16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

Application of PIV to the Measurement of Hypersonic Turbulence Owen J. Williams*, Alexander J. Smits
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, USA * Correspondent author: owilliam@princeton.edu

Abstract The aim of the current experimental program is to use PIV to measure turbulent statistics within a smooth surface boundary layer at Mach 7.4. It has been shown that the high shear present in a hypersonic boundary layer can lead to an error called peak locking, known to have a significant impact on first order statistics. To limit its effects, particle image displacements must be increased, leading to correspondingly larger interrogation window sizes. The variation of velocity across each window can be significant, testing the limits of many PIV algorithms. Four cross-correlation codes (MatPIV, ISSI, WIDIM and DaVis) are examined at two scales, paying particular attention to their behavior of turbulence in the near wall region and the extent of peak locking generated by shear. High quality seeding is required to ensure an accurate comparison. A successful method for the preparation of TiO2 particles and their introduction into flow using a fluidized bed seeder is described. The current results show great promise for the resolution of hypersonic turbulence with PIV, as the majority of algorithms showed mean velocity profiles that lay on a clearly defined log-law, as well as streamwise turbulent intensities clustering near the DNS profile of Priebe and Martin (2011) at the same Mach number. The greatest differences between algorithms were in the near wall region. It is shown that for the purposes of the current study, DaVis 8.0 produced the highest quality results, with no peak locking, deviation below the log-law towards the transition region and giving a clear peak in streamwise turbulence near the wall. MatPIV also produced similar results, however significant peak locking was experienced, as would be expected from a code with no method of shear compensation. The ISSI code allowed a comparison between square and rectangular windowing. It was demonstrated to have significant peak locking in conditions when vectors were over half the size of the interrogation window. Additionally, the rectangular windows reduced the extent of peak locking, but showed significant scatter in streamwise turbulent intensity in the outer layer. For WIDIM results, while no peak locking was observed, the mean velocity profile showed significant dependence on the choice of windowing overlap. Differences were amplified in the near wall region. Significantly, mean velocity profiles resulting from calculations using the recommended offset of 75% displayed the greatest deviation from all other results. Near wall turbulence also appeared to be filtered. Wall-normal turbulence statistics were shown to be about half the expected magnitude, and were not influenced appreciably by the choice of PIV algorithm. This may be due to particle lag (although this is considered unlikely) or insufficient boundary layer development length.

1. Introduction
We are interested in the behavior of zero pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers, shock wave turbulent boundary layer interactions (SWTBLI), and the effects of gas injection and flow control devices in hypersonic flows. Here, we focus on PIV measurements in the flat plate boundary layer at Mach 7.4 to examine the scaling behavior of compressible turbulence. While PIV in subsonic flow is well characterized (Adrian and Westerweel, 2011), a number of complications are introduced when operating at supersonic and hypersonic speeds. Large density and velocity gradients exist, which reduce seeding uniformity and skew the correlation peaks of cross
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16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

correlation algorithms, introducing additional bias errors. Also, the presence of shock waves creates large step changes in velocity and density; straining the resolution and dynamic range capabilities of conventional PIV evaluation techniques and introducing significant particle lag due their inertia, which acts to filter turbulent energy. The application of PIV to supersonic flows began with studies of jet flow by Moraitis and Riethmuller (1988), Kompenhans and Hocker (1988), and Bryanston-Cross and Epstein (1990). Later, Urban & Mungal (2001) conducted PIV in a supersonic mixing layer, and since then a number of experiments have pushed the Mach number higher. Samimy and Wernet (2000) and Scarano (2008) provide descriptions of the difficulties involved with conducting PIV at supersonic speeds. Tradeoffs must be made between the dynamic range that requires large interrogation windowing, and resolution where small interrogation windows are preferable. The necessity of increasing interrogation window size increases the change in velocity across each interrogation window, spreading the correlation peak and possibly leading to peak locking. While it has been shown to have little effect on mean velocity statistics, it can have quite a significant impact on first order variances. The wall-normal direction can be strongly impacted because vectors are spread over fewer pixels (Christensen, 2004). As the measurement of these statistics is a main goal of the current experiments, limiting this effect is of great importance. It was found by Angele & Muhammad-Klingmann (2005) that there is a maximum of 1% error in RMS velocity statistics provided the single pixel displacement velocity is less than twice the RMS velocity. This provides an incentive to increase streamwise particle displacements to as much as 32 pixels to ensure that this criterion is satisfied. Thus, to avoid significant errors, great emphasis is put on the accuracy of the cross-correlation algorithm, a number of which have been developed to limit the effects of shear. Additionally, hypersonic boundary layers have inherently non-homogeneous seeding, which can bias velocity vectors towards regions with higher particle density. This is especially enhanced for large interrogation windows in the near wall region, placing further stress on the method of interrogation. The simplest method to limit the effect of shear is to use rectangular windowing. By reducing the size of the window in the direction of greatest shear, its effects can be mitigated, as in the code created by ISSI. Taking this a step further, square windowing can be used with an adaptive weighting function applied to the interrogation window, as in LaVisions DaVis 8.0 code. This can be highly elliptical and biased in the forward direction, as required for hypersonic flow. The method described by Scarano and Riethmuller (2000) uses adaptive image deformation to compensate for the effects of shear and sharpen the correlation peak. This method was shown to remove peak locking in supersonic flows very effectively and has been incorporated into the WIDIM code that has been widely used in hypersonic studies (see Estruch et al., 2009). Here, we compare the effects of high shear on the accuracy of four commonly used PIV algorithms (MatPIV, ISSI, WIDIM and DaVis), with the goal of resolving turbulent statistics in the near wall region. Data were obtained at two distinct scales, allowing the evaluation of statistics with windowing on the order of 32 and 64 pixels. The calibration of the second dataset is designed to

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16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

Check valve

Tracking regulator

Fluidized bed seeder

Figure 1 PIV setup and fluidized bed seeder. Particles were directly injected into the settling chamber just upstream of the nozzle throat. Lower image shows test plate. All dimensions are in mm.

satisfy the criterion of Angele & Muhammad-Klingmann (2005) in both the streamwise and wallnormal directions. Analysis begins with an evaluation of peak locking, using global histograms. Mean velocity profiles are presented as well as streamwise and wall-normal turbulent intensities. To ensure high quality data, a method to generate high quality, long duration seeding is first described. A methodical procedure for data reduction is then described, to ensure the validity of final results and to compare algorithms equally.

2. Facility and Apparatus

The current experiments were conducted in the Mach 7.4 Hypersonic Boundary Layer facility at Princetons Gas Dynamics Lab, as shown in Fig.1. It is a low enthalpy, blow down facility that runs on compressed air and has run times of approximately 90s. Experiments were conducted on a flat plate 514.35mm long by 152.5mm wide with a tripping device placed 101.6mm from the leading edge. PIV measurements were obtained 326mm from the tripping device. Further information about this facility can be found in Baumgartner (1997). A New Wave Tempest and Gemini PIV dual head ND:YAG laser system was used to illuminate the particles which were imaged by a PCO.1600 CCD camera with an inter-frame time of 300ns. Each laser delivered approximately 150 mJ energy per pulse at a wavelength of 532 nm. The pulse width was 35 ns with a jitter of 0.5 ns. A 100mm Macro lens with a 2x Macro-focusing teleconverter was mounted to the front of the camera and images were acquired with Camware V2.1. The camera was equipped with 4Gb of internal memory, allowing the acquisition of 694 image pairs at the full frame resolution of 1600x1200. PIV data were acquired at two scales. The first dataset was acquired with a calibration of 66.7 pixels/mm giving a maximum pixel displacement of 24 pixels. It was evaluated with windows of 32x32 pixels and a 50% overlap. Although this displacement is greater than half the size of the window, these large displacements are still not large enough to satisfy the criterion of Angele &
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16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

Muhammad-Klingmann (2005). Seeding density and uniformity were also lower then ideal as these images were obtained early in the experimental program and the seeder mechanism had not yet been optimized. This actually provides the opportunity to examine how various PIV methods deal with low or intermittent seeding that tends to complicate spurious vector detection algorithms. For the second dataset, the field of view was reduced to a scale of 93.3 pixels/mm so that turbulent fluctuations would cover a larger number of pixels, making it possible to resolve smaller fluctuations in velocity in the wall-normal and streamwise directions and reduce the effects of peak locking. The maximum pixel displacement that resulted was 32 pixels, exactly half of 64x64 pixel windows. Results were obtained with 50% overlap. Note that the boundary layer covered a significantly greater portion of the image at this scale, allowing greater resolution within the boundary layer when processed with the same size windows. The conditions for each run are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 - Tunnel conditions for each dataset

To seed the flow, TiO2 particles from SoapGoods.com were used for their high temperature stability, non-toxicity and high index of refraction. Similar particles are available from a number of sources but their quality (size, moisture content etc.) can be highly variable. In addition, unless particles are stored correctly, they will begin to accumulate moisture, agglomerating further. Other, higher quality, products are available, such as Aeroxide P25 from Evonik industries, but these particles were found to be too small to be imaged by the current system. Manufacturer specification for the lower quality particles was 100nm but they arrived with a higher than ideal moisture content, causing significant agglomeration. Hence, they were first sifted to remove larger clumps and then dried overnight in an oven, and combined with 10% by volume hydrophobic fumed silica from Evonik industries called Aerosil R972 to improve particle flow within the seeder. This is a technique that was previously used to enhance seeding for LDV and has been studied by Crosswy (1985). Aerosil R972 has a nominal diameter of 16nm and so these particles will not be imaged. The mixture was then put ball milled with stainless steel ball bearings until uniform. Based on previous experience by Clemens at the University of Texas, we mixed the particles with air in a fluidized bed seeder (see Fig.1). It consists of a top loading pressurized cylinder, fed with high-pressure air from below. Flow rates were controlled using a tracking pressure regulator set to 125 psi above tunnel pressure and hand-operated valve. The overpressure was increased throughout the run, allowing the seeding density to be maintained. To prevent backflow into the seeder during tunnel start-up or shutdown, a check-valve with low crack pressure was installed at the exit. The TiO2 particles were introduced into the settling chamber, upstream of the tunnel throat, through a 12.7 mm diameter tube facing downstream on the centerline of the tunnel. In this way, steady, uniform seeding was produced with apparently little influence on the downstream flow. Average seeding duration was 60s. The seeding density was observed to be reduced near the wall, as would
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16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

be expected with the low-density flow within this region, but this did not appear to prevent the detection of valid vectors. By examining the response across a shock generated by an 8 wedge at the same Mach number, Schreyer et al. (2011) estimated that the particles displayed a frequency response of about 400kHz. Using the definition of Stokes number of Samimy and Lele (1991) this corresponds to St = 0.029. They concluded that St < 0.1 was sufficient to reduce the RMS slip velocity error to less that 1% thus the current frequency response should be sufficient to resolve the turbulence accurately.

3. Comparison of PIV Algorithms

A comparison was made between results generated using three types of PIV software commonly in use for analysis of hypersonic data: dPIV 2.1 from ISSI, WIDIM 9.3 from Delft University, and DaVis 8.0 from LaVision Inc. A fourth code, MatPIV, was also used as an example of the most basic form of cross-correlation analysis available. Although van der Draai et al. (2005) also conducted a comparison of different PIV codes using a range of supersonic data, no firm conclusions were provided. The only code that is common with this earlier study is an older version of WIDIM (9.1). For direct comparison, a procedure was implemented to detect and remove spurious vectors and remove image pairs with unsatisfactory seeding. First, image pairs from the beginning of the run, before seeding had entered the test section, were removed. Next, since the test plate moved about 50 px during each run due to vibration and thermal expansion, the images were normalized to the same position. Some valid data was lost in this process. As seeding in hypersonic flow can be intermittent, it is important to detect and remove spurious vectors. First, a global histogram filter was used to remove major outliers. Bounds on streamwise displacement were set at 0-25 and 0-36 pixels for the first and second datasets, respectively. Wall normal displacements were limited to +-2.5 and +-3. Each program also employed more advanced filters and these were used as recommended. Second, all vectors within one interrogation window of the edge of the image were removed. The final processing step was to determine the number of missing vectors in each image pair and remove those pairs that had a percentage of missing vectors that was significantly higher than the mean. The cutoff percentage varied between processing routines, as some were able to determine many more vectors then others. In the end, approximately 450 pairs remained and were then averaged to generate turbulent statistics. MatPIV 1.6.1: MatPIV can perform basic cross-correlation PIV, is available online and runs within MATLAB. Only square windowing is supported and there are no procedures in place to limit the effects of shear. As such, it would be expected that this code would produce the greatest peak locking. Results using this code were generated in a four stage, multi-pass mode, with successively reducing window sizes and 50% overlap. A standard signal to noise (SNR) filter with a threshold of 1.3 was employed. Remaining vectors were then subjected to a local median filter with threshold of 3 standard deviations. These thresholds are those suggested in the documentation provided online. ISSI dPIV 2.1: dPIV employs the IMAQ 2D correlation engine and provides interrogation windows that are either square or rectangular with aspect ratios of 2:1. The authors do not know if sub-region shifting is employed within this code. This code is evaluated here because it provides insight into the use of rectangular windowing to limit the effects of shear. This code has been

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16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

employed in a number of studies using PIV in supersonic flow, for example Ekoto et al. (2009). Results were obtained here using both square and rectangular windowing and a 50% overlap. Two stages of sequential window refinement were used to arrive at the final resolution. The wall was masked so that it was not included in the correlation and a consistency filter was used in conjunction with the global histogram filter. AR-WIDIM 9.3: This code is an iterative, multi-grid, window deformation routine used to gain higher resolution in regions with large velocity gradients. It is described by Scarano and Riethmuller (2000), where they demonstrate a significant increase in resolution compared to conventional crosscorrelation. Estruch et al. (2009) discuss the use of this code in detail since it is the most common one used in hypersonic PIV. Central to the method is the fact that interrogation window size is not held constant over the image and that spatial sampling density is iteratively refined to follow the scale of velocity fluctuations. In this way, a larger vector density is obtained in regions of high turbulence, allowing for greater accuracy of the adaptive image deformation routine. Final results are then interpolated to a structured grid using a 2D quadratic least squares regression. Results were obtained using overlap factors of 50% and 75%. The later was suggested for greater image deformation accuracy and also to double the resolution. Additionally, standard vector validation settings of 1.5 and 2 were used for SNR and regression filters respectively. It should be noted that all missing vectors are interpolated within WIDIM, which is appropriate for high quality data, but less so when seeding is intermittent or of lower quality, such as is the case with Dataset 1. As a result, all interpolated vectors were once again removed in post-processing and a comparison made with the raw results. DaVis 8.0: This LaVision code employs adaptive Gaussian weighting on square interrogation windows. These weighting functions have a maximum aspect ratio of 4:1 and should limit contribution of particle images at the edges of the interrogation window to the final correlation, and therefore limits the effect of shear. Three passes were made at two windowing sizes until the desired resolution was achieved. Vectors were then post processed using a global histogram filter and a Q-ratio filter of 1.1. Vectors could then be iteratively replaced if a secondary correlation peak proved to be suitable. In this way, vector yields were significantly increased over the MatPIV and ISSI codes. 3.1 Comparison of Global Histograms MatPIV was shown to produce the most consistent peak locking between both datasets, as can be seen in Fig.2. This figure also gives a sense of the change in scale between each of the datasets and illustrates why the effect of peak locking on turbulent statistics is significantly reduced when spread over a greater number of pixels. Dataset 2 satisfies the criteria of Angele & Muhammad-Klingmann (2005) and as such, even severe peak locking would have a negligible impact on first-order turbulent statistics when compared with other sources of error. The results of Dataset 1 show significant variation between codes, whereas those of Dataset 2 are reasonably consistent, with the exception of peak locking. This is likely due to the lower seeding quality of Dataset 1, which taxes the ability of local filters to detect spurious vectors. Overall, the magnitude of peak locking was markedly reduced for Dataset 2. For both datasets, WIDIM and DaVis produced no peak locking, as would be expected since their routines were designed to limit the effects of shear. For Dataset 1, it is interesting to note that the ISSI code with
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16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

square windowing produced greater peak locking then the simpler MatPIV code. This could indicate that the ISSI code is producing a second type of peak locking that occurs when particle displacements are a large fraction of total size. This is supported by the observation that MatPIV showed significantly larger peak locking then ISSI for Dataset 2, where particle displacemtns are reduced to half the total window size. Changing the aspect ratio of the interrogation windows appears to have little effect on the peak locking of Dataset 1 whereas it has largely removed the peak locking of Dataset 2, thus illustrating the advantage of using rectangular windowing to limit the effects of shear. From this data, it appears that WIDIM and DaVis, are the better choices for hypersonic PIV interrogation, due to their ability to limit peak locking.

Figure 2 - Global histograms for Dataset 1 (left) and Dataset 2 (right).

3.2 Mean Flow A comparison was made between mean velocity profiles. Due to the higher quality of the data, this was conducted with Dataset 1 only. The velocity was transformed according to van Driest, assuming the boundary layer temperature varied according to the Walz relation. The friction velocity was determined by the Clauser chart method, which agreed with estimates given by the van Dreist II and Chi-Spalding methods to within 8%. Resulting profiles are shown in Fig. 3, where the transitional, incompressible profile of Spalding (1961) is also shown for comparison. As can be seen, the greatest differences were found in the near wall region, where the shear is greatest and particle image density is lowest. The DaVis and MatPIV results lie close to the profile of Spalding (1951), which is somewhat surprising in that the MatPIV code should not be accurate in this region, given the high degree of peak locking and absence of a method of shear compensation. Square or rectangular windowing appears to have little effect on mean results generated with the ISSI code, which does not seem to deviate below the logarithmic profile and maintains this slope near the wall. The WIDIM results deviate above the logarithmic profile near the wall, which is likely to be non-physical. These results used windowing with 50% overlap. As an overlap of 75% is conventionally used with this code, it was unclear if the current overlap factor provided a high

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enough resolution for accurate adaptive image deformation in this region. Further analysis is warranted.

Figure 3 - Mean streamwise velocity profiles transformed according to van Driest.

3.3 Turbulence The Morkovin scaled streamwise and wall-normal velocity variances are plotted in Figs. 4 and 5 respectively. The profiles are compared with the incompressible data of Klebanoff (1955), and the DNS data of Priebe and Martin (2011), computed at the same Mach number but a slightly higher Reynolds number. With the exception of the 2:1 windowed ISSI results, the results agree closely with those of Priebe and Martin (2011). All these results also trend to very similar levels of freestream turbulence, as would be expected because of high seeding uniformity and low shear in this region. In the middle of the boundary layer, the MatPIV results have the largest variance whereas the WIDIM results are smallest. For these data, the ISSI code produces more accurate results using square windowing, as can be seen by the large scatter in data with 2:1 windows. Note that the mean velocity profiles for these two sets of ISSI results showed no appreciable difference and that the streamwise turbulence agrees quite closely near to the wall. This would indicate a failure of the ISSI algorithm to detect spurious vectors at larger displacements. More spurious vectors are likely to have been generated due to a drop particle number density in each window. Interestingly, the WIDIM results indicate a lower variance near the wall when compared with the other codes or with the computations of Priebe and Martin (2011). Reasons for this reduction are unknown. Fig.5 shows turbulence intensities in the wall-normal direction that are significantly lower than expected based on incompressible or hypersonic DNS. All the codes behaved equally well in this case, which is interesting because the 2:1 windowing of the ISSI code behaved poorly when examining the streamwise component. Note that the turbulent stress was non-zero and thus, wallnormal fluctuations were correlated with those in the streamwise direction, indicating that these fluctuations are not noise, even though they remain small in terms of pixel displacement. Additionally, the peak locking criteria of Angele & Muhammad-Klingmann (2005) was satisfied and we expect that peak locking cannot be causing this discrepancy.
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Figure 4 - Streamwise turbulence in Morkovin scaling.

Figure 5 - Wall-normal turbulence in Morkovin scaling.

One possibility is that the wall-normal turbulence is filtered by particle lag and that the criterion of Samimy and Lele is insufficient in this case as it only takes the freestream condition into account. The Stokes number will vary throughout the layer, leading to the possibility that the turbulence is filtered by particle lag closer to the wall. Additionally, measurements of particle frequency response across the shock can be influenced by the choice of interrogation window, as shown by Havermann et al. (2008), invalidating our estimate of particle frequency response. However, it is expected that particle lag would filter the streamwise and wall-normal directions similarly, which has not been observed. Further work is needed to characterize particle frequency response variation across the layer, as well as determine an appropriate Stokes number based on turbulent quantities. It is also possible that this truncation in the wall-normal direction is a result of insufficient development length after tripping, and that the boundary layer has not quite achieved fully developed turbulence at the current test position. Tripping disturbances are required to be much more severe in hypersonic flow (Boudreau, 1978) and as such, may require greater distances for their influence to be forgotten by the flow. Work is ongoing to examine this possibility.

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3.4 WIDIM Overlap Factors To investigate the effect of overlap factor on WIDIM results as well as that of vector interpolation, results were obtained for 50% and 75% overlap factors, both for raw results and with all interpolated vectors removed. The interpolated vectors were those that replaced those removed by either the SNR or regression filters. Fig.6 shows that increasing the overlap factor appears to have a large effect on the mean velocity profile, indicating a vertical offset. There are also significant reductions in the streamwise turbulence intensity but only for < 0.25. Filtering interpolated vectors appears to have had a larger impact on mean velocity statistics, than streamwise variance. It is known that this code has been used in the past to successfully conduct hypersonic PIV (Schrijer et al., 2006) although turbulent statistics were not obtained. Thus, these results call into question the use of WIDIM with data that contains greater seeding non-uniformities and large displacements than those seen in the previous study. The large differences between results with different overlap factors could possibly be due to the multi-grid nature of the code, where higher data-yields are obtained in regions of high velocity variation. Because the near wall region has the lowest seeding density, it is possible that upon re-interpolation to a regular gird the result is biased towards regions further from the wall, with greater seeding density.

Figure 6 WIDIM results for van Driest scaled mean velocity profiles and Morkovin scaled streamwise turbulence intensity.

5. Conclusions.
It has been shown that the high shear present in a hypersonic boundary layer can lead to peak locking using conventional cross-correlation algorithms such as MatPIV. Use of rectangular windowing reduces peak locking, although more advanced methods, using adaptive image deformation (WIDIM) or elliptically weighted windowing (DaVis) were shown to be much more effective. In all, for our purposes, DaVis appears to be the preferred code tested, with no peak locking, deviation below the log-law towards the transition region and giving a clear peak in streamwise turbulence near the wall. Oddly, MatPIV also appears to give very similar results, even though it produced significant peak locking. Mean results generated with the ISSI code do not deviate from the log-law in the near wall region and 2:1 rectangular windowing appears to give noisy results at
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16th Int Symp on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics Lisbon, Portugal, 09-12 July, 2012

the higher pixel displacements used in this implementation. Most significantly, results generated with the WIDIM code appear to depend significantly on the choice of overlap factor, with the recommended overlap of 75% showing a significantly different mean velocity profile to all other results. Near-wall streamwise turbulence intensity also appears to have been filtered. The mean velocity profile, which should not be very sensitive, also changes when interpolate vectors are removed. It is possible that this code is sensitive to the seeding nonuniformities and larger displacements seen in this study. The results on mean flow and turbulence show promise for the use of PIV to obtain accurate results in turbulent boundary layers in hypersonic flow. In particular, the streamwise turbulent intensity appears quite consistent between most of the algorithms tested and compare well with DNS. However, the wall-normal component was shown be strongly reduced, compared to expected profiles and all codes generated similar results. This was likely due to either the remaining effects of particle lag, or insufficient development length. Both of these possibilities are currently being investigated.

References
Adrian, R. and Westerweel, J. (2011) Particle Image Velocimetry. Cambridge Aerospace Series. Angele, K.P. and Muhammad-Klingmann, B. (2005) A simple model for the effect of peak-locking on the accuracy of boundary layer turbulence statistics in digital PIV. Experiments in Fluids, 38, 341-347 Baumgartner (1997) Turbulence Structure in a Hypersonic Boundary Layer, PhD. Thesis, Princeton University. Boudreau (1978) Artificially induced boundary-layer transition on blunt-slender cones using distributed roughness and spherical-type tripping devices at hypersonic speeds. AEDC-TR-77120 Bryanston-Cross, P.J. and Epstein, A. (1990) The application of sub-micron particle visualization for PIV at transonic and supersonic speeds. Progress in Aerospace Sciences. Vol. 27, pp.237-265 Christensen (2004) The influence of peak-locking errors on turbulence statistics computed from PIV ensembles, Experiments in Fluids, 36, 484-497 Crosswy, F.L. (1985) Particle size distributions of several commonly used aerosols. Tech Rep. Calspan Corporation/AEDC Division, Arnold Air Force Station, Tennesee Ekoto,I., Bowersox, R., Beutner, T. and Goss, L. (2008) Supersonic boundary layers with periodic surface roughness, AIAA Journal, 46(2), 486-497 Havermann, M., Haertig, J., Rey, C. and George, A. (2008) PIV Measurements in Shock Tunnels and Shock Tubes, Topics in Applied Physics, 112, p. 429-443 Klebanoff (1955) Characteristics of Turbulence in a Boundary Layer with Zero Pressure Gradient. NACA Rep.no. 1246 Kompenhans and Hocker (1988) Application of PIV to high speed flows. In Riethmuller,M.L. (Eds.):Particle image displacement velocimetry, VKI Lecture Series Moraitis and Riethmuller (1988) Particle Image Displacement Velocimetry Applied in High Speed Flows. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. Appl. of Laser Anemometry to Fluid Dyn. Priebe, S. and Martin, M.P. (2011) Direct numerical simulation of a hypersonic turbulent boundary layer on a large domain
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Samimy, M. and Lele, S.K. (1991) Motion of particles with inertia in a compressible free shear layer, Physics of Fluids A, 3 Samimy, M. and Wernet, M.P. (2000) Review of planar multiple component velocimetry in highspeed flows. AIAA Journal, 38 Scarano, F. and Riethmuller, M.L. (2000) Advances in iterative multi-grid PIV image processing. Experiments in Fluids, 29, S051-S060 Scarano (2008) Overview of PIV in Supersonic Flows. In A. Schroeder, C. E. Willert (Eds.): Particle Image Velocimetry, Topics Appl. Physics 112, 445463 Schreyer, A.-M., Sahoo, D. and Smits, A.J. (2011) Experimental investigations of a hypersonic shock/turbulent boundary layer interaction. AIAA-2011-481 Schrijer, F.F.J., Scarano, F. and van Oudheusden, B.W. (2006) Application of PIV in a Mach 7 doubleramp flow, Experiments in Fluids, 41, 353-363 Smits and Dussauge (2006) Turbulent Shear Layers in Supersonic Flow (2nd Ed.), Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. Spalding (1961) A Single Formula for the Law of the Wall, Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Applied Mechanics, 28, 455-458 Urban, W. and Mungal, M.G. (2001) Planar velocity measurements in compressible mixing layers, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 431, 189-222 van der Draai, R.K., van Schinkel, R. and Telesca, A.(2005) Application of PIV in (local) Supersonic flows in DNW wind tunnels. 41 st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Tucson, Arizona

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