TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement Preface Introduction To Indian Railways. Module 1: Microwave Communication. Module 2: Railway Signalling And Signal Workshop. Conclusion

Acknowledgement

Behind the completion of any successful work there lies the contribution of not one but many individuals who may have directly or indirectly contributed to it. First and foremost I am grateful to the management of NORTH EASTERN RAILWAY,GORAKHPUR for providing me the opportunity to undertake my Summer Industrial Training in the organization.I specially convey my thanks to all the staff members for their precious guidance during our training and in completion of this project. I feel priviledged to express my deep regards and gratitude to all the Engineers and staffs of MICROWAVE CENTRE,N.E RLY,GORAKHPUR and SIGNAL WORKSHOP,N.E RLY,GORAKHPUR. I am thankful to all my teachers who have best owed upon me their knowledge and have been guiding light through out my course. They have cast an indelible impression on my existence. I am much indent to my friends whose moral support always inspired me to come out with the best.Its great pleasure to extend my heartfelt thanks to everybody who helped me through the successful completion of my training.

The acknowledgement would be incomplete if I fail to express deep sense of my obligation and reverence to my parents without whom this work would not have seen the light of the day. Akhilesh kumar singh

Preface
Engineering students gain theoretical knowledge only through books. Only theoretical knowledge is not sufficient for absolute mastery in any field. Theoretical knowledge in our books is not of much use without knowing its practical implementation. It has been experienced that theoretical knowledge is volatile in nature; however practical knowledge imparts solid foundation in our mind. The practical industrial training is a part of four year degree course.Practical industrial training mainly aims at making one aware of industrial environment which means that one gets to know the limitations,constraints and freedom under which an engineer works. To accomplish this aspect Gautam Buddh Technical University (GBTU), Lucknow(U.P.) has included 4 weeks summer training for B.Tech 3rd Year students in our curriculm. This report is infact a summary of, what I have learnt and seen during my training in N.E Railways. It simply summarizes the Microwave communication, signaling and signal workshop as carried out in Indian
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railways.The training mainly involves industrial and complete knowledge about designing,assembling and manufacturing of equipments.Thus it is very necessary before becoming a professional engineer.

INDIAN RAILWAYS

FOUNDED HEADQUARTER AREA SERVED INDUSTRY SERVICES REVENUE EMPLOYEES

16TH APRIL,1853 New Delhi,India India Railway and Locomotives Rail Transport Rs. 107.66 billion 1,406,430

INDIAN RAILWAYS(BHARTIYA RAIL) abbreviated as IR,is a state owned railway company of India,which owns and operate most of the countrys rail transport.It is overseen by Ministry of Railways and Government of India. Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks

in the world,transporting over 18 million passengers and more than two million tones of freight daily.It is the worlds largest commercial or utility employer,with more than 1.4 million employees.The railways traverse the length and breadth of the country,covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,327 kms (39,350 miles).As to rolling stock,IR owns over 20,000 freight wagons, 50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives.Railways were first introduced to India in 1853.By 1947,the year of Indias independence,there were 42 rail systems.In 1951,the systems were nationalized as one unit,becoming one of the largest networks in the world.IR operates both long distance and sub-urban rail systems on a multi-gauge network of broad,meter and narrow gauges.It also owns locomotives and coach production facilities. As the economy of India improved,almost all railway production units were Indigenized(produced in India).By 1985,steam locomotives were phased out in favour of Diesel and Electric locomotive.The entire railway reservation system was streamlined with computerization between 1987 and 1995. In 2003,the Indian Railways celebrated 150 years of its existence.Various zones of the railways celebrated the event by running Heritage trains on routes similar to the ones on which the first trains on the zones ran.The Ministry of Railway commemorated the event by launching a
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special logo celebrating the completion of 150 years of service.Also launched was a new mascot for the 150 th year celebrations,named Bholu,the Guard Elephant.

Snapshots: It encompasses 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than

63,028 kilometres of route length and a track length of 111,600 km .

It is one of the world's largest commercial or utility

employers, with more than 1.6 million employees. It grossed a revenue of ` 88,355 cr and bagging a net income of ` 951 cr in the financial year 2009-10 . It moves 2 million tons of freight & 20 million people daily across the county with the help of 200,000 (freight) wagons. 7,000 passenger trains across the country services 20 million people to their destinations . Vivek Sahai is the current Chairman of Railway Board .

Organizational Structure-:
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Indian Railways is a department owned and controlled by the Government of India, the Ministry of Railways . IR is administered by the Railway Board, which has a financial commissioner, five members and a chairman.

Railway zones:-

IR is divided into zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions. The number of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952, and finally 16 in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions, each having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of 67 divisions under 16 zones , presently operating in the country .

Each of the 16 zones, is headed by a General Manager (GM) who reports directly to the Railway Board. The zones are further divided into divisions under the control of Divisional Railway Managers (DRM). The divisional officers of engineering, mechanical, electrical, signal and telecommunication, accounts, personnel, operating, commercial and safety branches report to the respective Divisional Manager and are in charge of operation and maintenance of assets.
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Further down the hierarchy tree are the Station Masters who control individual stations and the train movement through the track territory under their stations' administration.

Practical Training under NER:-

We've received the scheduled Summer Practical Training, as a part of our curriculum, from June 22, 2010 July 12, 2010 under Divisional Railway Manager,NER,Gorakhpur. . We've studied about the following operational technologies in the IR 1. Microwave Communication & Links. 2. Railway Signalling. 3. Signal Workshop(Automatic track changer,Electronic point machines and relays)

MODULE I
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves whose frequencies range from 1 GHz to 1000 GHz. Microwaves are so called since they are defined in terms of their wave -length.There are large number of bands in microwave region. Microwaves are used for controlling of trains.It is necessary to give correct running and stopping of the trains and there should be a single train on a single track. Microwaves help the railway staff to communicate for this purpose.Stations on average of 40km can communicate with each other by microwave.there are large number of bands in microwave region. Before the advent of fiber optics, these microwaves formed the heart of the long distance telephone transmission system.
In its simplest form the microwave link can be one hop,

consisting of one pair of antennas spaced as little as one or two kilometers apart, or can be a backbone, including multiple hops, spanning several thousand kilometers. A single hop is typically 30 to 60 km in relatively flat regions for frequencies in the 2 to 8 GHz bands. When antennas are placed between mountain peaks, a very long hop length can be achieved. Hop distances in excess of 200 km are in existence.

The "line-of-sight" nature of microwaves has some very

attractive advantages over cable systems. Line of sight is a term which is only partially correct when describing microwave paths.
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Microwave Transmitter and Receiver-:

Below figure shows block diagram of microwave link transmitter and receiver section - The voice, video, or data channels are combined by a technique known as multiplexing to produce a BB signal. This signal is frequency modulated to an IF and then up converted (heterodyned) to the RF for transmission through the atmosphere. The reverse process occurs at the receiver. The microwave transmission frequencies are within the approximate range 2 to 24 GHz. The frequency bands used for digital microwave radio are recommended by the

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CCIR. Each recommendation clearly defines the frequency range, the number of channels that can be used within that range, the channel spacing the bit rate and the polarization possibilities.

Microwave Transmitter and Receiver.

Application Of Microwave In Indian Railways-: Microwaves are used for controlling of trains. It is necessary to give correct running and stopping of the trains and there should be a single train on a single track. Microwave communication help the railway staff to communicate for this purpose.
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 Stations on average of 40 km can communicate with each other by microwave.

Frequency Range In Microwave Region-:

BANDS L LS S C X Ku K Ka FREQUENCY(GHZ) 1.1-1.7 1.7-2.6 2.6-3.9 3.9-8.0 8.0-12.5 12.5-18.0 18.0-26.0 26.0-40.0

How Terrestrial Microwave Transfer And Receive Data: Terrestrial microwaves communication employs earth based transmitters and receivers to transfer and receive data. The frequencies used are in the low giga-hertz range,which limits all communication to line of sight.

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 Examples of terrestrial microwave equipment-Telephone relay towers,which are placed every few miles to relay telephone signals across country.

Antennas Are Used To Transfer Data-:

Microwave transmissions typically use a parabolic antenna that produces a narrow,highly directional signals. A similar antenna at the receiving site is sensitive to signals only within a narrow focus. Because the transmitter and receiver are highly focused,they must be adjusted carefully so that the transmitted signal is aligned with the receiver.

Role Of Microwaves In Passenger Reservation System-:

In PRS,the Gorakhpur Zone is connected to the main server through communication lines and there is the need of non stop
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working of PRS in Indian Railways otherwise there will be big loss to Indian Railways.

So to increase the reliability of PRS,the main server is also connected to the zones through microwave links.In case if there is a failure in the physical mediathen the PRS can be operated by microwave.

Microwave Systems-:

There are two types of Microwave Systems.In first schematic processing is in analog form and in second schematic processing is in digital form. According to this there are two types of microwave systems as follows-:

1. Analog system. 2. Digital system.

The analog system is old system and digital system is new one.

Analog Systems-:

The analog system is simple and this system consists of Transmitter,Receiver and communication media which is Microwave here. Transmitter:
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The role of Transmitter is to send the signals and it consists of following parts: Multiplexer(MUX):This is used to transmit various signals simultaneously.Here there is many Input and there is only one output.The output of the multiplexer is given to the Radio Equipment. Radio Equipment:It receives the output of the multiplexer and then processes the signals.This is the most important part of the transmitter and the antenna is connected to the radio equipment directly. Transmitting Antenna:This is a metallic object and this is used to transmit the signals in free space.The antenna transmit the signals at 7 GHz in the space.Here the antenna consists of a parabolic reflector and a Horn antenna.The antenna is directional and directive. Tower:The tower is a metallic and this is used only to give height to the antenna. Receiver:The role of receiver is to receive the signals.The receiver consists of following parts: Receiving Antenna:
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The receiving antenna receives the incoming signal and then it gives the signals to the mixer. Mixer: Here in the mixer the frequency mixing takes place and now the output frequency is different.And the output of the mixer is given to the Discriminator. Discriminator: The Discriminator seperates the signals and the demodulation process is done here.This means that the carrier signal is removed and only the Message signals are taken. Demultiplexer: The demultiplexer has only one input and here the separation process is done and the sent signals are recovered back.

Digital Systems:

This system has a large number of advantages over analog system.This system is a new system and uses digital technology.Digital system is more reliable and efficient. Digital system consists of following parts:
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 Transmitter-: The transmitter of digital system is different from analog system.In this transmitter two types of multiplexers are used which are as follows: Primary multiplexer: This is the first multiplexer at the transmitter side.It multiplexes 30 voice signals and in the digital system sixteen multiplexers are used of this type.The output of every primary multiplexer is 2.04 Mbps. Higher order multiplexers: This multiplexer is big and multiplexes the signal coming from the primary multiplexers.The output of this multiplexer is 34.368 Mbps.

Radio Equipment:The output of the higher order multiplexer is given to the radio equipment.Radio equipment process these signals and make them able to be transmitted by antenna. Antenna-: The antenna is same as we are using in analog system.Here also we use horn antenna and parabolc reflector.Horn antenna is at the focus and it send the signals to the parabolic reflector surface.After striking from the surface,the signals are parallel and it is transmitted in such form. Tower-:
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Here also the role of tower is to give height to antenna.In Microwave station (Gorakhpur) of Indian railways,there are two towers ,one is for analog and the other one is for digital communication. Receiving Antenna-: The receiving antenna is at the receiving side,receives the signals and sends it to radio equipment.There is line of sight communication of microwave in between transmitting and receiving antenna.

Radio Equipment-: The radio receiver receives the signal coming from the antenna.Here the signals are processed and then these signals are sent to higher order demultiplexers. Higher Order Demultiplexers-: In this demultiplexer the signals are separated.And the output of this multiplexer is given to the low level multiplexer.There is sixteen outputs and every output has a bit rate of 2.048 Mbps. Low level multiplexer-: This multiplexer receives the output from the higher order multiplexer.It has one input and thirty outputs.The output frequency rate is 0-4 KHZ.This is the frequency range of human voice.Here the original voice signals are obtained.
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Power Reqirement-: Both systems require power for their operation.A dc current is required for both systems.This dc current is provided by a set of batteries.An extra set of battery is also kept for emergency.

Analog System-:Analog system requires a dc voltage of -24v for its operation.

Digital communication-:Digital system requires a voltage of 48 v for its operation.

Essential Environment For Analog And Digital Systems-:

There are some requirements for these systems for there proper functioning.Following are some of the requirements:1. Air Conditioning. 2.Dust Free Environment. 3.Uninterrupted Power supply. 4.Proper trained staff.

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Use Of Repeaters-:
After travelling some distance the microvave gets distorted. The Repeater is a device which is used to obtain distortion free microwave and this clean and distortion free microwave is transmitted again in forward direction. Repeaters are used at the average distance of 40 km.

Fault Control Procedure-:

In a typical Railway Telecom network Scenario,following types of Telecom Network coexists:

Transmission-:

1.Microwave/UHF Network. 2.Optical Fibre Cable Network. 3.RE Telecom Cable Control Network. 4.Railways Overhead Wire Control Network. 5.DOT owned Overhead wire control Network.

Switching-:

1.Electronic Telephone Exchanges.

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2.Electromechanical Telephone Exchanges.

Others-:

1.Single Channel Duplex UHF/VHF Radio Systems. 2.Multiple Access Radio Relay. 3.Pair Gain System. 4.VHF/UHF Simplex Trans-receivers. 5.Talk Back systems for Major yards. It is indeed very necessary to established well defined Fault Control procedures for satisfactory maintenance of such diverse Railway Telecommunication Networks so as to meet the demanding requirements of Indian Railways in 21st century.

Typical Telecom Fault Control Setup-:

Typical telecom fault control setupon railway shall consist of

following-: 1. Zonal Telecom Fault Control Setup. 2. Divisional Telecom Fault Control Setup.

The Zonal Telecom Fault Control Setup shall be one for entire zonal railway. The Divisional Telecom Fault control setup shall be established in each Division of the zonal railway.

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1.Zonal Telecom Fault control setup-: It shall be manned by Section Engineer(Telecom) in a general shift.Three section engineers(Telecom) shall be earmarked and should man the zonal fault control setup round the clock in case of emergencies.Following Telecom Network shall be monitored by zonal Telecom fault control Room.

Microwave/UHF Network on the entire zonal Railway-:

The Zonal Telecom Fault Control room shall also function as an emergency telecom control room in case of emergencies requiring immediate telecom facilities/restoration.The emergencies may consist of the following-: Major rail accidents. Cyclones. Breaches.

When the Zonal Telecom Fault control room function as the Emergency Telecom Control room,the divisional Telecom fault control rooms of the affected Division(s)shall report their positions to the Zonal Telecom Fault control room which in turn shall advice the Telecom officials at HQs of the latest developments.

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The zonal Telecom Fault Control Room shall function under the direct control of Dy. Chief Signal & Telecom Engineer(Microwave) or any other officer designated by communication engineer of railway.

2.Divisional Telecom Fault Control Setup-: The Divisional Telecom Fault Control setup shall have two components: For monitoring all telecom networks other than Microwave/UHF called

Divisional Telecom Fault Control Room.

For monitoring Microwave/UHF networks called Divisional Microwave Fault Control Room. Each of these Contol rooms shall be headed by a Senior Section Engineer(Telecom) in a general shift.Three section engineers (Telecom)/Jr. Engineer(Telecom)shall man the fault control room round the clock. Following Telecom Networks shall be monitored by the Divisional Fault control Room-:

Optical fibre Cable Network. RE Telecom Cable Control Network.

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 Railways Overhead wire control network. DOT owned Overhead Wire Control Network. Electronic Telephone Exchanges. Electro-mechanical Telephone Exchanges. Single channel Duplex UHF/VHF

MODULE II Railway Signalling & Signal Workshop

Introduction-:

Signaling is one of the most important aspects of Railway communication. In the very early days of the railways there was no fixed
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signaling to inform the driver of the state of the line ahead. Trains were driven on sight. But several unpleasant incidents accentuated the need for an efficient signaling system. Earliest system involved the Time Interval technique. Here time intervals were imposed between trains mostly around 10 mins. But due to the frequent breakdown of trains in those days this technique resulted in rear-end collisions. This gave rise to the fixed signaling system wherein the track was divided into fixed sections and each section was protected by a fixed signaling. This system is still being continued although changes have been brought about in the basic signaling methods. Earlier mechanical signals were used but today block signaling is through electric instruments. When trains run on railway tracks they follow rules of in respect operations

which safety plays a very important role.The most important rule in of safety is to ensure that two trains do not occupy the trains uses signaling to controlmovement of trains on

sameposition on the track at the same time. To make this rule work operation of signals. tracks and divides tracks into several sections which are protected by the

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Fig

shows a representation of a railway signaling arrangement. The

horizontal liner represents the railway track, the signals are depicted by the symbol of the circle with a horizontal and vertical line to this circle and the red rectangles are the trains. This representation is however to explain how trains are run safely. Locking-:

There are three types of locking a) Direct b) Approach c) Route Direct locking is available as long as a signal is clear or track is occupied or a point is set. This is the most fundamental level of locking.

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When signal S1 is cleared the cleared condition of the signal locks other signals which can cause trains to run on any part of the route over which S1 allows a train to run. Thus with S1 cleared allowing trains to move to track T1 signal S4 cannot be cleared and willbe locked as the latter also allows trains to occupy track T1. Other form of direct locking is the locking of the point in the route for which signal S1 is cleared. If S1 is cleared to the straight route T0 T1 T2 then the point P1 will be set and locked to allow a train to move on the straight route over Point P1.Attempts to move point P1 from this position will not be allowed and hence will be locked. Conversly if the point P1 is not set for straight the signal S1 will be locked. The occupation of a track also locks signals if T1 is occupied then signal S1 cannot be cleared. Signal S1 is therefore directly locked to the cleared status of the track. Points are directly locked to track circuits over the point zones. If the track circuit over a point zone is occupied the it is locked so that it cannot move. This is the direct locking of the point.

Approach Locking-:

While ensuring safety for train running it is not only necessary to ensure that safety is ensured over all portions of track for which signals have been given but also over portions over track which can get occupied due to trains approaching a signal which protects these portions of track failing to stop at this signal. Such protection is required under the condition when the signal protecting had not been cleared. Flank protection and isolation-:
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When a train is allowed to move by a signal it is also necessary to ensure that no part of the train will be Involved in a side collision. Protection in the overlap-:

When a train is approaching a signal a possibility exists that the train may fail to stop at the signal where it is intended to stop due to mechanical failure or due to human failure. While there is no absolute arrangement to control against this eventuality a partial safety is ensured by providing a small part of the track beyond the signal at which the train is to stop free of any conflict or obstruction to the train if it fails to stop at the foot of the signal. Typically when train TR1 is approaching S1 it will normally be ensured that the track section onto T2 is free of any obstruction. This includes possibility of any train from the opposite direction reaching T2. Hence if TR1 is allowed to approach S1 it will be ensured that the train TR2 does not at the same time approach signal S2. Any point in this portion
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of the track also needs to be set and locked in the position allowing safe movement through it. If TR1 is approaching signal S1 it will mean point P2A must be set and locked for the straight route. The point P2A and track T2 is referred to be in the overlap for signal S1 and locks the signal allowing approach of a train to signal S1 if not found free. Conversely if signal S1 is cleared any condition which can lead to the overlap from failing to remain in the condition to maintain safety for train TR1 approaching S1 will be locked. Release of locking-:

Signals indicate when a route which it checks is safe for a train to travel. The safety is checked from different angles as explained above. After a signal has been cleared for a train it is required to be put back to danger as the train moves past it. There are two reasons for doing this-: a) To ensure the safety of the train which has moved past. b) To allow clearance of other signals which has been locked by it. The release of locking is done automatically as a train moves along the route a signal had cleared for it. The locking is released in stages-: a) As the train moves past the signal the approach locking is brought back to normal. b) As the train clears the first track after the signal the direct locking gets released. c) As the train moves the route locking , flank or isolation protection for the portions of the route cleared by the train is removed. d) After the train has come to a stop at the next signal for sufficient time to prove that it is not moving the overlap is released. This is the normal release with the passage of train. There can however be occasions when it is
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required to cancel a signal which has been cleared and yet to be passed by the train. When this is required the signal is canceled. When the signal is canceled it is necessary to ensure that the locking it had enabled also get canceled. Here again the cancellation starts from release of the approach locking followed by release of the route locking, locking of flank and isolation and finally the overlap. The release is done only after it is established that a train which had been approaching the train has come to a stopped at the signal before the locking to other signals are released. Detection of trains-:

Signals control movement of trains. For it to effectively control movement of signals there is a need to know the location of trains on the track. The railway tracks are divided into short sections normally referred to as track sections. At any time only one train can occupy one such a section. Track circuits or axle counters are used for the detection of trains in these sections. Only one train can occupy a track section at any time. Normally the detector is fed with the signal from the source through the rails and as long the detector receives a signal it concludes that the track section is not occupied. If a train occupies the track section being monitored it short circuits the track cutting off the signal from the source to the detector. When the detector fins loss of signal from the source it concludes that the section is occupied by a train. Principles of fail safety is also very well demonstrated in this arrangement. In case of a failure like a broken wire, rail fracture, power supply failure, failure of the source the detector will lose the signal and conclude the section is occupied

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by a train. This will allow the detection to maintain safety even under failure condition and satisfy requirments of fail safety. Control and drive to points-:

Points are driven by electrical motors. The motors are known as point motors and moves point using a mechanism which including the motor is referred to as point machine. A point machine mechanism moves switches of a point through a mechanical arrangement of rods and gears. Signals-:

Signals indicate to the train drivers whether the route till the next signals is reached is safe or not. Before a signal is cleared the signal control logic verifies that everything is safe for a train which follows it. This will mean-: a) All track sections over which the train will be routed is unoccupied. This is checked by checking the status of the track circuit relays. Track proving relays of all track sections which are clear will be picked up. By checking the status of these relays which are referred as track relays the signaling control logic can determine that the route is clear. b) Routes of any signals which conflict with the signal is not cleared and that none of the signals have been approach locked. c) There is not route set over a track section conflicting with the route of the desired signal. This is proved by checking that all track circuits over which the signal reads is clear of route locking.

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Implementation of Signaling Systems

Train running and signaling the drivers of the trains depends to a significant extent on mechanized equipment. The technologies used for this application ranges from very rudimentary systems to highly sophisticated equipment. The technologies are based to a great degree on mechanical arrangement at large number of installations. Advanced technologies are in use on sections where train densities are high and specially where Railway Electrification has already been done. Technologies used for this application are for two reasons :1) To ensure safety of train running. 2) To improve operational efficiency. Basic Principles :

Safety of train running in practice means ensuring that two trains do not occupy the same location at the same time. Since trains are bound onto Railway tracks it means ensuring two trains do not occupy same location of the track at the same time. This is ensured in two stages-: 1) By dividing the Railway track into sections. 2) Entry into each of these sections are controlled by suitable signaling system which ensures through various means that when a train is signaled to Basics of Railway Signaling. 3) The drivers controlling the train are signaled sufficiently in advance so that they can stop the train before signals which are not cleared. Since trains typically move at a speed of around 100 Km./Hr. it requires a braking distance of 1 Km before a signal at which it is required to stop. Hence
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signaling system ensures that signals are conveyed to the Drivers sufficiently in advance to bring the train to stop safely. 4)It should not be possible to move a point when a train is over the point or is very near to the point having picked up signal allowing the train to move over the point likely to be moved. In addition to above various other rules are applied to make a signaling system safe. These rules are results of experiences gained after accidents. Thus one rule msays that if a passenger train has to run through a line then this run through line should be isolated from other connected lines in the station by suitable means. This rule has been introduced to ensure that if there is a train standing on a connected line and it starts rolling it cannot result in a devastating collision as it is kept isolated from run through line on which high speed train has been signaled to go through. Basic Rules -:

The basic rules of safety in connection with train running is implemented through various methods. The Railway Engineering is very old and, therefore, implementation methods also are old. Availability of modern electrical & electronic technology is gradually changing the implementation of Railway signaling systems. The technologies used in Railway signaling system depended on human element initially. Gradually mechanical systems were introduced followed by electrical/electromechanical and now electronics/electrical/electromechanical systems. The human element in Railway signaling is getting reduced wore & more for improving safety and efficiency of train operations.
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The Human element :

Signaling Systems exist where setting of the point and locking of the same is entirely manual. The locking of the point is achieved through key and lock system. The signals are all hand Signals. A more mechanized arrangement is where switches turning points are connected to levers and signals are given by mechanical arms known as semaphore signals. In both the systems the human element ensure that the routes a train will take is not obstructed. The set person who is clearing the signals for passage of the trains achieves this entirely visually. The oldest signaling Systems are entirely manual where even the checking that a route has been properly is manual. The 50 Hz & 83&113 Hz signal source is used in a manner similar to D.C. voltage and requires no special mention as the detector is simply a relay. In case of 83&1/3 Hz system normally 3 phase system is used and two phases are used on any section. The feed end gives one phase and a second phase is always fed to the detecting relay. When the track circuited section is free the two phases create a rotary force as in a AC electric motor. Absence of one of the phase via the rails due to presence of a train removes the rotating force dropping the relay. The 83&1/3 Hz track circuits is a popular track circuiting arrangement.

Electronics in Railway Signaling for improved Safety-: The audio frequency track circuit is the latest entrant in the field. This arrangement feeds an Audio frequency signal which causes pick up of
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Relay via the detector. A simple Audio frequency generator is used and at the detecting end a L.C. resonant circuit is used for picking up the desired Audio frequency signal & rejecting others. Due to the use of high frequency it is possible to use the Railway track as a transmission line and use of physical insulating pieces electrically isolating one section as "R' from 'A-B" is not required. By using resonant L.C. circuits at suitable points the AF signal can be made to stop beyond any particular point without the need of any insulating joint. This feature is a big advantage for this type of track circuit as there is no need to cut Rails & insert insulating pieces. Indian Railways but considerable difficulties, faced on account of loss of track side equipment due to theft has rendered the system ineffective. As a corollary to this simple arrangement, systems of continuous automatic control of trains are also available. Such systems continuously control speed of trains through transfer of signals from the track side to the engine. The system is quite elaborate consisting of a receiver located in the engine and suitable transmitter coils located on the sleepers between the track. A computer computes the required speed of trains running on the track for ensuring safety as well as for ensuring that trains run on time speeding as necessary or slowing when needed. Such a system is being implemented on Metro Railway Calcutta in India for the first time. Such systems are important for Metro Railway services where time between two successive trains is are required to be kept very small to as much as one min or less. Even with such small interval between trains complete safety & punctuality can be attained using the continuous automatic train control and protection system. Use of Electrical/Electronic Gadgets for ease of operation Over and above allowing higher levels of safety by using sophisticated controls the use of electrical/electronic gadgets for Railway Signaling is also made for ease of train operations and
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higher efficiencies. Systems known as Panel Interlocking and its sophisticated variety known a Route Relay Interlocking are for control of signals and points with higher efficiencies. Design of Signaling Circuits-:

The design of signaling circuits is based on simple principles. Railway Signaling being one of the oldest control engineering is based on very simple methods and principles. One of the main reasons of its simplicity lies in the fact that technological aids for design were not very high till late 21st century and complicated design principles and methods could not be supported. as a result of this the circuits are drawn using very simple symbols and names are kept short. If looked in the context of the fact that the circuits had to be hand drawn in times where duplicating facilities were very primitive the reason why they are so simple can easily be understood. Signaling circuits are based on defining relays of the following types-: a) Those signifying states in progress of a command b) Those indicating steady state of the signaling functions. c) The last operation has been completed properly .All circuits of Railway Signaling has to ensure safety. Hence both the type of relays defined above also always ensure safety. This fundamentally means that in absence of any voltage to the circuit the relays shall assume safe state which is the drop state for all neutral relays and can be dropped or one of the latched state for relays which are latched electrically or mechanically.
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Signal Workshop-:
In the signal workshop of Indian railways,following machine are manufactured which are used as a part of signaling system-:

1. Electric point machine. 2. Relays.

Points are provided to divert the running trains from one track to another. The points have movable switches which can be operated electrically by a point machine. A point can be single-ended point or double-ended point depending on whether the movable switches are provided at one end or two ends of the point, The two switch rails of the point are rigidly connected together by a cross bar so that they can be moved from one position to the other position together by the point machine. If the position of the switches is such that the train is moved on to the main line as shown above, then the point is said to be in its normal (N) position. If the switch rails are moved to the other position as shown below so that the train is diverted to the loop line, then the point is said to be in its REVERSE (R) position.

Solid State Interlocking-:

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Solid State Interlocking is a data-driven signal control system designed for use throughout the British railway system. SSI is a replacement for electromechanical interlockings---which are based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been designed with a view to modularity, improved flexibility in serving the needs of a diversity of rail traffic, and greater economy. The hugely complex relay circuitry found in many modern signalling installations is expensive to install, difficult to modify, and requires extensive housing---but the same functionality can be achieved with a relatively small number of interconnected solid state elements as long as they are individually sufficiently reliable. SSI has been designed to be compatible with current signalling practice and principles of interlocking design, and to maintain the operator's perception of the behavior and appe arance of the control system.

A schematic view of SSI processor.

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Conclusion

This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from theoretical electronics may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior of the devices .Electronics & communication engineering practice
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seeks to put in place, and that this is immediately attainable with the present state of the art. The focus for this detailed study is provided by the type of solid state signaling and various communication systems currently being deployed throughout mainline railways. Safety and system reliability concerns dominate in this domain. With such motivation, two issues are tackled: the special problem of software quality assurance in these datadriven control systems, and the broader problem of design dependability. In the former case, the analysis is directed towards proving safety properties of the geographic data which encode the control logic for the railway interlocking; the latter examines the fidelity of the communication protocols upon which the distributed control system depends. We have covered in this report the history ,latest developments in Railway systems as well as related fields. We have studied the various uses of electronics and communications in railways like microwave communication,signaling,electronic point machines etc..

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