Parts of the Integumentary System Skin The skin is the most important organ of the body, as it protects the

delicate organs of the body. The skin is divided into three separate layers as follows: Epidermis: This is the outermost layer of the skin that contains four separate layers of epithelial tissue. The outer most layer is the stratum corneum that is about 2 to 30 cells thick. These are keratinized and dead cells that make the skin waterproof! The second and third layer consists of the stratum granulosum and stratum lucidum, which contain cells that are not keratinised as yet. As these skin grows, the cells are pushed outward and come towards the surface. The last and the deepest layer of the epidermis is the stratum germinativum. These cells are active mitotically and have the ability to reproduce, as these cells are living, thus, making them the manufacturing center for growing skin. Dermis: The dermis lies immediately after the epidermis. The dermis consists of its own blood supply and thus contains many complex structures. The sweat glands are present in this layer that collect waters and waste products from the blood stream. This waste is excreted from the pores in the epidermis along with the water in form of sweat. The hair roots are also present in this layer that help in the growth of hair. When the hair reaches outside the epidermis, the cells are dead. The connective tissue made of collagen fibers are also found in the dermis that help give the skin elasticity and strength. Subcutaneous Layer: The last layer of the skin containing the adipose tissues, cushions the delicate organs beneath the skin. The body temperature is also maintained within this layer by insulating the body to the temperature fluctuations.

Functions of the Skin Thermoregulation: The thermoregulation of the skin is carried out with the help of evaporation of the sweat and regulation of the blood flow to the dermis. Sensations: The cutaneous sensations like touch, pressure, vibration, pain, cold, hot, etc, are felt by the skin. Protection: The protective barrier of the skin helps prevent diseases, infections, dehydration, etc. Production of Vitamin D: The precursor present in the skin and UV rays, helps in the production of vitamin D, an important nutrient of the body. Healing: When the epidermis breaks away due to a minor cut or burn, the cells on the lower layers of the skin migrate upwards as a sheet. When two ends of the sheet meet, the cells stop growing due to a process called 'contact inhibition'. Thus, the epidermis is sealed and the skin returns to normal.

Hair Your lustrous hair has many other uses other than helping you try different hair styles. The hair, feathers, scales, etc. are all derived from the skin. In case of humans, the hair extends to the surface from the hair roots or hair bulbs present in the dermis. The functions of the hair include protection and sensation to light touch. The hair is made of dead, keratinized cells that are bound together with the extracellular proteins. The hair is divided into the hair shaft that is the superficial layer and the root that is in the dermis. The hair follicle is the structure that surrounds the hair root. The oil glands present around the hair follicles help keep the hair and the surrounding skin moist. It also acts as a protective organ involved in temperature regulation. Arrector Pili Muscles These are smooth muscle cells that extend from the hair follicle till the papillary layer of the dermis. These arrector pili muscles are responsible for the hair on the skin to stand when scared or nervous, that is, for the feeling of 'goose bumps'. Nails The nails, claws and horns are structures that are derived from the skin. The nail is a highly keratinized structure of modified epidermal cells. The nail bed gives rise to nails, that is thickened to form a lunula. The moon shaped structure that you observe at the base of your nails is called the lunula. The functions of the nails is to help in grasping and holding things. The nails act as counter force and help increase the sensitivity of the fingertip. Sebaceous Glands and Nerves The skin gland like sebaceous glands secrete the oil coating for the hair shaft. When these sebaceous glands become clogged with dirt and microorganisms, they become infected and cause pimples or acne. The complex network of the nerves present all over the skin helps send and receive important impulses to and from the brain, thus playing a vital role in sense of touch. Sweat Glands The sweat glands that have an opening through the skin pores, help in excretion of waste matters from the circulatory system. Another type of sweat gland that is connected to the sympathetic nervous system, Eccrine gland is found all over the body. In the armpit and groin areas, the apocrine glands are present. These are just another type of sweat glands that are larger in size and the culprits along with bacteria that produce 'body odor'. The integumentary system interacts with the various other human body systems. It is also involved in the physiological processes like regulation of the internal body environment.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscles of the Muscular System The human muscular system spread across the entire body is controlled by the nervous system of the body. The human body comprises over 630 muscles, of which the largest (gluteus maximus) is found in the buttocks. The muscles can be categorized further. The muscular system comprises three different types of muscles: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles. Skeletal/ Striated or Voluntary Muscles The skeletal muscles, attached to various parts of the skeleton, comprise muscles that are either striated or striped. These muscles are also called voluntary muscles, because their movements can be controlled by us. For example, we can choose to raise our hand and pat somebody's shoulder, walk, run, swim, etc. Movements like chewing, blinking, typing, throwing, etc. are all brought about by these voluntary muscles. Smooth or Involuntary Muscles Smooth muscles on the other hand, are involuntary muscles that are found lining the intestinal walls, stomach, lungs and other hollow organs. The movements of these muscles cannot be controlled by us, instead they are controlled by the autonomous nervous system. For example, we cannot control the peristaltic movement of food in the stomach, etc. Neither can we control the movement of the lung muscles and so on.

Cardiac Muscles As the name implies, cardiac muscles are muscles lining the heart and are not found in any other part of the body. They are controlled by the sinus node, which is also influenced by the autonomous nervous system. Cardiac muscles are less striated as compared to striated muscles and house several mitochondria for energy production. They also feature an extensive network of blood vessels, which supply oxygen to the muscles. Functions of the Muscular System? Mobility The skeletal framework of our body is covered by muscles, whose primary function is to provide mobility to the body. The muscles of the body work in pairs (antagonist and agonist muscles) to bring about movements in the body. They move the bones by pulling on them. Muscles can only pull and not push, which is why the teamwork of muscles is so important. Once a muscle pulls and brings about movement, then the other muscle of the pair pulls in the opposite direction to perform reverse action. Thus, the ability of the body to move comes from the muscular system. When one wants to move from one place to another, the central nervous system gives instructions to the muscle fibers of the body to contract or relax, thereby conducing to the necessary movement. Since the central nervous system is instructing the muscle fibers to carry out the required functions, they are voluntary movements. Actions such as walking, climbing, running, lifting, dancing, jogging, etc. are all examples of motions caused as a result of voluntary muscular contractions and relaxations. Communication We owe our ability to communicate to these skeletal muscles as well, which enable us to speak and write. Being voluntary, these muscles can be controlled by our brain and told what to say and write. So the next time you say something nasty or insensitive, remember you are in control of your tongue and every word spoken can be controlled by your brain. So get a grip of your tongue and think before you speak! Maintenance of Posture We rarely give a thought to how our bodies are able to remain in standing or sitting position. In fact, most of us think that our bodies are at a state of rest during these phases. However, even during these times, certain muscles in the body are constantly contracting and relaxing, making various tiny adjustments, so that your posture can be maintained. Thus, we are able to continue sitting or standing, due to the contraction of muscles. The muscles of the body also provide joint stability, by extending their tendons over the joints. Carries out Digestion The action of stuffing our mouth with food is voluntary and we also have control of the chewing motion. However, once the food is swallowed what happens to it? We do not have any control of

it, once it passes down the food pipe or esophagus. The food travels via the esophagus to the stomach via an involuntary muscular movement called peristalsis. The smooth muscles contract and relax and allow the food ingested to be churned in the stomach and then the intestines. As the digestion process continues, the waste is sent to the rectal region from where it is discarded. Heat Generation Since we are warm blooded, a constant body temperature ought to be maintained in the body, via temperature regulation. In order to maintain a constant body temperature, the body needs to produce heat. When muscles contract to cause the bones to move, heat is generated. The muscles are responsible for production of almost 75% of body heat requirement. Thus, in situations wherein the body temperature plummets, the muscles involuntarily contract and generate heat. This is why when we are cold, we find our body shivering. Shivering is the body's mechanism of muscle contraction to generate heat. Similarly, when the body temperature escalates after exercise or strenuous activity, the muscles redirect the heat to the skin to cool down the body. Blood Circulation The cardiac muscles in the heart are responsible for blood circulation within the heart and its pumping to the rest of the body. The elaborate blood vessel network ensures adequate oxygen is made available to these muscles whose contraction and relaxation movements, are vital for the survival of a person. Respiration Respiration involves inhalation of oxygen-rich air and exhalation involves expulsion of carbondioxide-rich air. For this process to take place, the diaphragm muscle is required, which contracts and relaxes to bring about the required inhalation and exhalation. Shock Absorption The muscular network of the body forms a padding for the skeletal framework, thereby protecting the vital internal organs. Moreover, the agonist and antagonist muscles that work in pairs, help slow down the movements of joints in the opposite direction, by contracting. These muscles are seen to contract to absorb impact from forceful actions like that during sports activities or during a fall. The muscular system is a truly fascinating organ system of our body. The muscles keep working all the time, even when we are sleeping. It is only when an individual becomes unconscious, that the body is in a complete state of muscular rest. Otherwise, the muscles are always contracting and relaxing.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Parts & Functions of the Skeletal System

The skeletal system is the frame work of the body and provides support and protection. The human skeletal system is made up of 206 bones which rely on bone marrow, tendons and ligaments to function.

Bones

All bones are made up of two types of tissue: compact, or dense, tissue and spongy tissue. There are four types of bones: long bones (like those in the arms and legs), short bones (like those found in the ankles and wrists), flat bones (like ribs and those in the skull), and irregular bones (like the vertebrae in the spine).

Bone Marrow

All bones are filled with a spongy material called bone marrow. Bone marrow is either red or yellow. Red marrow is primarily found in flat bones. Yellow bone marrow is primarily made of fatty bone cells and is found in long bones.

Ligaments

Ligaments are bands of tough, fibrous material that are used to connect bones to create joints.

Tendons

Tendons are similar in structure to ligaments but are used to connect muscles to bones. A joint strain occurs when a tendon is damaged.

Joints

Joints are formed at any point where two bones connect. Joints can be movable, like ankles and knees, or they can be fixed like the joints in the skull.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth The mouth is the first part of the digestive tract. The tongue and the teeth are found in the mouth. The inside of the mouth is lubricated with saliva that comes from the salivary glands. The strongest muscles are found in each side of the mouth. They help move the lower jaw and give it a biting force. There are four types of teeth in the mouth. The incisors are used in cutting food. The canines are used for grasping, piercing and tearing. The premolars and molars are used for crushing and grinding. Aside from tasting food, the tongue is used for moving the food as the saliva softens it. We have three pairs of salivary glands. Saliva from these glands lubricates the food and makes it soft. Saliva also contains an enzyme that breaks down starch. Esophagus From the mouth, food goes down the esophagus through the pharynx or throat. The esophagus is a muscular tube that can open and close at the pharynx. It can also open and close to the stomach. The walls of the esophagus consist of smooth muscles. The wavelike movement of these muscles, called peristalsis, pushes the food down to the stomach. Stomach The stomach is a hollow muscular organ shaped like a bag. Its upper end is connected to the esophagus while the lower end is connected to the small intestine. The upper and lower ends of the stomach have smooth circular muscles called sphincter muscles. When the upper end muscle relaxes, the stomach opens and food gets in. when the lower end muscles relaxes, partially digested food moves out of the stomach. The sphincter muscles keep the food in

the stomach. The stomach is flexible and can expand when you eat. It can hold from 1 to 3 liters of food. The stomach acts as a storage bag of food. If the stomach could not store food, you would have to eat every twenty minutes or so instead of just three times a day. The stomach contains three layers of smooth muscles which also produce peristaltic movements to continue breaking down the food. Intestines The intestines are found below the stomach and liver. They form the major part of the digestive tract. The small intestine is about 2.5 centimeter in diameter and 6 meters long. Its wall are made of smooth muscles. The inner lining of the small intestines is folded into tiny fingerlike projections called villi (singular, villus). Each villus contains blood vessels. The work of the small intestines is to digest food, which can then be absorbed by the blood. The villi act much like the same as the folded towels. Because the wall of the intestine is folded into millions of villi, the surface area through which nutrients pass to the bloodstream is greatly increased. If the villi on the inner lining of the small intestine are flattened out, they would cover about 4500 square meters. The large intestine is about 5 centimeters in diameter and about 1.8 meters long. Its main part if the colon. At the end of the colon is the rectum which opens to the anus. The work of the large intestine is to absorb water from the undigested food, hold the undigested food for a while and then excrete it as feces. Accessory Parts of the Digestive System and their functions The liver, pancreas and gall bladder are not part of the alimentary canal but they have important functions in the digestive process. They are called accessory parts of the digestive system. Liver The liver lies under the diaphragm and near the stomach. It is the largest organ inside the body and one of the most important. Among the functions of the liver that are related to digestion are the following. 1. 2. It produces bile, a substance that helps in the digestion of fats. It stores glycogen, vitamins and some minerals, such as iron and copper, which are released when needed by the body.

Gall bladder The gall bladder is a small muscular sac that is attached beneath the liver. Bile produced by the liver passes through a small tube and is stored in the gall bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released to the small intestine digestion. Pancreas The pancreas is an organ that lies behind the stomach. Its function related to digestion is to produce pancreatic juice. Pancreatic juice helps in neutralizing or weakening the acid in food inside the stomach before it moves onto the small intestine. Pancreatic juice also contains different enzymes that are needed to further break down starch, proteins and fats in the small intestine.

Respiratory system

Nose and Nasal Cavity . The nose is the uppermost part of the respiratory tract. It is made up to two bones and cartilage. It forms a hollow passage that connects the nostrils and the top of the throat. This passage is called the nasal cavity . It is lined with a mucous membrane which bears tiny hairs. The function of the nose is to filter, warm and moisten the air before it moves on to other parts of the respiratory tract. The tiny hairs trap the dust particles, bacteria and other foreign bodies that enter the nose. These hairs also induce sneezing to remove foreign bodies lodged in the nose. Mouth and Pharynx . Face a mirror and open your mouth. Do you see the arch at the black part of your mouth? This arch leads into your pharynx, or throat . The pharynx is a passageway from the back of the mouth and nose to the upper part of the esophagus and into the voice box, or larynx. The pharynx acts like a station where the food tube and the air tube meet. Food beings swallowed is prevented from entering the air tube by a thin structure, called epiglottis , that closes the air tube. This is why you cannot breathe while you are swallowing. Larynx and Trachea . At the lower end of the pharynx is the larynx which forms part of the air tube. It is made of cartilage. One of its functions is production of voice. It does this with the help

of either one of two pairs of vocal cords. When air from the lungs passes over the stretched vocal cords, vibrations are produced. The tongue palate and lips modify the vibrations to produce speech. Another function of the larynx is to prevent choking. The elongated space between the vocal cords is called glottis . As mentioned earlier, the epiglottis folds back over the glottis when you swallow food, so the food cannot enter the trachea or air tube. The trachea, or windpipe , begins just below the larynx and ends behind the upper part of the breastbone where it divides to form two tubes. The trachea is made of elastic tissue and smooth muscle. It also has rings of elastic cartilage that keep the trachea open when the neck moves. It is lined with a mucous membrane and hair like projections called cilia . Mucus helps trap dust and bacteria in the incoming air. The cilia move the mucus upward to clear the respiratory tract. Bronchi, Bronchioles and Alveoli . The trachea branches into two tubes-the bronchi. Each bronchus (singular of bronchi) enters the lung and branches into narrower tubes called bronchioles . The walls of the bronchi and larger bronchioles are supported by cartilage. Their walls produce mucus which is moved upward by the cilia to clear the air passage. Each bronchiole ends in balloon like air sacs called alveoli . The alveoli have thin walls which are surrounded by blood vessels. The bronchi and bronchioles form the air passage into the lungs. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli. There are about 300 million alveoli in the lungs. These alveoli increase the surface area of the lungs and allow many blood vessels to collect oxygen. The Lungs . We have two lungs. They lie in the chest cavity and are surrounded by the rib cage. Each lung is enclosed in the double membrane called the pleura . The pleurae are coated by fluid. This allows the lungs to slide freely as they expand and contract during breathing. The right lung has three lobes while the left lung has two. Each lobe has its own bronchi, bronchioles and blood vessels. The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Their function is to supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from the blood.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The Heart The circulatory system would not function without the heart. This organ is made of a specialized muscle tissue capable of converting electric potential into mechanical movement, specifically acting as a pump. The human heart is divided into four chambers the upper atria and lower ventricles, one each on the right and left sides. Blood is squeezed from chamber to chamber and into blood vessels, forcing the flow through the body. Valves between the chambers and external vessels prevent backflow, maintaining the pressure needed to keep the blood moving. Blood Vessels The major component of the circulatory system is the vessels themselves. Various types of blood vessels are found in the human body. The arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins carry blood to the heart. The large vessels are connected directly to the heart: the aorta is the largest artery through which the left ventricle pumps blood (ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta which consists of the thoracic aorta and abdominal aorta), and the vena cava are the large veins (superior and inferior, draining from the upper body and lower body, respectively).

The large vessels branch into medium-sized vessels, those commonly referred to as arteries and veins. These medium vessels further branch into smaller vessels: arterioles and venules. The smallest blood vessels are the width of a single red blood cell the capillaries. Blood from the arteries traveling to the tissues is oxygenated. The red blood cells carrying oxygen enter the capillaries for exchange. The deoxygenated blood then goes from the capillary to the venules for transport back to the heart, where the pulmonary circulation replenishes the oxygen. Pulmonary Circulation The pulmonary circulation consists of the heart, lungs, and two large blood vessel systems. Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the heart from the vena cava, which is then pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. In the multitude of tiny blood vessels branching into the lung tissue, carbon dioxide is released and oxygen taken up. The oxygenated blood is transported through the pulmonary vein back to the heart to be pumped through the aorta to the body. Circulation Control The heartbeat, breathing, and circulation are involuntary actions controlled by a respiration center in the brain. Blood pressure also influences circulation and heart rate, and is controlled by both the brain and hormones that act on the blood vessels. The kidneys play an additional role in the hormonal control of circulation by influencing and detecting the concentration of ions in the blood. All together, circulation is a complex system with an intricate web of vessels to achieve its function.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Lymphoid tissue
Lymphoida in it, most numerous being the lymphocytes. The lymphoid tissue may be primary, secondary, or tertiary depending upon the stage of lymphocyte development and maturation it is involved in. (The tertiary lymphoid tissue typically contains far fewer lymphocytes, and assumes an immune role only when challenged with antigens that result in inflammation. It achieves this by importing the lymphocytes from blood and lymph.[6])
Primary lymphoid organs

The central or primary lymphoid organs generate lymphocytes from immature progenitor cells. The thymus and the bone marrow constitute the primary lymphoid tissues involved in the production and early selection of lymphocytes.
Secondary lymphoid organs

Secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs maintain mature naive lymphocytes and initiate an adaptive immune response. The peripheral lymphoid organs are the sites of lymphocyte activation by antigen. Activation leads to clonal expansion and affinity maturation. Mature lymphocytes recirculate between the blood and the peripheral lymphoid organs until they encounter their specific antigen. Secondary lymphoid tissue provides the environment for the foreign or altered native molecules (antigens) to interact with the lymphocytes. It is exemplified by the lymph nodes, and the lymphoid follicles in tonsils, Peyer's patches, spleen, adenoids, skin, etc. that are associated with the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
Lymph nodes For more details on this topic, see lymph node.

A lymph node showing afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels

A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which the lymph passes on its way to returning to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic system. Several afferent lymph vessels bring in lymph, which percolates through the substance of the lymph node, and is drained out by an efferent lymph vessel. The substance of a lymph node consists of lymphoid follicles in the outer portion called the "cortex", which contains the lymphoid follicles, and an inner portion called "medulla", which is surrounded by the cortex on all sides except for a portion known as the "hilum". The hilum presents as a depression on the surface of the lymph node, which makes the otherwise spherical or ovoid lymph node bean-shaped. The efferent lymph vessel directly emerges from the lymph node here. The arteries and veins supplying the lymph node with blood enter and exit through the hilum. Lymph follicles are a dense collection of lymphocytes, the number, size and configuration of which change in accordance with the functional state of the lymph node. For example, the follicles expand significantly upon encountering a foreign antigen. The selection of B cells occurs in the germinal center of the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are particularly numerous in the mediastinum in the chest, neck, pelvis, axilla (armpit), inguinal (groin) region, and in association with the blood vessels of the intestines.[3]
Lymphatics Main article: Lymph vessel

lymphatic system

Tubular vessels transport back lymph to the blood ultimately replacing the volume lost from the blood during the formation of the interstitial fluid. These channels are the lymphatic channels or simply called lymphatics.[7]

Function of the fatty acid transport system

Lymph vessels called lacteals are present in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, predominantly in the small intestine. While most other nutrients absorbed by the small intestine are passed on to the portal venous system to drain via the portal vein into the liver for processing, fats (lipids) are passed on to the lymphatic system to be transported to the blood circulation via the thoracic duct. (There are exceptions, for example medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are fatty acid esters of glycerol that passively diffuse from the GI tract to the portal system.) The enriched lymph originating in the lymphatics of the small intestine is called chyle. The nutrients that are released to the circulatory system are processed by the liver, having passed through the systemic circulation.

Excretory system

Excretory functions

The excretory system removes metabolic and liquid toxic wastes as well as excess water from the organism, in the form of urine. The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess and unnecessary materials from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organism and prevent damage to the body. It is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of metabolism as well as other liquid and gaseous wastes. As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system; however, only the organs specifically for the excretion process are considered a part of the excretory system. As the excretory system involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function.

Component organs
Skin is an excretory organ.Although regulation of body temperature causes it to produce sweat which contain urea and other waste with salts too but the secretion of any type of waste for any purpose from the body is called excretion even if it is surplus water.
Lungs Main article: Lungs

One of the main functions of the lungs is to diffuse gaseous wastes, such as carbon dioxide, from the bloodstream as a normal part of respiration.
Kidneys Main article: Kidneys

The kidneys' primary function is the elimination of waste from the bloodstream by production of urine. They perform several homeostatic functions such as:
1. 2. 3. 4. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.

The way the kidneys do this is with nephrons. There are over 1 million nephrons in each kidney, these nephrons act as filters inside the kidneys. The kidneys filter needed materials and waste, the needed materials go back into the bloodstream, and unneeded materials becomes urine and is gotten rid of. In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They grow and can become a painful irritant that may require surgery or ultrasound treatments. Some stones are small enough to be forced into the urethra.

Ureter

The ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the human adult, the ureters are usually 2530 cm (1012 in) long. In humans, the ureters arise from the renal pelvis on the medial aspect of each kidney before descending towards the bladder on the front of the psoas major muscle. The ureters cross the pelvic brim near the bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they run over). This "pelviureteric junction" is a common site for the impaction of kidney stones (the other being the uteterovesical valve). The ureters run posteriorly on the lateral walls of the pelvis. They then curve anteriormedially to enter the bladder through the back, at the vesicoureteric junction, running within the wall of the bladder for a few centimeters. The backflow of urine is prevented by valves known as ureterovesical valves. In the female, the ureters pass through the mesometrium on the way to the bladder.
Urinary bladder

The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. It is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra. Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially continuous with the allantois. In human males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young children, the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.
Urethra

In anatomy, the urethra (from Greek - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. In humans, the urethra has an excretory function in both sexes to pass urine to the outside, '==Urine formation== Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called a glomerulus and is collected in the Bowman's capsule, which filters the blood from its contentsprimarily food and wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients it needs, while the wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then secreted out of the body via the urinary bladder.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Functions of Endocrine System The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete different hormones for the various functions and chemical reactions occurring within the body. The main function is to maintain a stable environment within the body or homeostasis. For example, maintaining the blood sugar levels according to changes occurring in the body is homeostasis. The other function of is promoting the structural changes of the body. For example, the permanent changes occurring in the body over time like height, development of sexual organs, etc. is a part of the structural

changes. There are 8 major glands that help in the functioning of this vital system. These major endocrine glands are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Parathyroid gland Thyroid gland Adrenal glands Pancreas Ovaries (in female body) Testes (in male body)

Let us know more about the various functions with the help of the above mentioned endocrine glands. Hypothalamus: A collection of specialized cells that are located in the lower central part of the brain is called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the main link between the endocrine and the nervous systems. The nerve cells of the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by stimulating or suppressing the hormone secretions. Pituitary Gland: The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is the most important part in the endocrine system. The pituitary gland secretes hormones on the basis of the emotional and seasonal changes. The hypothalamus sends information that is sensed by the brain to pituitary triggering production hormones. The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland regulated the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and the reproductive glands. The anterior lobe also produces hormones like:

Growth Hormone: To stimulate the growth of the bones and tissues. It also plays a role in the body's absorption of nutrients and minerals. Prolactin: To activate the production of milk in lactating mothers Thyrotropin: To stimulate the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones Corticotropin: To stimulate the adrenal glands to produce certain hormones.

Endorphins are also secreted by the pituitary that acts on the nervous system and reduces the feeling of pain. The pituitary glands produces hormones that signal the reproductive organs to secrete sex hormones. The menstrual cycle and ovulation in women is also controlled by the pituitary gland. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces antidiuretic hormone that helps to control the water balance in the body. Oxytoxins that trigger the contractions of the uterus in a woman who is in labor is secreted by the posterior lobe. Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland is situated in the front part of the lower neck that is shaped like a bow tie or butterfly. The production and secretions of the hormones of the thyroid glands

are controlled by thyrotropin secreted by the pituitary gland. Thyroid produces thyroxine and triiodothyronine, that controls the rate at which the cells use up energy from food for production of energy. The thyroid hormones are very important as they help in growth of bones and the development and growth of the brain and nervous system in children. Over or under secretion of thyroid hormones leads to a number of thyroid problems in the body. Parathyroids: These are four tiny glands that are attached to the thyroid gland. They release the parathyroid hormone that helps in regulating the level of calcium in blood along with another hormone produced by thyroid known as calcitinin. Adrenal Glands: On each of the two kidneys, there are two triangular adrenal glands situated. The adrenal gland is divided into two parts. The outer part called the adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids, that influence and regulate the salt and water levels. They are also helpful in the body's response to stress, metabolism, immune system and the function and development of sexual organs. The inner part called the adrenal medulla, secretes catecholamines like epinephrine. This hormone is also called the adrenaline, it increases the blood pressure and heart rate when the body is under stress. Reproductive Glands or Gonads: The gonads are present in males and females and are the main organs producing sex hormones. In men, the gonads are related to testes. The testes are located in the scrotum and secrete androgens. The most important hormone for men testosterone is secreted from the testes. In women, ovaries are the gonads that are located in the pelvis region. They produce estrogen and progesterone hormones. Estrogen is involved during the sexual maturation of the girl, that is, puberty. Progesterone along with estrogen is involved in the regulation of menstruation cycle. These hormones are also involved during pregnancy. Pancreas: These glands are associated with the digestive system of the human body. They secrete digestive enzymes and two important hormones insulin and glucagon. These hormones work together to maintain the level of glucose in the blood. If these hormones are not secreted in the required levels, it leads to development of diabetes. Pineal: The pineal gland is located in the center of the brain. Melatonin is secreted by this gland that helps regulate the sleeping cycle of a person.

REPRUDUCTIVE SYSTEM

Penis: This is the male organ used in sexual intercourse. It has three parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped part at the end of the penis. The glans, also called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin. This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure called circumcision. The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the penis. The penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings. The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three circular shaped chambers. These chambers are made up of special, sponge-like tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection. Semen, which contains sperm (reproductive cells), is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.

Scrotum: This is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and below the penis. It contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum acts as a "climate control system" for the testes. For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than body temperature. Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax, moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth or farther away from the body to cool the temperature. Testicles (testes): These are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These tubes are responsible for producing sperm cells.

Ovaries The ovaries are the main reproductive organs of a woman. The two ovaries, which are about the size and shape of almonds, produce female hormones (estrogens and progesterone) and eggs (ova). All the other female reproductive organs are there to transport, nurture and otherwise meet the needs of the egg or developing fetus. The ovaries are held in place by various ligaments which anchor them to the uterus and the pelvis. The ovary contains ovarian follicles, in which eggs develop. Once a follicle is mature, it ruptures and the developing egg is ejected from the ovary into the fallopian tubes. This is called ovulation. Ovulation occurs in the middle of the menstrual cycle and usually takes place every 28 days or so in a mature female. It takes place from either the right or left ovary at random. Fallopian tubes The fallopian tubes are about 10 cm long and begin as funnel-shaped passages next to the ovary. They have a number of finger-like projections known as fimbriae on the end near the ovary. When an egg is released by the ovary it is caught by one of the fimbriae and transported along the fallopian tube to the uterus. The egg is moved along the fallopian tube by the wafting action of cilia hairy projections on the surfaces of cells at the entrance of the fallopian tube and the contractions made by the tube. It takes the egg about 5 days to reach the uterus and it is on this journey down the fallopian tube that fertilization may occur if a sperm penetrates and fuses with the egg. The egg, however, is only usually viable for 24 hours after ovulation, so fertilization usually occurs in the top one-third of the fallopian tube. Uterus The uterus is a hollow cavity about the size of a pear (in women who have never been pregnant) that exists to house a developing fertilized egg. The main part of the uterus (which sits in the pelvic cavity) is called the body of the uterus, while the rounded region above the entrance of the fallopian tubes is the fundus and its narrow outlet, which protrudes into the vagina, is the cervix. The thick wall of the uterus is composed of 3 layers. The inner layer is known as the endometrium. If an egg has been fertilized it will burrow into the endometrium, where it will stay for the rest of its growth. The uterus will expand during a pregnancy to make room for the growing fetus. A part of the wall of the fertilized egg, which has burrowed into the endometrium, develops

into the placenta. If an egg has not been fertilized, the endometrial lining is shed at the end of each menstrual cycle. The myometrium is the large middle layer of the uterus, which is made up of interlocking groups of muscle. It plays an important role during the birth of a baby, contracting rhythmically to move the baby out of the body via the birth canal (vagina). Vagina The vagina is a fibromuscular tube that extends from the cervix to the vestibule of the vulva. The vagina receives the penis and semen during sexual intercourse and also provides a passageway

NERVOUS system

Parts of Nervous System:

The nervous system is broadly divided into central and peripheral parts which are continuous with each other. Further subdivisions of each part are given below.

Central nervous system (CNS) includes:

Central Nervous System

1. Brain or encephalon, which occupies cranial cavity, and contains the higher governing centers. 2. Spinal cord or spinal medulla, which occupies upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal, and contains many reflex centers.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes:

Peripheral Nervous System (In Blue)

1. Cerebrospinal nervous system is the somatic component of the peripheral nervous system, which includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31pairs of spinal nerves. It innervates the somatic structures of the head and neck, limbs and body wall, and mediates somatic sensory and motor functions. 2. Peripheral autonomic nervous system is the visceral component of the peripheral nervous system, which includes the visceral or splanchnic nerves that are connected to the CNS through the somatic nerves. It innervates the viscera, glands, blood vessels and non-striated muscles, and mediates the visceral functions.