Alternative and Ecofriendly strategies for the Control of Arthropods

1. Introduction
Control of disease carrying species has been an important task and various methods have been carried out to develop control. From integrated pest management to newly developed Ecofriendly techniques, scientists have tried their hands at various methods focusing on increasing efficiency and less damage to the ecological balance. Our species of focus in this regard is arthropods. Arthropods occupy a huge number. Insects that are members of this species occupy huge quanta in pests. Mosquitoes, fleas, lice, etc are all members of the Class Insecta. The various adaptations of this species help them to distribute themselves across a vast array of habitats. Some like mosquitoes are carriers of pathogens and control in this regard is very essential. Traditional methods include removal of breeding places and the usage of insecticides. Increasing research has shown the harmful effect on humans on these otherwise effective pesticides. Now, with advent of greater insight into the mechanisms of these species, various new controls are being developed. In this essay, we will first review the conventional methods and their impact on environment. After that we will delve into the modern methods being used, passing a conclusion on the safest one. Biological control of arthropod pests has a long history of useful practical application. Parasites, predators, and pathogens have been employed in many cases to control pest arthropods in an efficient, colt-effective, and permanent manner. The traditional tactics used in biological control (classical, augmentation, and conservation) remain vital and valuable tools in the biological control of pests for agricultural crops, range lands, forests, and glasshouses New technologies offer promise. One emerging technique involves the genetic improvement of natural enemies of arthropods through selection, hybridization, or recombinant DNA technology. Biological control has been defined as the "actions of parasites, predators, and pathogens in maintaining another organism's density at a longer average than would occur in their absence" (DeBach, 1964). Some scientists would include host plant resistance, autocidal control, and pheromones under the category of biological control, but, while these biorational approaches to pest control have a biological basis, many investigators do not consider them to be biological

control. Generally, biological control has been achieved by the use of one of three approaches-classical, augmentation, or conservation.

2. Conventional Methods of Control

Many insects that are of little or no economic importance in their country of origin become important pests when they are introduced to another country without their own natural enemies. Classical biological control is the term used when some or all of these natural enemies are introduced and established in the new country. Areas of the world where much of todays agriculture is based on introduced crops (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii and California) are notable for two facts. One is that a high proportion of their important arthropod pests are exotic; the other is that classical biological control has resulted in many important successes. Worldwide, biological controleither standing alone or as a component of integrated pest managementis attracting increasing interest, partly in order to reduce dependence upon pesticides. Much can be learnt from successes (and failures) with classical biological control projects around the world. It is, perhaps, also not surprising that some species have been introduced into quarantine but not liberated. Sometimes this has been due to the very low numbers of living natural enemies imported, to difficulties in breeding them on the target host, or a decision not to liberate because of real or apparent lack of specificity or effectiveness. An Example of Threat Foreign insect and mite species are considered to be responsible for a major part of all crop losses; one estimate is that they are responsible for 50 percent of such losses in California (Sailer, 1983). When viewed nationally, foreign species comprise 39 percent (235) of approximately 600 important arthropod pest species. Another 630 foreign species are on the list as pests of lesser importance, and an additional 420, or almost 25 percent of the immigrant fauna, are species of no known importance, while the remaining 398 are in some degree beneficial (Sailer, 1983). Exotic invaders include such pests as the Japanese beetle, European corn borer, Florida red scale, Rhodesgrass scale, spotted alfalfa aphid, gypsy moth, cottony cushion scale, California red scale, olive parlatoria scale, European red mite, imported southern red fire ant, Russian wheat aphid, and boll weevil.

2.1 Crop Rotation

Crop rotation is a lot of growing different crops in succession to soil diseases. Only after a few years back the same crop on the land back. Many crops suffer from soil diseases caused by nematodes, fungi and insects. For example, potatoes suffer from fatigue caused by soil nematodes, pea bean after suffering from Fusarium foot disease and beet after suffering from grass leatherjackets. It is also important for the crop rotation soil fertility, the soil and suppressing weeds . One crop of fruit is better than another, because certain substances in the soil left behind or less are used. So let leguminous nitrogen in the soil. Deep-rooted crops and crops that improve soil structure quickly covering the ground work weed suppressant. Even leek leaves behind a good soil structure. For a good crop rotation is a rotation scheme used, the crops be categorized, which is washed out after the other and a given cycle or rotation is maintained. In one group are the crops that are susceptible to the same diseases, such as cereals. The cycle can consist of 4 years.

2.2 Poison spray

Spraying poisons by planes, hand held units, or trucks that carry the spraying equipment, is a common method of pest control. Throughout the United States of America, towns often drive a town owned truck around once or twice a week to each street, spraying for mosquitoes. Crop dusters commonly fly over farmland and spray poison to kill off pest that would threaten the crops. Many find spraying poison around their yard, homes, or businesses, far more desirable than allowing insects to thrive there.

2.3 Space fumigation

A project that involves a structure be covered or sealed airtight followed by the introduction of a penetrating, deadly gas at a killing concentration a long period of time (2472hrs.). Although expensive, space fumigation targets all life stages of pests.

2.1 Pest Control & Environmental Concerns

Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy.

Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep crops free from pests. In order to maximize food production, it is advantageous to protect crops from competing species of plants, as well as from herbivores competing with humans. The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed, since it is comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or plowing them under, and to kill larger competing herbivores, such as crows and other birds eating seeds. Techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting (also known as intercropping or mixed cropping), and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.

2.2 Impact on Environment and Beneficent Arthropods

Many pests have only become a problem because of the direct actions of humans. Modifying these actions can often substantially reduce the pest problem. In the USA, raccoons caused a nuisance by tearing open refuse sacks. Many householders introduced bins with locking lids, which deterred the raccoons from visiting. House flies tend to accumulate wherever there is human activity and it is virtually a global phenomenon, especially where food or food waste is exposed. Similarly, seagulls have become pests at many seaside resorts. Tourists would often feed the birds with scraps of fish and chips, and before long, the birds would become dependent on this food source and act aggressively towards humans. In the UK, following concern about animal welfare, humane pest control and deterrence is gaining ground through the use of animal psychology rather than destruction. For instance, with the urban Red Fox which territorial behaviour is used against the animal, usually in conjunction with non-injurious chemical repellents. In rural areas of Britain, the use of firearms for pest control is quite common. Air guns are particularly popular for control of small arthropods pests, because of their lower power they can be used in more restrictive spaces such as gardens, where using a firearm would be unsafe. Chemical pesticides date back 4,500 years, when the Sumerians used sulfur compounds as insecticides. The Rig Veda, which is about 4,000 years old, also mentions the use of poisonous plants for pest control. Ancient Chinese and Egyptian cultures are known to have used chemical pest controls. But it was only with the industrialization and mechanization of agriculture in the 18th and 19th century, and the introduction of the insecticides pyrethrum and derris that chemical

pest control became widespread. In the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development. Chemical pest control is still the predominant type of pest control today, although its long-term effects led to a renewed interest in traditional and biological pest control towards the end of the 20th century.

2.3 Factors governing traditional control

Worldwide, approximately 2300 introductions directed against insect pests have provided complete biological control in about 100 cases (Ehler and Andres, 1983). Substantial control was provided in an additional 140 cases. Many factors affect success in classical biological control programs, including climate, natural enemies, habitat type, genetics, host compatibility, host phenology, and operational procedures. Thus, while classical biological control is effective and has yielded complete and lasting control in many important situations, there are several aspects of this pest management tactic that require additional research (Ehler and Andres, 1983; Hoy, 1985a). As noted by Huffaker (1971), "Many attempts have been only casual or have involved use of a particular natural enemy against unsuitable species or in unsuitable environments. The possibilities for controlling the notorious codling moth in this way, or the Mexican bean beetle, or the cotton boll weevil, for example, have only been explored superficially."

3. Alternate Tools Required

The growing emphasis on environmental and food safety has intensified interest in development of biological control as a means of controlling pests. The effective use of natural enemies in biological control programs is contingent on understanding their ecology and that of their targets, their interactions with production and management practices, and the most effective means for utilizing them. Further, exotic pests continue to pose threats to agriculture and well being, making continued efforts in importation biological control relevant and necessary. At the same time, the target and non-target effects of these introductions must be documented to assure the continued value and safety of importation biological control. Resident populations of natural enemies do not always provide adequate levels of pest suppression. In such circumstances, it may be necessary to release native or introduced natural enemies. Success of this option, however, is dependent on effective production, distribution, and release technologies for the natural enemies so utilized (Ridgway et al. 1998).

The need for environmentally and economically sustainable production systems is growing as social pressure for safe food and fiber increases. In 1993, the Clinton Administration announced its goal of having integrated pest management (IPM) practiced on at least 75% of the production acreage in the U.S. by the year 2000. Biological control constitutes a cornerstone of IPM, and its use must be broadened and fine-tuned to effectively achieve widespread IPM implementation (Lynch et al. 1996). In addition, the passage of the Food Quality Protection Act in 1996 is requiring progressive detailed review of existing pesticides, and will certainly reduce the variety of pesticides available for use.

4. Baiting Technology and its efficacy