctance path, core laminated to reduce eddy currents c) Armature Windings ( output windings) wound in longitudinal slots in the core and wedged. Wave windings high voltage and low current output Lap windings - high current and low voltage output. d) Commutator consists of a number of copper segments on the shaft they are insulated from one another by strips of mica rectify ac to dc
Slide No 432
EASA Ref : 3.12
2.
FIELD ASSEMBLY a) Yoke cylindrical frame of the machine.-part of the magnetic cct. Made of cast or rolled steel. b) Pole Pieces forms the core of the magnet coils. Bolted inside the yoke. laminated- reduces eddy currents c) Field Windings pre-formed coils mounted on the pole pieces. provide the North and South polarity alternately BRUSHES GEAR ASSEMBLY a) Brush - made of material of low contact resistance, low specific resistance, low coefficient of friction, and good lubricating propertiesgraphite carbon. b) Brush Holders - metal boxes for brush to fit in. Brush holders is secured to brush rockers. c) Brush Spring - maintain good contact with commutator BEARINGS -supported the armature. Ball or roller
3.
4.
Slide No 433
EASA Ref : 3.12
TYPICAL DC GENERATOR
EASA Ref : 3.12
CLASSIFICATION OF DC GENERATORS 1. PERMANENT MAGNET 2. SEPARATELY EXCITED 3. SELF EXCITED SELF EXCITED DC GENERATORS THE FIELD IS EXCITED BY CURRENT OBTAINED FROM THE ARMATURE OF THE MACHINE ITSELF. THESE GENERATORS HAS A SMALL AMOUNT OF RESIDUAL MAGNETISM IN THE POLE PIECES DUE TO PREVIOUS MAGNETISATIONS A) SERIES WOUND FIELD COILS ARE WOUND IN SERIES WITH THE ARMATURE. FEW TURNS OF HEAVY WIRE OR COPPER STRIP OF LARGE CROSS SECTION AREA OF VERY LOW RESISTANCE. HAVE POOR VOLTAGE REGULATION NOT NORMALLY USED ON A/C
Slide No 435
EASA Ref : 3.12
SERIES WOUND GENERATOR
Slide No 436
EASA Ref : 3.12
B ) SHUNT WOUND FIELD WINDINGS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL TO THE ARMATRE AND ALSO TO THE EXTERNAL CCT.CONTAINS MANY TURNS OF SMALL WIRE OF HIGH RESISTANCE. SHUNTGENERATOR SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO BULD UP TO THEIR CORRECT VOLTAGE BEFORE THE LOAD IS APPLIED. IF THE LOAD IS INCREASED ABOVE THE FULL CONDITION THEN ,THE VOLTAGE DROPS TO ZERO. HAS A FALLING VOLTS/LOAD CHARACTERISTICS DUE TO IR DROP IN THE ARMATURE WINDINGS USED ON A/C AS ITS DC POWER SOURCE
Slide No 437
EASA Ref : 3.12
SHUNT WOUND GENERATOR
Slide No 438
EASA Ref : 3.12
C)
COMPOUND WOUND COMBINATION OF A SERIES WINDING AND A SHUNT WINDING. IF THE SERIES FIELD ASSISTS THE SHUNT FIELD, THE GEN IS SAID TO BE CUMULATIVE COMPOUND a) FLAT COMPOUND THE NO-LOAD AND FULL LOAD VOLTAGES ARE OF THE SAME VALUE. b) UNDER COMPOUND THE FULL LOAD VOLTAGE IS LESS THAN THE NO LOAD. c) OVER COMPOUND THEFULL LOAD VOLTAGE IS HIGHER THAN THE NO LOAD VALUE IF THE SERIES FIELD OPPOSES THE SHUNT FIELD, THE GEN IS SAID TO BE DIFFERENTIAL COMPOUND USED WHERE VOLTAGE REGULATION IS OF PRIMARY IMPORTANCE
Slide No 439
EASA Ref : 3.12
COMPOUND WOUND GENERATOR
Slide No 440
EASA Ref : 3.12
REGULATION OF GENERATOR VOLTAGE
Slide No 441
EASA Ref : 3.12
VIBRATING TYPE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Slide No 442
EASA Ref : 3.12
STARTER GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION CONSISTS OF SELF EXCITED COMPOUND WOUND GENERATOR WITH COMPENSATING AND INTERPOLE WINDINGS AND INTEGRAL FAN COOLING. IT IS COOLED BY RAM AIR SPEED SENSOR SIGNAL FOR STARTER CUTOFF START AS COMPOUND MOTOR SERIES MOTOR FOR TORQUE SHUNT GENERATOR CONNECTED TO BUS BAR
Slide No 443
AC THEORY ( EASA Ref : 3.13 )
LOOP IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

EASA Ref : 3.13
EMF GENERATION
EASA Ref : 3.13
Flux Cut by a Loop in a Magnetic Field

EASA Ref : 3.13
Lines Cut against Loop Position

EASA Ref : 3.13
EMF against Loop Position

EASA Ref : 3.13
Peak Value of a Sinusoidal Wave

EASA Ref : 3.13
Peak to Peak Value of a Sinusoidal Wave

EASA Ref : 3.13
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE AN ALTERNATING CURRENT THAT WILL GENERATE THE SAME AMOUNT OF HEAT AS DIRECT CURRENT THAT HAS A VALUE OF ONE AMPERE IS CONSIDERED TO HAVE AN EFFECTIVE VALUE OR RMS VALUE OF ONE AMPERE. RMS VALUE = PEAK VALUE 2 AVERAGE VALUE =0.637 PEAK VALUE INSTANTANEOUS EMF (U) =EMF max x Sin
Slide No 451
EASA Ref : 3.13
Period of a Sinusoidal Wave

EASA Ref : 3.13
Frequency of a Sinusoidal Wave

EASA Ref : 3.13
Period and Frequency

EASA Ref : 3.13
Frequency Band
EASA Ref : 3.13
ANGULAR VELOCITY ANGULAR VELOCITY ( ) = 2 f rad /sec 360 Degrees = radians
RADIAN
Slide No 456
EASA Ref : 3.13
Sine Waves in Phase

EASA Ref : 3.13
Sine Waves Out of Phase
Slide No 458
EASA Ref : 3.13
Typical Waveforms
EASA Ref : 3.13
PRT and Mark to Space Ratio

EASA Ref : 3.13
Generation of Three Phase Alternating Current

RESISTIVE ( R ), CAPACITANCE ( C ), AND INDUCTANCE ( L ) (EASA Ref : 3.14 )
RESISTORS,CAPACITORS AND INDUCTORS ARE IMPORTANT COMPONENTS IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERINGS. IF A RESISTOR IS CONNECTED TO A SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE, THE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE ARE ALWAYS IN PHASE. WITH A CAPACITOR,THE VOLTAGE LAGS THE CURRENT BY 90 DEGREES WHEREAS WITH A COIL, THE VOLTAGE LEADS THE CURRENT BY 90 DEGREES ALL THE ABOVE CAN BE REPRESENTED IN GRAPHS AND IN PHASOR DIAGRAMS.
Slide No 462
EASA Ref : 3.14
RC Series Connection
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 464
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 465
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 466
EASA Ref : 3.14
Power Triangles for RC and RL Series Circuit
Slide No 467
EASA Ref : 3.14
Mathematical Relationship for Power in RC/RL Series Circuits
Slide No 468
EASA Ref : 3.14
Resistor/ Capacitor in Parallel
Slide No 469
EASA Ref : 3.14
Resistor/Coil in Parallel
Slide No 470
EASA Ref : 3.14
Mathematical Relationship for Current in RC/RL Parallel Circuits
Slide No 471
EASA Ref : 3.14
Mathematical Relationship for Admittance, Conductance and Susceptances
Slide No 472
EASA Ref : 3.14
RC/RL Frequency dependent Current Divider
Slide No 473
EASA Ref : 3.14
Power Triangles for RC and RL Parallel Circuits
Slide No 474
EASA Ref : 3.14
Mathematical Relationship for Power in RC/RL Parallel Circuits
Slide No 475
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 476
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 477
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 478
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 479
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 480
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 481
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 482
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 483
EASA Ref : 3.14
Slide No 484
TRANSFORMER ( EASA Ref : 3.15 )
TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES A TRANSFORMER IS AN ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR TRANSFERRING ELECTRICAL ENERGY FROM ONE CIRCUIT TO ANOTHER CIRCUIT BY MUTUAL INDUCTANCE. (ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ). THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS TRANSFERRED WITHOUT A CHANGE IN FREQUENCY. A TRANSFOERMER WILL NOT OPERATE WITH A STEADY CURRENT IN THE PRIMARY. (DC ) WHEN AC IS USED,THE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT LEVELS CAN BE INCREASED OR DECREASED.(STEP-UP OR STEP DOWN).
Slide No 485
EASA Ref : 3.15
Transformer Principles
Slide No 486
EASA Ref : 3.15
BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER 1. CORE - SUPPORTS THE WINDINGS AND PROVIDES A PATH FOR MAGNETIC FLUX -AIR CORE USED WHEN HIGH FREQUENCY ABOVE 20 KHz -IRON CORE FREQUENCY BELOW 20KH -STEEL- CORE- LAMINATED FOR EFFICIENT POWER TRANSFER SHAPE OF CORE- HOLLOW SQUARE THROUGH THE CENTER - SHELL CONSISTS OF E AND I SHAPED SECTIONS OF METAL WINDINGS WRAPPED AROUND THE A CORE - PRIMARY RECEIVES ENERGY FROM THE AC SOURCE - SECONDARY- RECEIVES ENERGY FROM THE PRIMARY WINDING AND DELIVERS TO THE LOAD ENCLOSURE- PROTECTION FROM DIRT , MOISTURE, AND MECHANICAL DAMAGE.
2.
3.
Slide No 487
EASA Ref : 3.15
(a) (c )
Hollow core construction (b) Windings wrapped around laminations Shell-type core construction
Slide No 488
EASA Ref : 3.15
BASIC OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER
WHEN AN ALTERNATING VOLTAGE IS APPLIED TO THE PRIMARY WINDING,IT PRODUCES AN ALTERNATING CURRENT , WHICH SETS UP ALTERNATING MAGNETIC FLUX (EXPANDING AND CONTRACTING ) THROUGH THE CORE. THE MAGNETIC FLUX INDUCES AN EMF INTO THE SECONDARY WINDING. ( MUTUAL INDUCTANCE ). THE VOLTAGE MAY BE STEPPED UP OR DOWN DEPENDING ON THE DESIGN OF THE PRIMARY AND THE SECONDARY WINDINGS.
Slide No 489
EASA Ref : 3.15
Mutual Inductance
Slide No 490
EASA Ref : 3.15
Schematic symbols for transformer
Slide No 491
EASA Ref : 3.15
TRANSFORMER LOSSES 1. COPPER LOSSES ( I2R LOSS ) - PRODUCED BY CURRENTS FLOW IN THE TRANSFORMER WINDINGS. ( RESISTANCE OF THE WINDINGS) CORE LOSSES IRON LOSSES A) HYSTERESIS LOSS THE BUILD UP AND COLLAPSE OF THE MAGNETIC FLUX IN THE CORE. B) EDDY CURRENT LOSSES CIRCULATING CURRENTS PRODUCED IN THE CORE BY THE CHANGING MAGNETIC FLUX. STRAY LOSSES POWER IS LOST IN AN INDUCTOR.(VARIOUS KINDS )
2.
3.
Slide No 492
EASA Ref : 3.15
METHODS OF OVERCOMING LOSSES COPPER LOSSES MINIMISED BY USING LARGE DIAMETER CONDUCTORS FOR THE WINDINGS HYSTERESIS LOSSES THE CORES ARE FORMED INTO SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR BLOCK TO PROVIDE A COMPLETE CLOSED PATH FOR THE MAGNETIC FLUX. USED OF SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS- ADD 3% OF SILICON TO IRON EDDY CURRENT LOSSES THE IRON CORE IS LAMINATED AND INSULATING THE SEPARATE LAMINATIONS FROM EACH OTHER.
Slide No 493
EASA Ref : 3.15
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY VOLTAGE, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CURRENT,TURNS RATIO, POWER AND EFFICIENCY RELATION OF THE PRIMARY AND THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE US =NS UP NP RELATION BETWEEN THE PRIMARY AND THE SECONDARY CURRENT IP =NS IS NP TURNS RATIO = N S NP POWER, P =U S. I S = U P . I P EFFICIENCY , = P S PP
Slide No 494
EASA Ref : 3.15
TRANSFORMER ACTION UNDER LOAD AND NO LOAD CONDITIONS TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD CONDITION When the supply voltage is applied to the primary, an induced emf (back emf ) is produced in the primary which opposes the supply voltage. Very small excitation current ( I e ) will flow in the primary winding to overcome losses and to magnetise the core The primary and secondary voltages are in anti-phase. The off load primary current (I o ) lags the primary voltage with a large angle. ( poor power factor for a transformer on no load )
Slide No 495
EASA Ref : 3.15
TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION When a load is applied to the secondary, a secondary current will flow . This current opposes the primary flux so reduce the total flux in the core. The primary back emf is reduced and increase in effective emf in the primary so increase in primary current. The secondary current is 180 degrees out of phase to the primary current. The total primary current is the phasor sum of off load primary current and excitation current (I o ) .
Slide No 496
EASA Ref : 3.15
POLARITY MARKINGS PHASING DOTS The dots at the ends of the winding are called the phasing dots. The positioning of the dots is used to indicate the similar instantaneous polarities. When an instantaneous positive voltage is applied to the primary terminals ( dot) there will be an instantaneous positive voltage produced at the secondary terminals (dot).
Slide No 497
EASA Ref : 3.15
AUTOTRANSFORMER IS ONE IN WHICH PART OF THE WINDING IS COMMON TO BOTH THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CIRCUITS. SUITABLE FOR APPLICATIONS THAT REQUIRE A VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION. OF NEAR UNITY, AND TO REDUCE THE APPLIED VOLTAGE TO AN AC MOTOR DURING STARTING. ADVANTAGE REQUIRE LESS COPPER WIRE, SO LESS I2R LOSS DISADVANTAGE NOT SAFE FOR INTERCONNECTING HIGH-VOLTAGE AND LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUITS, BECAUSE OF THE COMMON WINDING. A VARIABLE AUTOTRANSFORMER- PROVIDES AN ADJUSTABLE AC VOLTAGE.
Slide No 498
EASA Ref : 3.15
Slide No 499
EASA Ref : 3.15
EFFICIENCY THE EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER IS = OUTPUT POWER INPUT POWER = OUTPUT POWER OUTPUT POWER + LOSSES( COPPER + IRON ) REGULATION = NO LOAD VOLTAGE FULL LOAD VOLTAGE FULL LOAD VOLTAGE
Slide No 500
EASA Ref : 3.15
LINE AND PHASE VOLTAGES STAR CONNECTIONS LINE VOLTAGE = 3 PHASE VOLTAGE UL = 3 UP DELTA CONNECTIONS LINE VOLTAGE = PHASE VOLTAGE UL = UP
Slide No 501
EASA Ref : 3.15
LINE AND PHASE CURRENTS STAR CONNECTIONS LINE CURRENT = PHASE CURRENT IL = IP DELTA CONNECTIONS LINE CURRENT = 3 PHASE CURRENT IL = 3 IP
Slide No 502
EASA Ref : 3.15
CALCULATION OF POWER IN A PHASE SYSTEM STAR CONNECTIONS POWER = 3 UP IP COS WATTS ALSO = 3 UP IL COS ,UP = UL/ 3 COS , IL =IP =3 UL IL COS WATTS DELTA CONNECTIONS POWER = 3 UP IP COS WATTS ALSO = 3 UL IP COS UP =UL, IP =IL/3 = 3 UL IL COS WATTS
Slide No 503
FILTERS ( EASA Ref : 3.16 )
A FILTER IS ANY CIRCUIT THAT WILL REMOVE SOME PARTS OF A SIGNAL OR POWER SOURCE, WHILE ALLOWING OTHER PARTS TO CARRY ON WITHOUT HINDRANCE. EQUALIZERS, CROSSOVER NETWORKS, TWEETER, AND POWER CONDITIONING. LOW PASS FILTER PASSES LOW FREQUENCIES BUT BLOCKS FREQUENCIES HIGHER THAN THE CUTOFF FREQUENCY 1. INDUCTIVE LOW PASS ( LR FILTER ) USE IN AC DC POWER SUPPLIES. 2. CAPACITIVE LOW PASS ( RC FILTER ) USED IN AUDIO FREQUENCIES 3. T TYPE TWO INDUCTORS AND A CAPACITOR 4. TYPE AN INDUCTOR AND TWO CAPACITORS .
EASA Ref : 3.16
Main characteristic of low pass filter
Slide No 505
EASA Ref : 3.16
HIGH PASS FILTER OFFER EASY PASSAGE OF HIGH FREQUENCY SIGNAL AND BLOCK LOW FREQUENCY SIGNAL 1. CAPACITIVE HIGH PASS ( CR FILTER ) HIGH IMPEDANCE IN SERIES BLOCK LOW FREQUENCY SIGNALS 2. INDUCTIVE HIGH PASS (RL FILTER ) LOW IMPEDANCE INPARALLE SHORT OUT LOW FREQUENCY SIGNAL 3. T TYPE 2 SERIES CAPACITORS AND AN INDUCTOR 4. TYPE A CAPACITOR AND PARALLEL CAPACITORS
Slide No 506
EASA Ref : 3.16
High pass frequency response curve
Slide No 507
EASA Ref : 3.16
BAND PASS FILTER BLOCKS FREQUENCIES THAT ARE TOO HIGH AND FREQUENCIES THAT ARE TOO LOW SIGNAL INPUT -------LOW PASS--------HIGH PASS------------SIGNAL OUTPUT 1. CAPACITIVE BAND PASS LOW PASS RC , HIGH PASS CR 2. INDUCTIVE BAND PASS HIGH PASS RL , LOW PASS LR 3. MADE UP OF INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS CR HIGH PASS , RC LOW PASS
Slide No 508
EASA Ref : 3.16
Band pass frequency response
Slide No 509
EASA Ref : 3.16
BAND STOP FILTER STOPS TRANSMISSION OF FREQUNCIES BETWEEN f co1 AND F co 2 ALSO KNOWN AS A NOTCH , BAND REJCT OR BAND ELIMINATION FILTER. SERIES ELEMENT PARALLEL RESONANT CCTS ( 2 TUNED CCTS ) SHUNT ELEMENT A SERIES RESONANT CCT AT LOW FR THE SERIES RESONANT CCT IMPEDANCE ( Z ) IS HIGH, PARALLEL CCT IMPEDANCE IS LOW. FREQUENCY PASSED. AT RESONANT, THE PARALLEL CCT Z IS HIGH , SERIES RESONANT Z IS LOW. THEREFORE FREQUENCIES ARE BLOCKED IN THESE RANGE AT HIGH FR, THE PARALLEL CCT Z LOW, SERIES ONE INCREASED, SO FREQUENCIES PASSED AGAIN.
B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09 .
Slide No 510
EASA Ref : 3.16
Characteristics of band stop filter
Slide No 511
EASA Ref : 3.16
APPLICATIONS OF FILTERS IN AIRCRAFT HF COMMUNICATION TRANSCEIVER VOR RECEIVERS MARKER BEACON RECEIVER ILS RECEIVER ENGINE VIBRATION MONITORING SYSTEMS AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS VOICE RECORDER
Slide No 512
AC GENERATORS ( EASA Ref : 3.17 )
ROTATION OF A LOOP IN A MAGNETIC FIELD AND WAVE FORM PRODUCED WHEN LOOP OF COIL ROTATED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD, THE COIL CUTS THROUGH A MAGNETIC FIELD,GENERATING AN EMF. THE EMF PRODUCED ARE CONNECTED TO SLIP RINGS WHICH CAUSE CURRENT TO FLOW ALTERNATELY FIRST IN ONE DIRECTION AND THEN IN THE OTHER DIRECTION IN ONE COMPLETE REVOLUTION. THESE IS THE BASIC AC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE THE WAVEFORM PRODUCED IS A SINOSOIDAL ( ALTERNATING )
Slide No 513
EASA Ref : 3.17
Rotation of a loop in a magnetic field and waveform produced

EASA Ref : 3.17
CONSTRUCTION OF REVOLVING (ROTATING ) ARMATURE TYPE GENERATOR STATOR - STATIONARY PART OF THE GENERATOR FIELD WINDINGS DC EXCITATION ON POLE PIECE TO CREATE NORTH AND SOUTH POLES AROUND THE STATOR. ROTOR ROTATING PART OF THE GENERATOR ARMATURE WINDINGS IN SLOTS
SLIP RINGS - OUTPUT
Slide No 515
EASA Ref : 3.17
OPERATION OF REVOLVING ARMATURE TYPE GENERATOR THE ROTOR CUTS THE MAGNETIC FIELD AND PRODUCES AN AC EMF IN THE STATOR. THE GENERATED EMF IS BROUGHT TO THE LOAD BY SLIP RINGS LOW POWER RATING SELDOM USED ON A/C
Slide No 516
EASA Ref : 3.17
Rotating armature alternator
Slide No 517
EASA Ref : 3.17
CONSTRUCTION OF REVOLVING (ROTATING ) FIELD TYPE GENERATOR STATOR ARMATURE WINDINGS OUTPUT ROTOR - FIELD WINDINGS- FED VIA SLIP RINGS AND BRUSHES WITD DC OPERATION OF REVOLVING FIELD TYPE THE FIELD IS ROTATED AND CUTS THE STATIONARY WINDINGS. AN AC IS PRODUCED IN THE STATOR WINDINGS OUTPUT IT IS PREFFERED THAN REVOLVING ARMATURE TYPE BECAUSE: THE OUTPUT CAN BE CONNECTED DIRECTLY TO THE LOAD PROBLEM OF HIGH VOLTAGE ARCING AT THE SLIP RINGS ARE ELIMINATED
Slide No 518
EASA Ref : 3.17
Rotating field alternator

EASA Ref : 3.17
SINGLE PHASE ALTERNATOR A GENERATOR THAT PRODUCES A SINGLE CONTINUOSLY ALTERNATING VOLTAGE. THE STATOR WINDINGS ARE CONNECTED IN SERIES. THE INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGE THEREFORE ADD ,TO PRODUCE A SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE
Slide No 520
EASA Ref : 3.17
TWPO PHASE ALERNATOR IF ANOTHER SET OF SINGLE PHASE WINDINGS AT 90 TO ONE ANOTHER IS ADDED TO THE SINGLE PHASE, A TWO PHASE OUTPUT IS PRODUCED 90 OUT OF PHASE WITH EACH OTHER.
THREE PHASE ALTERNATOR THREE PAIRS OF COILS ARE USED. EACH PAIR OF COILS IS SPACED AT 120 TO ONE ANOTHER SO 3 PHASES ARE PRODUCED WHERE THE OUTPUTS ARE 120 OUT OF PHASE
Slide No 521
EASA Ref : 3.17
Single phase alternator
Two phase alternator
Slide No 522
EASA Ref : 3.17
3 Phase rotating field generator
Slide No 523
EASA Ref : 3.17
THREE PHASE STAR CONNECTION LINE CURRENT = PHASE CURRENT IL = IP LINE VOLTAGE = 3 PHASE VOLTAGE UL =3UP ADVANTAGE 2 VOLTAGES 200 V AC AND 115 V AC USES IN A/C POWER SUPPLIES
Slide No 524
EASA Ref : 3.17
THREE PHASE DELTA CONNECTIONS LINE CURRENT = 3 PHASE CURRENT IL = 3 IP LINE VOLTAGE = PHASE VOLTAGE UL =UP ADVANTAGE 2 VALUE OF CURRENTS HIGHER CURRENT OUTPUT
Slide No 525
EASA Ref : 3.17
PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATOR ALSO CALLED BRUSHLESS GENERATOR CONSISTS OF PMG, MAIN EXCITER GENERATOR AND MAIN GENERATOR OPERATION OF BRUSHLESS GENERATOR WHEN GENERATOR SHAFT ROTATES, PMG WILL ROTATE, ITS FIELD CUTS THE STATOR FIELD WINDING, INDUCES AC INTO IT. THE OUTPUT FED TO THE V/R IN THE GCU. THE AC RECTIFIED AND GOES TO MAIN EXCITER STATOR FIELD. THE EXCITER FIELD INDUCES VOLTAGE INTO THE EXCITER INPUT WINDING. THE OUTPUT IS RECTIFIED BY 6 SILICON DIODES SENT TO OUTPUT FIELD WINDING VOLTAGE IS INDUCED IN THE MAIN OUTOUT WINDING
Slide No 526
EASA Ref : 3.17
Brushless Generator
Slide No 527
AC MOTORS ( EASA Ref : 3.18 )
CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR CONSISTS OF 1. STATOR FIELD WNDING 2. ROTOR- PERMANENT MAGNET OR ELECTROMAGNET SALIENT POLE WINDING RECEIVED DC THROUGH SLIP RINGS
Slide No 528
EASA Ref : 3.18
Synchronous motor
Slide No 529
EASA Ref : 3.18
OPERATION OF AC SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WHEN 3 PHASE AC POWER IS APPLIED TO THE STATOR, ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD IS SET UP AROUND THE ROTOR THE ROTOR IS ENERGISED WITH DC ( ACTS AS A BAR OF MAGNET ) ATTRACTED BY THE ROTATING STATOR FIELD THIS ATTRACTION WILL EXERT A TORQUE ON THE ROTOR CAUSE THE ROTOR TO ROTATE WITH THE FIELD.
Slide No 530
EASA Ref : 3.18
Action of synchronous motor
Slide No 531
EASA Ref : 3.18
CHARACTERISTICS OF AC SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 1. NOT SELF STARTNG 2. CONSTANT SPEED DEPENDS ON THE FREQUENCY OF THE POWER SUPPLY F = NP/60 HZ 3. USE AS MOTR IN ENGINE SPEED INDICATORS 4. DIRECTION OF ROTATION CAN BE ACHIEVED BY CHANGING ANY TWO OF THE 3 PHASE INPUTS
Slide No 532
EASA Ref : 3.18
CONSTRUCTION OF 3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 1. STATOR FIELD WINDING 2. ROTOR NOT CONNECTED TO EXTERNAL SOURCE VOLTAGE - SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR - WOUND ROTOR
Slide No 533
EASA Ref : 3.18
Types of ac induction motor rotors
Slide No 534
EASA Ref : 3.18
OPERATION OF INDUCTION MOTOR CURRENT IS INDUCED IN THE ROTOR BY THE ACTION OF THE ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD CUTTING THE ROTOR CONDUCTORS. ROTOR CURRENT GENERATE A MAGNETIC FIELD INTEACTS WITH THE STATOR. TORQUE EXERTED ON THE ROTOR AND CAUSE IT TO ROTATE AS THE STATOR FIELD IS ROTATING, THE ROTOR FOLLOW A LITTLE BEHIND. IF THERE IS NO RELATIVE MOTION, NO CURRENT AND NO ROTOR MOVEMENT. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ROTOR SPEED AND ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD SPEED ( SYNCHRONOUS SPEED ) IS THE SLIP SPEED. SLIP SPEED = Ns Nr ( SYN SPEED ROTOR SPEED ) SLIP = Ns Nr x100 Ns
Slide No 535
EASA Ref : 3.18
Production of motor torque
Slide No 536
EASA Ref : 3.18
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTOR 1. SELF STARTING 2. CONSTANT SPEED USE AS HYDRAULIC PUMPS, FUEL PUMPS AND FLAP MOTOR TO REVERSE THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION, CHABGE OVER ANY 2 CONNECTIONS OF THE 3 PHASE INPUTS .
Slide No 537
EASA Ref : 3.18
Speed/Torque characteristic of induction motor
Slide No 538
EASA Ref : 3.18
Induction motor characteristics torque and current vs speed
Slide No 539
EASA Ref : 3.18
CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR (SPLIT PHASE ) CAPACITOR START STATOR - MAIN WINDING AND START WINDING-PARALLEL, 90 DEGREES PHASE DIFFERENCE CAPACITOR IN SERIES WITH CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH OPERATION THE CURRENTS ARE 90 DEGREES OUT OF PHASE, SO MAGNETIC FIELDS ALSO THE SAME. THE TWO WINDINGS ACT LIKE A TWO PHASE STATOR AND PRODUCE THE ROTATING FIELD REQUIRED TO START THE MOTOR. THE SWITCH OPENS AND CUTS OUT THE START WINDING WHEN THE MOTOR NEARLY AT FULL SPEED. THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION REVERSED BY CHANGING OVER THE TWO LEADS OF ANY ONE WINDING. USES FOR VACUUM CLEANERS, WORKSHOP PEDASTAL DRILLS,REFRIGERATOR AND AIR COMPRESSORS.
Slide No 540
EASA Ref : 3.18
Single phase induction motor
Slide No 541
EASA Ref : 3.18
Capacitor start induction motor
Slide No 542
EASA Ref : 3.18
SHADED POLE CONSTRUCTION STATOR- PROJECTINGPOLE PIECES SPLIT INTO TWO - ONE HALF FITTED WITH COPPER OR ALUMINIUM RING ( SHADING ) ROTOR- SQUIRREL CAGE OPERATION AS THE SUPPLY CURRENT RISES AN INDUCED VOLTAGE IS SET UP IN THE SHADING RING.FLUX PRODUCED IN THE RING OPPOSES THE BUILD UP OF MAIN FLUX. MAIN FLUX CONCENTRATES IN THE UNSHADED POLE. AS THE SUPPLY CURRENT DROPS, AN INDUCED VOLTAGE IS SET UP IN THE SHADING RING. FLUX PRODUCED OPPOSES THE COLLAPSE OF THE MAIN FLUX.MAIN FLUX CONCENTRATED IN THE SHADED POLE. THE NEXT HALF CYCLE, THIS IS REPEATED,CREATING FLUX SHIFTING FROM UNSHADED TO THE SHADED POLE, SIMILAR TO A ROTATING FIELD. SPEED IS DETERMINED BY THE INPUT FREQUENCY. CAN BE VARIED WITHIN LIMITED RANGE BY A SERIES RESISTOR OR INDUCTOR. REVERSAL OF ROTATION BY TRANFERRING THE SHADING RINGS TO THE OTHER HALF OF THE POLEPIECES (NOT PRACTICAL ) USE FOR FANS, BLOWERS, CLOCKS AND ENGINE INDICATION INSTRUMENT.
Slide No 543
EASA Ref : 3.18
Shaded pole induction motor

EASA Ref : 3.18
Line of flux moves towards the shaded ring (effect of moving field )
EASA Ref : 3.18
CONSTRUCTION OF HYTERESIS MOTOR STATOR TWO WINDINGS 90 TO EACH OTHER- REFERENCE AND CONTROL PHASE ROTOR - COBALT STEEL- HIGH MAGNETIC RETENTIVITY AND LARGE HYTERESIS LOOP. OPERATION IF REFERENCE PHASE IS MAXIMUM, CONTROL PHASE NO CURRENT AT THIS TIME ROTOR RETAINS THE FLUX POLARITY WHEN THE REFERENCE PHASE REDUCES. THE CONTROL PHASE NOW BUILDS UP-ROTATING FIELD CREATED. THE ROTOR WILL BE ATTRACTED TO THE STATOR OF THE OPPOSITE POLARITIES. AS CONTROL CURRENT DIES AWAY, THE CURRENT BUILDS UP ON THE REFERENCE PHASE. ROTOR CONTINUES TO TURN AS THE FIELD ROTATES THE SPEED OF THE MOTOR DEPENDS ON THE SUPPLY FREQUENCY. DIRECTION OR ROTATION IS DONE BY CHANGING THE PHASE RELATIONSHIP OF THE CONTROL PHASE BY 180 DEGREES USED AS SERVO MOTORS AND MINIATURE RATE GYROS.
Slide No 546
EASA Ref : 3.18
Hysteresis motor
Slide No 547
EASA Ref : 3.18
METHODS OF SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR 1. WOUND ROTOR - VARYING THE AMOUNT OF EXTERNAL RESISTANCE IN THE ROTOR CIRCUIT. - USED OF HEAVY DUTY RESISTORS 2. SQIRREL CAGE ROTOR - TWO SPEED MOTOR WINDING - ELECTRONIC CONYROL UNIT
Slide No 548
EASA Ref : 3.18
Slide No 549
EASA Ref : 3.18
Slide No 550

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 Dated 02.02.09

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B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 Dated 02.02.09

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PART 66 CATEGORY B1.

ELECTRON THEORY (EASA Ref : 3.1)

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref :3.1

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref :3.1

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref :3.1

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref :3.1

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref :3.1

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref :3.1

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref :3.1

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTION ( EASA Ref : 3.2 )

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.2

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.2

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.2

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.2

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY (EASA Ref : 3.3 )

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL = JOULES PER COULOMB (VOLTS) CURRENT:

SYMBOL FOR CURRENT = I

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

DC - CURRENT FLOWS CONTINUOUSLY IN ONE DIRECTION

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

1 HERTZ = 1 CYCLE PER SECOND UNIT FOR FREQUENCY = HERTZ (Hz)

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09

EASA Ref : 3.3

Note: resistor are used to control current flow

B1.1M03 Presentation V1.0 dated 02.02.09