Thesis WithLineNumbers SelfCorrected Compressed

Master of Technology 1
Numerical Simulation and 2

Experimental Validation of 3
Compliant Surface Gas Film Bearings 4
For high speed applications 5
Balaji Sankar 6
7
Academy of Scientic and Innovative Research 8
Propulsion Division 9
National Aerospace Laboratories 10
11
Co-ordinator
Dr.Vidyadar Mudkavi
Group Head
Dr. Soumendu Jana
Guide
Mr. Sadanand Kulkarni
Date of the Graduation
26
|I
September 2012 12
Do what you can with what you have, where you are. 13
Contents 14
Abstract 1 15
1. Introduction 3 16
1.1. Gas Foil Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 17
1.2. Literature Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 18
1.2.1. Simulation of Foil Bearings and Experimental Validation . . . 4 19
1.2.2. Thermo-Hydrodynamic Modeling and Measurements . . . . . 6 20
1.2.3. Structure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 21
1.2.4. Encircling Foil Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 22
1.3. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 23
2. Models 13 24
2.1. Fluid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 25
2.1.1. Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 26
2.1.2. Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 27
2.1.3. Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 28
2.1.4. Simplications of Incompressible Reynolds Equation . . . . . 19 29
2.1.5. Compressible Reynolds Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 30
2.1.6. Large Harrison Number Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 31
2.1.7. Innitely long bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 32
2.1.8. Innitely Short Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 33
2.2. Structure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 34
3. Solution of Steady Reynolds Equation Using Multi Dimensional Newton 35
Raphsons Method 33 36
3.1. Reynolds equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 37
3.1.1. Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 38
3.2. Finite Dierence form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 39
3.3. Examples of Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons Method . . . . . . 39 40
3.3.1. One Dimensional Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 41
3.3.2. Multi Dimensional Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 42
3.4. Linearizing the Reynolds equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 43
3.4.1. Applying Multi-Dimensional Newtons Method . . . . . . . . . 49 44
3.4.2. Matrix form of equations: Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 45
3.4.3. Matrix form of equations: Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 46
3.4.4. Gauss-Seidel solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 47
i
Contents Contents
3.4.5. Force computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 48
3.5. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 49
4. Solution Using Iterative Non-Linear Scheme 59 50
4.1. Iterative Non-Linear Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 51
4.2. Finite Dierence form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 52
4.3. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 53
5. Solution Using Finite Volume Method 63 54
5.1. Reynolds equation in Vector Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 55
5.1.1. Greens Theorem in Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 56
5.2. Finite Volume Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 57
5.2.1. Evaluation of line integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 58
5.2.2. Flux At The East Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 59
5.2.3. Flux At The West Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 60
5.2.4. Flux At The North Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 61
5.2.5. Flux At The South Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 62
5.2.6. Evaluation of Surface Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 63
5.2.7. Assembled equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 64
5.2.8. Evaluation of Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 65
5.2.9. Evaluation of convective and diusive ux using exact solution 71 66
5.2.10. Handling the Non-Linearities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 67
5.3. Description of Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 68
5.3.1. Outline of the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 69
5.3.2. Description of the object model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 70
5.3.3. Flow chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 71
5.4. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 72
6. Pseudo Spectral Method 81 73
6.1. Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 74
6.1.1. Estimation of Derivatives and transformations . . . . . . . . . 83 75
6.1.2. Fourier approximation of pressure distribution . . . . . . . . . 86 76
6.1.3. Fourier derivative matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 77
6.2. Chebyshev polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 78
6.2.1. Estimation of derivatives and transformations . . . . . . . . . 95 79
6.2.2. Chebyshev approximation of pressure distribution . . . . . . . 96 80
6.2.3. Chebyshev derivative matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 81
6.3. One dimensional solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 82
6.4. Two Dimensional solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 83
6.4.1. Choice of Chebyshev polynomials in the axial direction . . . . 99 84
6.4.2. Time Marching Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 85
6.5. Integration of pressure to get force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 86
6.6. Grid dependency studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 87
6.7. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 88
ii
Contents
7. Comparative study 117 89
7.1. Validation case, Eccentricity =0.79 and Bearing Number =0.4985 . . 117 90
7.2. Behavior at Other Eccentricity and Bearing Numbers . . . . . . . . . 119 91
7.2.1. High Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 92
7.2.2. Low Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 93
8. Experimental Validation 131 94
8.1. Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 95
8.2. Shaft center location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 96
8.2.1. Using minimization approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 97
8.2.2. Conventional method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 98
8.3. Prediction of pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 99
8.3.1. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 100
Acknowledgments 143 101
A. Appendix 145 102
A.1. Navier Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 103
A.2. Stokes Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 104
A.3. Grosss approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 105
A.4. Conversion to cylindrical co-ordinates using chain rule . . . . . . . . . 150 106
A.5. Greens Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 107
Bibliography 153 108
Bibliography 153 109
Index 157 110
iii
Abstract 111
The work carried out in the eld of Numerical simulation and experimental valida- 112
tion of Gas foil bearings, in the National Test Facility for Rolling Element Bearings 113
in NAL-CSIR, as a part of masters course work is documented here. After a brief 114
presentation of essential theory, 6 uid models are developed to solve the Reynolds 115
equation. This Reynolds equation governs the uid between the shaft and encircling 116
foil of a foil bearing. Then each of these uid models are coupled with the same 117
structural model and shaft model to generate 6 simulation models. These simulation 118
models are then used to predict steady state pressure distribution around a bearing 119
for which published data is available. Based on comparison with published data, the 120
two dimensional pseudo spectral scheme is chosen among the uid models due to its 121
accuracy and run time characteristics. This simulation model is then applied to the 122
bearing that was fabricated and tested at NAL-CSIR at various RPMs from 20000 123
to 40000. Two algorithms to predict the shaft center location at various RPMs are 124
coupled with the simulation model. The predicted shaft center and measured shaft 125
center are compared at various RPMs. The shaft center in the experiments are 126
measured using ADRE system employing eddy current probes. Then the simulated 127
pressure around the shaft at these RPMs are validated by measuring the pressure 128
around the shaft using ESP scanners. 129
1
1. Introduction 130
Air lubricated foil bearings are a major component of the Oil-free lubrication tech- 131
nology advanced by the NASA-Glenn research center. A huge volume of work has 132
been carried out over the past decade leading to signicant advances in the eld of 133
foil bearings. Improved design methodologies have been formulated for the design 134
of foil bearings with the aid of more realistic simulation programs.This has lead 135
to improved bearing designs. These bearings have already found applications in 136
Aerospace and Electronics industry, the chief advantage being the elimination of 137
conventional lubrication system and hence savings on maintenance and weight. 138
1.1. Gas Foil Bearings 139
Figure 1.1.: Foil Bearing, concentric location of shaft
140
The front view of the foil bearing is shown in Figure 1.1. The encircling foil (sup- 141
ported by the bump foil) encircles the shaft.The corrugated bump foil forms the 142
exible foundation to the encircling foil. In practice, the bearing diameter is often 143
designed to have very small clearance or interference t with the encircling foil. 144
When the shaft rotates, it drags air into the space between encircling foil and the 145
shaft. This leads to pressure being developed in the converging portion. Upon 146
reaching a certain speed of journal, called lift-o speed, pressure developed will 147
3
Chapter 1 Introduction
Figure 1.2.: Foil bearing, Shaft at an eccentric location
be sucient to form a layer of air lm between the journal and bearing surface and 148
completely separates them apart as depicted in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2. Though 149
the picture the shaft is shown to be at the center of the sleeve, its usually at an 150
eccentric position. The eccentric location of the shaft is shown in Figure 1.2. The 151
occurrence of this lift-o speed can be found by the sharp reduction in the torque 152
required to drive the shaft. The pressure distribution in the gas lm exerts a pres- 153
sure force that supports the shafts weight.
1
. The bump foil provides support for 154
the top foil and its compliance allows the top foil to deform under the action of hy- 155
drodynamic pressure. This deformation changes the geometry of the ow eld. This 156
geometry change in turn aects the pressure distribution. Thus it is necessary that 157
we need to consider the elastic deformation of the top foil and the compressibility 158
of the gas to adequately model the bearing. 159
1.2. Literature Survey 160
1.2.1. Simulation of Foil Bearings and Experimental Validation 161
On the numerical simulation front, Tadjbakshi provided a scheme to numerically 162
solve for pressure distribution considering the foil deection in 1983 in [32] . The 163
compressibility of gas was included in the analysis. He showed that the basic equa- 164
tion for determination of pressure distribution becomes a third order boundary value 165
problem in terms of lm thickness. A simple numerical scheme for solution of the 166
nonlinear boundary value problem was also presented. 167
Prior to that in 1977, Langlois improved his own previous foil bearing model in 168
[23]. Initially, his foil bearing model had an assumption of light loading. Un- 169
der light loading assumption, the change in lubricating lm thickness arising from 170
1
The numerical simulation of this pressure and the consequent load carrying ability forms the
bulk of this work.
4
1.2 Literature Survey
the foil deection was ignored insofar as determination of the lubrication pressure 171
is concerned. Ref.[23] described a series of computations carried out without the 172
assumption of light loading. He introduced the basic approach of working back and 173
forth between a foil-deection calculator and an iterative Reynolds equation solver. 174
At each stage of the procedure the foil deection calculator produces an enlight- 175
ened guess for the foil shape. Next, the pressure distribution required to balance 176
tension forces so as to support this shape exactly is determined. This is used as the 177
zero-iterate in the next application of the Reynolds equation solver. This approach 178
is followed till date in the iterative solution schemes of Reynolds equation. 179
Peng in Ref [26], developed a model of the foil bearing considering the compressibiltiy 180
of the uid into consideration. Though such a model had initially been put forward 181
by Tadjbakshi in Ref[32] ,a novel way to estimate the load carrying capacity of 182
foil bearing using minimum lm thickness as the determining parameter weas put 183
forward that agreed very well with the experimental results on the load capacity of 184
these bearings. A series of predictions of the load-carrying capacity based on the 185
numerical solution for pressure was presented that cover a wide range of operating 186
speeds. 187
A theoretical analysis model was presented in [10] to investigate the nonlinear dy- 188
namic behavior of bump-type foil bearings, i.e., the instability and unbalance re- 189
sponse. In their developed model, the foil structure of bump-type foil bearings was 190
simulated using the link-spring model, which was presented and validated in a pre- 191
vious study[9]. They coupled the structure and uid model through pressure and 192
lm thickness. An iteration solution method was applied for the shaft orbit. They 193
conducted parametric studies using the following design parameters: 194
1. Bump number 195
2. Length ratio ( ratio of segment between two bumps and a bump) 196
3. Foil thickness 197
4. Bump height 198
5. Youngs Modulus, were presented upon the analysis of static 199
They noted that more bumps or lager length ratio lead to larger load capacity. 200
But the bearing load capacity did not change with dierent bump heights. They 201
concluded that more the numbe rof bumps, lower is the threshold speed of instabil- 202
ity,especially when the number of bumps is low. However, it almost does not aect 203
by other four parameters. 204
NASA has developed an analysis and prediction tool for foil bearings named XL- 205
GFBTH, documented in Ref [17]. A test rig at GRC was used as a simulated case 206
study to compare rotor dynamic analysis using output from the code to actual rotor 207
response as measured in the test rig. The comparison shows that the rotor dynamic 208
coecients calculated using XLGFBTH represented the dynamics of the system 209
reasonably well especially as they pertain to predicting critical speeds. 210
5
The Role of Radial Clearance on the Performance of Foil Air Bearings was studied 211
by Kevin in Ref[28]. Load capacity tests were conducted to determine how radial 212
clearance variations aected the load capacity coecient of foil air bearings. In- 213
creases in radial clearance were accomplished by grinding the shaft. The test results 214
indicate that, each test bearing exhibited an optimum radial clearance that resulted 215
in a maximum load capacity coecient. Bearings operating with radial clearances 216
less than the optimum exhibit load capacity coecients that are a strong function of 217
radial clearance and are prone to a thermal runaway failure mechanism and bearing 218
seizure. Conversely, a bearing operating with a radial clearance twice the optimum 219
suered only a 20% decline in its maximum load capacity coecient and did not 220
experience any thermal management problems. 221
An experimental test program was conducted at NASA [4], to determine the highly 222
loaded performance of current generation gas foil bearings at alternate pressures 223
and temperatures. Load capacity tests were conducted at 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 224
21 kRPM at temperatures from 25 to 500 C and at pressures from 0.1 to 2.5 at- 225
mospheres. Results showed an increase in load capacity with increased ambient 226
pressure and a reduction in load capacity with increased ambient temperature. Be- 227
low one-half atmosphere of ambient pressure a dramatic loss of load capacity was 228
noted. Additional lightly loaded foil bearing performance in nitrogen at 25 C and 229
up to 48 atmospheres of ambient pressure was also reported. In the lightly loaded 230
region of operation the power loss increases for increasing pressure at a xed load. 231
In order to address the problem of misalignment in foil bearings,NASA [19] con- 232
ducted a preliminary experimental investigation of the misalignment tolerance of 233
gas foil journal bearing systems. Using a notional gas foil bearing supported rotor 234
and a laser-based shaft alignment system, increasing levels of misalignment were im- 235
parted to the bearing supports while monitoring temperature at the bearing edges. 236
The amount of misalignment that induced bearing failure was identied and com- 237
pared to other conventional bearing types such as cylindrical roller bearings and 238
angular contact ball bearings
2
. They found that due to misalignment , the foil 239
bearings became more edge loaded. They identied that foil bearings tolerated a 240
misalignment of 8
3
( equivalent to 8 microns per mm of misalignment). 241
1.2.2. Thermo-Hydrodynamic Modeling and Measurements 242
Thermo-Hydrodynamic modelling of foil bearings are equally important to load pre- 243
diction capability due to the ever present danger of a thermal runaway. In [22], the 244
authors present a model for the thermal energy transport in a Gas foil bearing sys- 245
tem operating at high temperature with typical inner and/or outer cooling ows. 246
The lm temperatures they predicted agree with previous test data, demonstrat- 247
ing the eectiveness of an outer cooling stream to remove heat and to control the 248
operating temperature. They showed that the inner ow stream is not as ecient 249
2
These bearings can take up to 4e-3 misalignment
6
in cooling the system.Theyheated the rotor electrically to 132
0
C and measured the 250
temperature at various points and measured the shaft motion. In speed-up tests 251
to 26 krpm, the rotor motion amplitude dropped suddenly just above the critical 252
speed, thus, evidencing the typical hardening of compliant bearings. At the hottest 253
test condition, since air is more viscous, the rotor peak motion amplitude decreased, 254
not showing a jump. The coast-down tests showed that the critical speed increased 255
slightly as the temperature increases. 256
A similar Thermo-Hydrodynamic study was also carried out by San Andres in [2]. 257
His model also included thermal energy transport in the gas lm region and with 258
cooling gas streams, inner or outer, as in typical rotor-GFBs systems. His analysis 259
also accounted for material property changes and the bearing components expan- 260
sion due to temperature increases and shaft centrifugal growth due to rotational 261
speed. He considered a detachable top foil, one in which there is no possibility of 262
sub ambient pressure being developed. He predicted that the lm peak temperature 263
occurs just downstream of the maximum gas pressure. The lm temperature was 264
shown to be higher at the bearing middle plane than at the foil edges. The journal 265
speed, rather than the applied static load, inuences more the increase in lm tem- 266
perature and with a larger thermal gradient toward the bearing sides. Obviously 267
the gas lm temperature increases rapidly due to the absence of a forced cooling 268
air that could carry away the recirculation gas ow and thermal energy drawn by 269
the spinning rotor. He compared the model considering temperature eects to the 270
isothermal model and showed that the THD model produced a smaller journal ec- 271
centricity (larger minimum lm thickness) and larger drag torque. He explained this 272
eect by reasoning that a higher temperature causes higher gas viscosity and hence 273
a higher drag. 274
Another theoretical model that incorporates thermal structural eects was presented 275
in Ref[33].This model accounted for the following factors: 276
1. Bending and membrane eects in the top foil resulting from temperature 277
change 278
2. Thermal expansion of the journal, subfoil, and bearing housing. 279
3. Thermal transport through the journal, foils, and bearing housing. 280
Pressure in the gas lm was predicted using the Reynolds equation, and a thermal 281
bulk ow model was used to predict temperature. The authors demonstrated that 282
models will overpredict lm thickness along the side edge of a bearing if thermal 283
strain in the top foil is not included. 284
An experimental investigation into the temperature prole of a compliant foil air 285
bearing was made by Kevin Radil in Ref[30]. A series of tests were performed to 286
determine the internal temperature prole in a compliant bump type foil journal air 287
bearing operating at room temperature under various speeds and load conditions. 288
The temperature prole was collected by instrumenting a foil bearing with nine, type 289
K thermocouples.The thermocouples were tack welded to the backside of the bumps 290
7
that were in direct contact with the top foil. Tests were conducted at speeds from 291
20 to 50 kRPM and loads ranging from 9 to 222 N.The results indicated that, over 292
the conditions tested, both journal rotational speed and radial load are responsible 293
for heat generation with speed playing a more signicant role in the magnitude of 294
the temperatures. The temperature distribution was nearly symmetric about the 295
bearing center at 20 and30 k RPM but became slightly skewed toward one side 296
at 40 and 50 kRPM. Surprisingly, the maximum temperatures did not occur at 297
the bearing edge where the minimum lm thickness is expected but rather in the 298
middle of the bearing where analytical investigations have predicted the air lm to 299
be much thicker.Thermal gradients were common during testing and were strongest 300
in the axial direction from the middle of the bearing to its edges, reaching 3.78 301
C/mm. The temperature prole indicated the circumferential thermal gradients 302
were negligible. 303
1.2.3. Structure Model 304
Regarding the structural model, in [9], the author has developed an analytical model 305
of bump-type foil bearings considering the eects of four factors, 306
1. Elasticity of bump foil 307
2. Interaction forces between bumps 308
3. Friction forces at the contact surfaces 309
4. Local deection of top foil 310
They simplied each bump into two rigid links and a horizontally spaced spring, 311
the stiness of which is determined from Castiglianos theorem. The interaction 312
forces and the friction forces are coupled with the exibility of bumps through the 313
horizontal elementary spring. The local deection of the top foil was described 314
using a nite-element shell model and added to the lm thickness to predict the air 315
pressure with Reynolds equation. They showed that the bump deections of a strip 316
with ten bumps calculated using their model under dierent load distributions were 317
consistent with the published results. Moreover, the predicted bearing load and lm 318
thickness obtained from a foil bearing with a bump circumferential extend of 360 319
deg also agree very well with the experimental data, especially for predictions with 320
a proper selection of radial clearance and friction coecients. They noted that the 321
radial clearance and friction force variations in the foil bearing signicantly changed 322
the performance of the foil bearing. They demonstrate that the radial clearance of 323
the foil bearing has an optimum value for the maximum load capacity. 324
Structure models that do not consider the interaction between the foils tend to 325
over estimate the exibility. Le Lez in Ref[24] presented a model that describes 326
the foil bearing structure as a multi-degree of freedom system of interacting bumps. 327
Each bump included three degrees of freedom linked with elementary springs. The 328
stinesss of these springs are analytically expressed. Once the stiness matrix of 329
8
the whole foil bearing structure is obtained, the entire static system is solved taking 330
friction into account. Despite its relative simplicity, comparisons with nite elements 331
simulations for various static load distributions and friction coecients showed a 332
good correlation. This analytical model was integrated into a foil bearing prediction 333
code. The load capacity of a rst generation foil bearing was then calculated using 334
this structure model as well as other simplied theoretical approaches. Signicant 335
dierences were observed, revealing the paramount inuence of the structure on the 336
static and dynamic characteristics of the foil bearing. 337
In [31] , the author has developed a new foil bearing with compression springs as 338
the support for the encircling foil. This foil gas bearing uses a series of compression 339
springs as a compliant structure instead of corrugated bump foils. A spring model 340
to estimate the stiness of compression springs was developed and showed a good 341
level of agreement with the experimental results. The spring dynamics model was 342
combined with a non-linear orbit simulation to investigate the non-linear behavior 343
of foil gas bearings. His approach could also predict the structural loss factor given 344
the geometry of the underlying springs.The structural stiness of this new type of 345
support was highly nonlinear and showed dierent behavior for static loading and 346
the sinusoidal dynamic loading. The constructed bearing with rather soft springs 347
showed a load capacity of 96N at 20,000 rpm under no cooling. 348
1.2.4. Encircling Foil Coatings 349
Regarding the coatings used on the encircling foil to reduce the friction coecient
3
, 350
notable work was presented in [14] by Heshmat. He tested and evaluated the per- 351
formance of Korolon Coatings and showed that thought eir friction coecient was 352
a function of temperature, in most cases a minimum coecient of friction less than 353
0.1 was observed during start up/shutdown periods. 354
NASA [[7]] had also developed a coating PS304, a modied chrome oxide based 355
coating, for foil gas bearings.The coatings were tested at a load of 10 K Pa (I.5 psi) 356
and the bearings were run under start/stop cyclic conditions. The data show good 357
wear performance of the bearing especially at temperatures above 25 C. However 358
the estimated friction coecient was 0.4, over four times the value reported by 359
Heshmat in [[14]]. 360
A comparative study of dierent foil bearing coatings was done by NASA in Ref[29]. 361
In this study, room temperature load capacity tests were performed on journal foil 362
air bearings operating at 14,000 rpm. Dierent shaft and foil coating technologies 363
such as plasma sprayed composites,ceramic, polymer and inorganic lubricant coat- 364
ings were evaluated as foil bearing lubricants. The results indicated that bearing 365
performance is improved through the individual use of the lubricants and treatments 366
tested. Further, combining several solid lubricants together yielded synergistically 367
better results than any material alone. 368
3
No such coatings were used in this study.
9
In Ref[8], Dong-Hyun Lee carried out parametric studies similar to [10] while pre- 369
senting an algorithm that accounted for the stick slip motions, thus considering the 370
eect of coulomb friction. The predictions of the unbalance response show that 371
the foil bearing is very eective on the restriction of the vibration at the resonance 372
frequency and there exist optimum values of design parameters such as friction co- 373
ecient, bump foil stiness, and the number of bump foil strips with regard to 374
minimizing the amplitude at the resonance frequency 375
1.3. Applications 376
Gas foil bearings are currently used in many commercial applications, both terres- 377
trial and aerospace. Aircraft Air Cycle Machines (ACMs) and ground-based micro- 378
turbines have demonstrated histories of successful long-term operation using GFBs. 379
Small aircraft propulsion engines, helicopter gas turbines, and high-speed electric 380
motors are potential future applications [6]. 381
The NASA report[18] extensively documents the gas foil bearing advances from the 382
point of view of application in a closed circuit Brayton cycle power plant. Since the 383
working uid is typically an inert gas like Argon in a CBC, contamination of the 384
working uid by the lubricant is intolerable. Gas foil bearings are ideal for such an 385
application. 386
In Ref [34], Christof Zwyssig gives a review of recent applications of high speed 387
drive systems. He notes of a new topic of research called megaspeed drive sys- 388
tems, (MegaNdrives-1 million r/min) introduced by the Power Electronics Systems 389
Laboratory (PES) at Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, in 2004. 390
MegaNdrives have very high power densities and are typically limited to smaller 391
dimensions and/or power levels in the range of 100W due to the material strength 392
limitations and thermal limitations. Gas foil bearings are ideal for such high speeds, 393
small loads and do not complicate the system by further adding a lubrication system 394
to the small setup. The main reason to strive toward the megaspeed range is emerg- 395
ing applications in the areas of noninvasive imaging techniques in medicine, dental 396
technology, material processing, air compressors for high-compact fuel cells,and gas- 397
turbine-driven portable power systems. 398
High speed grinding , milling and drilling are increasingly being used in the elec- 399
tronics industry were a very high precision is required. These require very high tool 400
speeds, 150000 RPM in the case of grinding of silicon wafers. High speed(400000 401
RPM) dental drills powered by compressed air also promise to be a prominent area 402
of application for gas foil bearings. Gas turbine power generation is commonly used 403
in largescale power generation systems up to hundreds of megawatts, where the ro- 404
tational speed is in the order of 10 000 RPM. There are emerging applications for 405
portable, low-power gas-turbine based power generation systems. At power levels 406
around 10 W, the gas turbine system occupies a very small volume if the rota- 407
tional speeds are increased to over 500000 RPM. These systems typically use Gas 408
10
1.3 Applications
bearings , rigid/exible. As an example, the Massachusetts Institute of Technol- 409
ogy (MIT) wafer-based gas turbine prototype uses rigid gas beaing to support the 410
disk that is both the compressor and the turbine. Additional applications for small 411
portable power supplies are in unmanned surveillance vehicles, autonomous robots, 412
and medical applications. Stanford University, in cooperation with M-DOT, has 413
been developing a gas turbine with a predicted output power of 200 W and a ro- 414
tational speed of up to 800000 RPM. The main application is for powering Micro 415
Air Vehicles. Low mass-High RPM energy storing ywheels proposed to be used 416
in satellites by NASA are also a prominent application for gas bearings. Their low 417
mass and compactness would make them ideal for space based applications. 418
The authors in [13] describe an oil-free, 150 Hp turbocharger that was successfully 419
operated with compliant foil bearings in a range of pitch and roll angles, including 420
vertical operation, thereby demonstrating its viability for aircraft applications.They 421
ran the test setup upto 120000 RPM. In addition, they also showed that the compli- 422
ant foil bearing-supported turbocharger successfully tolerated shock and vibration 423
of 40 g. They also demonstrate that with state of the art coatings, a coecient of 424
friction of less than 0.1 is possible over a wide range of temperatures. 425
11
2. Models 426
The uid and the structure models used in this simulation study are presented in 427
this chapter. Reynolds equation is used to model the uid between the shaft and 428
the encircling foil. The structure model is the simplied Heshmats model which 429
does not account for friction between the bumps and the encircling foil. The concise 430
derivation given here follows Camerons approach from Ref[1]. Grosss Approach 431
is more involved and is detailed in the appendix along with other mathematical 432
preliminaries used in this report. This model is used mainly due to its simplicity 433
and wide spread usage. 434
2.1. Fluid Model 435
Instead of using the Navier Stokes (NS) equation in its entirety to simulate the uid 436
between the journal and the bearing, a simplied model is used here. Solving the full 437
NS equation is complicated and computationally very expensive. The computational 438
cost becomes huge particularly when orbit simulations are carried out where the uid 439
equations need to be solved at every time step and a huge number of time steps are 440
involved. Comparative studies have been carried out by Piekos in Ref [27] comparing 441
results from full NS simulations and Reynolds equations. The assumptions that 442
were made to reduce the NS equations to Reynolds equation such as neglection 443
of uid inertia were shown to have little eect for his bearing conguration. The 444
author had concluded that a less expensive tool was needed to simulate the uid 445
ow and proceeded to use pseudo spectral methods towards that end. Moreover 446
for the bearing diameter and RPM of this study(23 mm Diameter, 30000 RPM) , 447
Reynolds equation has been used extensively[10, 26, 31, 17, 21]. 448
2.1.1. Assumptions 449
Reynolds equation is derived from Navier Stokes through a series of assumptions. 450
Justications that the author could think o are also given below. 451
1. Body Forces are neglected. 452
a) Except in magnetohydrodynamics
1
Examples of such uids include plas- 453
mas, liquid metals, and salt water or electrolytes, body forces can be 454
1
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) (magneto uid dynamics or hydromagnetics) is an academic
discipline which studies the dynamics of electrically conducting uids.
13
Chapter 2 Models
neglected. 455
2. Pressure is constant through the thickness of the lm. 456
a) The thickness of the lm when oil is the working medium is 25 to 125 457
microns.The thickness of the lm when air is the working medium is 0 to 458
25 microns. For such small thickness, we can safely assume the pressure 459
is constant through the thickness of the lm. 460
3. Curvature of surfaces is large compared to lm thickness. 461
a) The statement should be that the radius of curvature is large compared to 462
the thickness of the lm. The implication of this assumption is that the 463
equations representing the uid ow in the gap can be written in carte- 464
sian form. This justications for using cartesian coordinates is explained 465
below in points. 466
b) Polar coordinates are used when the streamlines and boundaries are 467
changing in direction that is similar to the change in direction of the unit 468
vectors of the polar coordinate system. If the surface velocities/stream 469
lines are straight/not changing in direction, Cartesian coordinates would 470
be easier. To show that surface velocities are not changing in direction, 471
It needs to be only shown that the normals to the surfaces are parallel. 472
The angle between the top and bottom surface normals after traveling a 473
distance of dx from the y axis is d =
oa
(1
inner
1
Outer
)
. Since the dierence 474
in their radii is small, the angle is small and can be assumed 0. This 475
makes them parallel. 476
c) Andreas S. Szeri puts the same assumption this way. The normals to the 477
shaft and foil intersect at the center of the shaft. However he assumes 478
that the normals are parallel to each other. He says We focus on such 479
short distances (He means the thickness of the gas lm) along the normal 480
vectors such that they intersect at what seems to us a a very great distance 481
. To show that this assumption is valid , we show that the dierence 482
in curvature of top and bottom surfaces is small. It is shown in the next 483
point. 484
d) In the bearing studied in this work, diameter of the shaft is 22mm. 485
Inside diameter of the encircling foil which wraps around the shaft is 486
22.050mm(At location of maximum thickness of the lm)= 0.022050m. 487
Thus the radii of the two surfaces are almost same. Thus their cur- 488
vature(Inverse of radii) dier by not more than 0.20 :
1
as shown in 489
Figure 2.1. In terms of percentage of shaft curvature this is 0.22%. Thus 490
it is shown that the dierence in curvature of the two surfaces is small 491
and the normal vectors are almost parallel. 492
e) Further this scenario can be compared with the boundary layer over the 493
earths surface. The planetary boundary layer is 2000m thick over tropics 494
14
2.1 Fluid Model
in the trade wind zone.
2
. Comparing with the radius of the earth, the dif- 495
ference in curvature between the top and bottom of the boundary layer is 496
0.372210
7
:
1
. In terms of percentage of earths curvature it is around 497
23%. The table Figure 2.1 below summarizes the values in this point. It 498
can be seen that the dierence in curvature between the top and bottom 499
surfaces is high compared to the dierence in curvatures encountered in 500
the bearing. Navier Stokes equations in Cartesian coordinates are often 501
used in the preliminary studies of planetary boundary layers. 502
4. There is no slip at the boundaries 503
a) What this means is that the velocity of oil adjacent t the boundary is the 504
same as the boundary. The uid sticks to the surface. There has been 505
much work on this and is universally accepted. This assumption also 506
requires the assumption of continuum ow.The assumptions that follow 507
are put for the simplication of the derivation. 508
5. Stress is proportional to rate of shear. 509
a) Non Newtonian uid have much more complicated partial dierential 510
equations that relate strain rate and stress in the uid and are usually 511
more dicult to handle. A Newtonian model is assumed here. 512
6. Laminar ow 513
a) Flow in big turbine bearing is not laminar and their theory is slowly being 514
developed. For smaller bearings such as those used in this work (23 mm 515
diameter), ow can be assumed to be laminar. 516
7. Fluid inertia is Neglected 517
a) Several studies show that even if Reynolds number is 1000, the pressures 518
are only modied by 5% due to the use of this assumption. 519
8. Viscosity is constant through the thickness 520
a) This certainly not true but leads to great complexity if not assumed. The 521
actual variation of viscosity with temperature for an ideal gas is given by 522
Surtherlands formula as j = j
0
T
0
+C
T+C
_
T
T
0
_
3 2
. 523
9. Not all velocity gradients are signicant 524
a) Compared to
&
:
and
&
:
, every thing else( meaning all other velocity 525
gradients) are negligible. 526
2
Source: Wikipedia, Planetary Boundary Layer
15
Chapter 2 Models
Parameter Foil Bearing Planetary Boundary layer
Radius of Top Surface 11.025 mm 8400000 m
Radius of Bottom Surface 11 mm 6400000 m
% dierence in radii
3
0.22 .03125
Curvature of Top Surface 90.70:
1
1.190 10
7
:
1
Curvature of Bottom Surface 90.90:
1
1.562 10
7
:
1
% dierence in curvature 0.22 23.68
Table 2.1.: Curvature Comparison
Figure 2.1.: Curvature of Surfaces
2.1.2. Continuity Equation 527
Consider the uid elementFigure 2.2 as one extending from the top to the bottom 528
surface. Let its height be h. The roof and oor are impermeably bounded. Its cross 529
section is of length dx and width dy. 530
Top Surface
Bottom Surface
Fuid element
x direction, u, q_x
h
dy dx
Figure 2.2.: Fluid Element
Let u be the velocity of the uid in x direction. Then uid ow per unit width
a
is 531
given by

I
0
(n)d . The volume ow rate is
a
d , for the column is dy wide. Rate 532
of ow out - Rate of ow in is given by 533
16
2.1 Fluid Model
(
a
+

a
r
dr)d (
a
+

a
r
dr)d
Similarly in the y direction 534
(
d)dr (
d)dr
Let n
I
is the velocity of the roof of the element and n
0
, that of the oor. Due to 535
this movement, the volume of the uid changes at a rate of 536
(n
I
n
0
)drd
where dx*dy is the area of the base and top of the element. 537
Using the above , volume balance (constant density uid) can be written as 538
a
r
dr d +

d dr + (n
I
n
0
)drd = 0 (2.1)
where The continuity equation in cartesian coordinates, for a uid of constant den- 539
sity can then be written (in terms of mass) as 540
(
a
)
r
+
(
+
( /)
t
= 0 (2.2)
In terms of volume, the equation reduces to
(
a
)
r
+
(
+
(/)
t
= 0
The uid element to which the above equation corresponds to extends from top to 541
the bottom surface. Since the ux across the oor and roof are zero(they are not 542
porous), ux across them does not occur in the above equation. However the height 543
of the uid column can change, which may be due to dierent velocities of the oor 544
and the roof. 545
17
Chapter 2 Models
2.1.3. Momentum Equation 546
2.1.3.1. X direction: 547
Consider only the force balance in the x direction. The forces that concern us are
pressure forces across the front and back faces and the shear forces at roof and oor
faces .
j
r
=

:a
.
(2.3)
We have not considered the
:
term and the
&
a
term due to assumption 9. 548
j
r
=

.
_
j
n
.
_
(2.4)
Since pressure is not a function of z, we can integrate the above as 549
j
n
.
=
j
r
. + C
1
(2.5)
Considering the viscosity constant along rthe height of the uid lm, we can write, 550
jn =
j
r
.
2
2
+ C
1
. + C
2
(2.6)
The boundary conditions for evaluating C
1
and C
2
are 551
. = /. n = l
1
. = 0. n = l
2
552
The expression for velocity is 553
n =
1
2j
j
r
(.
2
./) + (l
1
l
2
)
.
/
+ l
2
(2.7)
Thus uid ow per unit width in x direction
_
I
0
(n)d
_
is 554
a
=
/
3
12j
j
r
+ (l
1
+ l
2
)
/
2
(2.8)
18
2.1 Fluid Model
2.1.3.2. Y direction: 555
Similarly in the Y direction, 556
j
=

.
_
j
\
.
_
(2.9)
Following a similar procedure as followed in the x direction, we obtain the uid ow 557
per unit width in the y direction as 558
=
/
3
12j
j
+ (\
1
+ \
2
)
/
2
(2.10)
2.1.3.3. Full Reynolds Equation(Incompressible) 559
Substituting expressions for
a
and
in the continuity equation we get, 560
r
(
/
3
j
j
r
) +

(
/
3
j
j
) = 6
_

r
(l
1
+ l
2
) / +

(\
1
+ \
2
) / + 2(n
I
n
0
)
_
(2.11)
ThisEquation 2.11 is the Reynolds equation with an incompressible uid approxi- 561
mation. 562
2.1.4. Simpli cations of Incompressible Reynolds Equation 563
The full Reynolds equation with an incompressible uid approximation is written 564
as 565
r
_
/
3
j
j
r
_
+

_
/
3
j
j
_
= 6
_

r
[(l
1
+ l
2
) /] +

[(\
1
+ \
2
) /] + 2(n
I
n
0
)
_
(2.12)
This equation can be simplied to yield 566
r
_
/
3
j
r
_
+

_
/
3
j
_
= 6l
d/
dr
(2.13)
19
Chapter 2 Models
for steady and 567
r
_
/
3
j
r
_
+

_
/
3
j
_
= 6
_
l
d/
dr
+ 2
d/
dt
_
(2.14)
for unsteady conditions. 568
The process of simplication is detailed below. 569
2.1.4.1. Negligible axial velocity 570
First consider the term 571
r
(l
1
+ l
2
) / +

(\
1
+ \
2
) /
Considering the directions of the velocities a shown inFigure 2.3 we can see that for
Figure 2.3.: Direction of velocities
572
v to be non zero,the inner race has to be slide in and out of the outer race. This 573
wouldnt be practical for a journal bearing. In a journal bearing only the tangential 574
velocities,u are of prime importance. Thus the term considered here reduces to 575
r
(l
1
+ l
2
) / +

(\
1
+ \
2
) /

r
(l
1
+ l
2
) /
20
2.1 Fluid Model
2.1.4.2. Rigid inner race 576
Since the inner race is rigid, for a cylinder rotating at constant angular velocity ,
the tangential velocity at the surface is constant every where and is not a function
of x. If the shaft is rotating and the inner surface of the bearing is xed, l
2
= 0.
Hence the term further reduces to
r
(l
1
+ l
2
) / l
/
r
The term (n
I
n
0
) is just the variation of height of the uid lm with time that
can be written by
oI
o|
. Thus the rhs is now
6
_

r
[(l
1
+ l
2
) /] +

[(\
1
+ \
2
) /] + 2(n
I
n
0
)
_
6
_
l
d/
dr
+ 2
d/
dt
_
2.1.4.3. Steady running bearings 577
The inner race is not going up and down inside the outer race or sideways. This
means that the lm thickness at a point is not a function of time. This eect is the
squeeze lm term.Thus the rhs is now
6
_

r
[(l
1
+ l
2
) /] +

[(\
1
+ \
2
) /] + 2(n
I
n
0
)
_
6l
d/
dr
2.1.4.4. Constant viscosity 578
Viscosity has already been assumed constant along z direction, along the lm thick- 579
ness. Now assume it is constant everywhere. This reduces the lhs as shown 580
r
_
/
3
j
j
r
_
+

_
/
3
j
j
_

1
j
_

r
_
/
3
j
r
_
+

_
/
3
j
__
Thus the simplied steady Reynolds equation can now be written as 581
r
_
/
3
j
r
_
+

_
/
3
j
_
= 6jl
_
d/
dr
_
(2.15)
21
Chapter 2 Models
2.1.5. Compressible Reynolds Equation 582
However since we are concerned with compressible gas, we need to user mass conti- 583
nuity and not volume continuity. Using the mass conservation equation instead of 584
volume conservation equation we get, 585
r
(
/
3
j
j
r
)+

(
/
3
j
j
) = 6
_

r
( (l
1
+ l
2
) /) +

( (\
1
+ \
2
) /) + 2 ( (n
I
n
0
))
_
(2.16)
For our case, (Gas bearings) a further simplications can be made using either of 586
the 2 options 587
1. Use gas law j
= Co::tc:t 588
2. Isothermal condition = 1, or j 589
Using the second and replacing all using p , we get the equation as 590
r
(
j/
3
j
j
r
)+

(
j/
3
j
j
) = 6
_

r
(j (l
1
+ l
2
) /) +

(j (\
1
+ \
2
) /) + 2 (j (n
I
n
0
))
_
(2.17)
upon using the simplications discussed earlier we have, 591
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
+

_
j/
3
j
_
= 6j
_
l

r
(j/) + 2
(j/)
t
_
(2.18)
2.1.5.1. Non-dimensionalization 592
The Non-dimensionalization of pressure is wrt ambient pressure. x () is wrt radius, 593
y wrt length of the bearing. The clearance is non-dimensionalized wrt initial clear- 594
ance. The new variables are non dimensional terms relating to the original terms 595
according to the relations given below. 596
j
.1

j
j
o
/ c/
.1
r 1r
.1

1
2
.1
22
2.1 Fluid Model
where,1
o
is the ambient pressure, c is the radial clearance, R and L are the radius 597
and length of the bearing. The use of non-dimensionalizing wrt
1
2
and not L is to 598
have the
1
1
term explicitly appear in the equation. The subscripts are not used after 599
that to make the equations clearer. Multiplying by 1
2
on both sides yields 600
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
+
41
2
1
2
_
j/
3
j
_
=
_
6l1j
c
2
j
o
__

r
(j/)
_
+
_
12j1
2
c
2
j
o
__
(/j)
t
_
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
+
1
_
1
1
_
2
_
j/
3
j
_
=
_
6l1j
c
2
j
o
__

r
(j/)
_
+
_
12j1
2
c
2
j
o
__
(/j)
t
_
(2.19)
In the above equation, the term next to the normal wedge action, is the Harrison 601
number or the compressibility number or bearing number. 602
1cc:i:p `n:/c: =
_
6l1j
c
2
j
o
_
In a more conventional form, 603
1cc:i:p `n:/c: =
6j
j
o
_
1
C
_
2
And once time is also non-dimensionalized wrt inverse of angular velocity(time taken 604
to rotate once), the equation becomes simpler. 605
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
+
1
_
1
1
_
2
_
j/
3
j
_
=
_
(j/)
r
+ 2
(j/)
_
2.1.6. Large Harrison Number Solution 606
Consider a bearing without the squeeze lm term (Steady running bearing). For an 607
innitely long bearing, derivatives wrt y are not important compared to derivatives 608
wrt x. In the non dimensional form , this assumption is inserted by approximating 609
that
1
1
= 0. 610
23
Chapter 2 Models
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
=
_
6l1j
c
2
j
o
__

r
(j/)
_
For large value of Harrison number
_
6l1
c
2
j
a
_
, a restriction can be placed on 611
the product p*h . This large Harrison number case arises in cases of 612
Large tangential velocities in the lm 613
High viscosity uids 614
Small clearances 615
large bearing radii 616
Hence in order to keep the LHS nite, the term

a
(j/) has to small. This means 617
that (j/) co::tc:t.It has been shown by Gross that 618
j/ =
1 + 1.5c
2
1 + c
2
(2.20)
/ = 1 + cco: () (2.21)
j =
1 + 1.5c
2
(1 + cco: ()) (1 + c
2
)
(2.22)
The second Equation 2.21 above is geometrical and is substituted in to the rst to get 619
the expression for pressure in terms of only c. Plots of the above equation for pressure 620
is shown next. For the derivation of / = 1 +cco: (), refer to structural model. The 621
plot of the solution is shown in Figure 2.4. The code listing for generating the plot 622
is also given below. 623
1 cl ear al l ; cl c ; c l f ; 624
2 e =2;%Non di mensi onal e c c e nt r i c i t y , 0 t o 1 625
3 t het a =0: 365;%t he t from poi nt of maximum cl ear nce 626
4 i =1;%Index f or l o t t i n g 627
5 for e =0 : . 1 : . 4 628
6 p_non_dim( i , : ) =( 1+1. 5 e ^2). /((1+e ^2). (1+e . cos ( t het a pi / 1 8 0 ) ) ) ; 629
7 i=i +1; 630
8 end 631
9 %p l o t and l a b e l 632
10 plot ( t het a , p_non_dim) ; 633
11 xlabel ( Theta from poi nt of maximum cl ear ance , degr ees ) ; 634
12 ylabel ( Non di mens i onal pr e s s ur e ) ; 635
13 t i t l e ( Pr es s ur e di s t r i but i o n i n a Gas j our nal bear i ng ) ; 636
14 legend( Ec c e nt r i c i t y r a t i o = 0 , 0. 1 , 0. 2 , 0. 3 , 0. 4 ) ; 637
15 %t o mark l oc at i on of min cl ear ance i n p l o t 638
16 x=[180 1 8 0 ] ; 639
24
2.1 Fluid Model
.
Figure 2.4.: Large Harrison number pressure distribution
17 y=[ 0. 6 2 ] ; 640
18 z =[0 0 ] ; 641
19 l i ne ( x , y , z ) ; 642
20 text ( 180 , . 6 , Locati on of minimum cl ear ance , 180 degr ees ) 643
21 644
22 GrossPressureEqn = $ p=\f r a c {1+1.5\ e ps i l on ^{2}}{(1+\ e ps i l on cos \ l e f t (\ t het a \ r i ght ))(1+\ e ps i l on ^{2})}$ ; 645
23 h = text ( s t r i ng , GrossPressureEqn , . . . 646
24 i nt e r pr e t e r , l at e x , . . . 647
25 f o nt s i z e , 4 0 , . . . 648
26 uni t s , norm , . . . 649
27 pos , [ 200 1 ] ) ; 650
28 mytexstr = $p=\f r a c {1+1.5\ e ps i l o n ^{2}}{(1+\ e ps i l on cos \ l e f t (\ t het a \ r i ght ))(1+\ e ps i l on ^{2})}$ ; 651
29 h = text ( s t r i ng , mytexstr , . . . 652
30 i nt e r pr e t e r , l at e x , . . . 653
31 f o nt s i z e , 2 6 , . . . 654
32 uni t s , norm , . . . 655
33 pos , [ . 0 1 . 9 ] ) ; 656
34 s aveas ( gcf , Pr es s ur eDi s t r i but i onGr os s Eqn , eps ) 657
The theoretical solutions of the Reynolds equation can be obtained by omitting 658
either of the co-ordinate directions. In the long bearing assumption, length wise 659
gradients are omitted and and in the short bearing assumption, tangential gradients 660
are omitted. 661
25
Chapter 2 Models
2.1.7. In nitely long bearing 662
The rst term on the lhs of Equation 2.19 contains the variation of pressure in tan- 663
gential direction . The second term contains pressure variation in axial, y direction. 664
Considering the bearing as innitely long and looking at only the central part of it, 665
we can put all derivatives wrt y as 0. The Reynolds equation then becomes 666
r
_
/
3
j
r
_
= 6jl
_
d/
dr
_
(2.23)
Integrating once, we get , 667
/
3
dj
dr
= 6lj/ + C
where C is the integration constant. Letting / be the lm thickness at point of zero 668
pressure gradient, we can evaluate the constant in terms of / . 669
The equation can be written as 670
dj
dr
= 6lj
/ /
/
3
(2.24)
In order to get the expression of pressure from the above, we need 671
1. An expression for h in terms of x 672
2. The lm thickness at point of zero pressure gradient, /. 673
2.1.8. In nitely Short Bearing 674
This means that gradient in the x direction is small than the gradient in the y 675
direction, which is very small now. The Reynolds equation can now be written as 676
_
/
3
j
_
= 6jl
_
d/
dr
_
(2.25)
Film thickness is a function of x and not of y. So, 677
/
3

_
j
_
= 6jl
_
d/
dr
_
26
2.2 Structure Model
Figure 2.5.: Innitely long bearing, conceptual
/
3
d
2
j
d
2
= 6jl
_
d/
dr
_
The above equation is known as Ocvirks equation. Upon integrating twice and 678
using the boundary condition that pressure is zero at both +/- l/2 , where l is the 679
length of the bearing, we get the following relation for pressure. 680
1 = 3lj
oa
oI
/
3
_
|
2
4
_
(2.26)
2.2. Structure Model 681
The primary objective of the structural model is to provide the lm thickness be- 682
tween the journal and the encircling foil to the uid model. This lm thickness will 683
be uniform when the pressure is atmospheric everywhere and the journal is at the 684
center of the bearing. 685
When journal center is o set from the bearing center, the lm thickness distribution
becomes a function of and is given by
/ = H + c co: (
c
) (2.27)
Here, h is the lm thickness at location and H is the original of lm thickness when 686
the journal was concentric with the bearing. c is the distance between the center 687
27
Chapter 2 Models
Figure 2.6.: Innitely Thin Bearing, Conceptual
of the bearing and center of the journal. The conventions for and are shown 688
in Figure 2.7. is usually from the line of centers in clockwise direction from the 689
maximum clearance end while is from between the line of centers and the load line 690
. But here, Heshmat uses a dierent convention, where is from the vertical line in 691
anti clockwise direction and
c
is between the location of minimum clearance and 692
the vertical line. The origin of is the other end of the vertical line, meaning , for 693
the same location, the measurements of and will dier by 180
0
. As a check on 694
the above expression, consider the location of minimum thickness of lm, for which 695

0
= 180
0
, and e gets subtracted(co: () = 1) from C . At max thickness, 696
=
0
in magnitude, and e gets added(co: (0) = 1) to c in full. 697
When the eect of pressure deforming the encircling foil is considered, the equation 698
becomes 699
/ = H + c co: (
c
) + /
1
(j j
o
) (2.28)
Here , j
o
is the ambient pressure. If the pressure at a point is above ambient at some 700
location .the foil deects down and the lm thickness at that point increases. Thus 701
/
1
denotes the structural compliance of the foil structure and is lesser for stier 702
structure. When the foil structure is rigid, then K becomes zero. This equation can 703
be non-dimensionalized wrt initial clearance distribution to give 704
/ = 1 + c co: (
c
) +
/
1
H
(j j
o
) (2.29)
28
2.2 Structure Model
Figure 2.7.: Angle conventions, Heshmats approach
and taking the pressure term out from the last term we get, 705
/ = 1 + c co: (
c
) +
/
1
j
o
H
(1 1) (2.30)
Now pressure occurs in a non-dimensional form in the equation. The force acting 706
per pitch is : j
o
[1 1]. If 1
o
is the stiness per unit transverse length, then the 707
non dimensional deection due to pressure alone is given by 708
1c)|cctio: =
: j
o
[1 1]
H 1
o
(2.31)
29
Chapter 2 Models
The expression for 1
o
is given by (from Ref.[15]) 709
1
o
=
1t
3
12 (1
2
) |
3
0
|
c
is the half length of the bump, s is the pitch of the bump, E is the Youngs modulus
of the material of the bumps, is the Poissons ratio and t is the thickness of the foil.
This expression can also be derived as follows. Let c
a
be the strain in x direction, c
be the strain in the transverse direction. Since the bump deforms as a whole, strain
in the transverse direction is zero.
c
= 0 =

a
1
c
a
=

a

1
This implies that,
=
a
and
c
a
=

a
1
_
1
2
_
(2.32)
a
=
1c
a
(1
2
)
(2.33)
If w is the deection of the mean line from the un-deected position, then the radius
of curvature
1
1
=
d
2
n
dr
2
and the strain at any location z
4
from the center line can be written as
c
a
= .
2
n
r
2
Then Equation 2.33 can be written as
a
=
1
_
.
2
&
a
2
_
(1
2
)
4
z is the coordinate along the thickness of the bump
30
2.2 Structure Model
This stress distribution causes a bending moment of
` =
t
2
t
2
(
a
.) d.
` =
t
2
t
2
_
_
1
_
.
2
&
a
2
_
(1
2
)
.
_
_
d.
` =
1t
3
12(1
2
)
2
n
r
2
Comparing with the Eulers bending equation , we get the stiness of the plate per 710
unit length in the transverse direction as as G =
1|
3
1
2
. Please refer to Figure 2.8
Figure 2.8.: Bump Model
711
for the bump model. The non dimensional compliance to be used in the equation is 712
now 713
=
: j
o
H
1|
3
12(1
2
)|
3
0
The structure model is now, 714
/ = 1 + c co: (
c
) + (1 1) (2.34)
31
3. Solution of Steady Reynolds 715
Equation Using Multi Dimensional 716
Newton Raphsons Method 717
3.1. Reynolds equation 718
The compressible Reynolds equation was derived in the previous chapter as
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
+

_
j/
3
j
_
= 6jl
_
(j/)
r
_
(3.1)
Non dimensionally, when axial non-dimensionalisation is wrt L/2, 719
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
+ (
1
(1 1)
2
)

_
j/
3
j
_
=
(j/)
r
(3.2)
In the above case the limits of the bearing will be from -1 to +1 in the non dimen- 720
sional space.When axial non-dimensionalization wrt L, 721
r
_
j/
3
j
r
_
+ (
1
1)
2

_
j/
3
j
_
=
(j/)
r
(3.3)
In the above case the limits of the bearing will be from 0 to +1 in the non dimensional 722
space. This method of non dimensionalization is used in this method of solution. 723
Please note that in Equation 3.2, the variables are non-dimensional. New symbols 724
are not introduced for clarity. The above equation cannot be solved exactly unless 725
either of the 3 assumptions are made. 726
1. Large Harrisons number, tending to innity. 727
2. Innitely long bearing. 728
3. Innitely short bearing. 729
All three approaches were shown in the previous chapter . Solutions using approach 730
1 and 3 were also plotted. It is possible to numerically solve the above equation 731
keeping both the co-ordinate directions in consideration.
1
. Of the several possible 732
means of discretizing the equation, nite dierence method is one and is shown here. 733
1
ly long and
ly short bearing consider only co-ordinate direction.

33
Chapter 3
Solution of Steady Reynolds Equation Using Multi Dimensional Newton
Raphsons Method
3.1.1. Boundary Conditions 734
The construction of foil bearing is non rigid. So whenever pressures less than the 735
ambient act on the top of the encircling foil, the foil lifts from the bumps and changes 736
the pressure distribution such that the negative pressures(gauge) do not occur. This 737
has been accounted for both at the start and the end of the encircling foil. However 738
no clear info is available regarding what happens when the sub ambient pressures 739
develop in the middle of the encircling foil . This can happen in our case as there is 740
a single encircling foil from start to nish and the pressures develop in the middle 741
of the foil. We need to know where the lm starts and ends. the front and back of 742
the lm are communicated to the ambient. The boundary conditions are given as 743
Front end of the Bearing
j
j
a
= 1 744
Back end of the Bearing
j
j
a
= 1 745
Start of the lm
j
j
a
= 1 746
End of the lm
j
j
a
= 1 c:d
j
= 0 747
34
3
.
2
F
i
n
i
t
e
D
i
e
r
e
n
c
e
f
o
r
m
3.2. Finite Di erence form 748
Consider the grid structure shown in ?? . Expressing the outer derivatives, nite dierenced about the point i,j
_
j/
3 j
_
i,)+
1
2
_
j/
3 j
_
i,)
1
2

i,j
+
i,j+1
2
+ (
1
1)
2
_
j/
3 j
:
_
i+
1
2
,)
_
j/
3 j
:
_
i
1
2
,)
:
i,j
+ :
i+1,j
2
=
(j/)
i,)+
1
2
(j/)
i,)
1
2

i,j
+
i,j+1
2
(3.4)
Multiplying throughout by

i,j
+
i,j+1
2

:
i,j
+ :
i+1,j
2
, we get 749
_
_
_
j/
3
j
_
i,)+
1
2
_
j/
3
j
_
i,)
1
2
_
_

_
.
i,)
+ .
i+1,)
2
_
+(
1
1)
2
_
_
_
j/
3
j
.
_
i+
1
2
,)
_
j/
3
j
.
_
i
1
2
,)
_
_

_
i,)
+
i,)+1
2
_
=
_
(j/)
i,)+
1
2
(j/)
i,)
1
2
_

_
.
i,)
+ .
i+1,)
2
_
Getting like terms having
:
i,j
+ :
i+1,j
2
together on one side , we have 750
_
_
_
j/
3
j
j/
_
i,)+
1
2
_
j/
3
j
j/
_
i,)
1
2
_
_

_
.
i,)
+ .
i+1,)
2
_
+
(
1
1)
2
_
_
_
j/
3
j
.
_
i+
1
2
,)
_
j/
3
j
.
_
i
1
2
,)
_
_

_
i,)
+
i,)+1
2
_
= 0
For uniform spacing in i and j direction , we get
_
_
_
j/
3
j
j/
_
i,)+
1
2
_
j/
3
j
j/
_
i,)
1
2
_
_
. + (
1
1)
2
_
_
_
j/
3
j
.
_
i+
1
2
,)
_
j/
3
j
.
_
i
1
2
,)
_
_
= 0
Next, nite dierence formulas have to be written for individual terms. 751
3
5
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
3
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
o
f
S
t
e
a
d
y
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s
E
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
U
s
i
n
g
M
u
l
t
i
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l
N
e
w
t
o
n
R
a
p
h
s
o
n
s
M
e
t
h
o
d
_
j/
3 p
j/
_
i,j+
1
2
. : 752
Employing Central Dierence Scheme (referred to as CDS hence forth) about i. , +
1
2
for the inner derivative, we get
j
i,)+
1
2
/
3
i,)+
1
2
(j
i,)+1
j
i,)
)
_
.
_
j
i,)+
1
2
/
i,)+
1
2
.
_
j/
3 p
j/
_
i,j
1
2
. : 753
Employing CDS about i. ,
1
2
for the inner derivative, we get
j
i,)
1
2
/
3
i,)
1
2
(j
i,)
j
i,)1
)
_
.
_
j
i,)
1
2
/
i,)
1
2
.
_
j/
3 j
:
_
i+
1
2
,)
: 754
Employing CDS about i +
1
2
. , for the inner derivative wrt z, we get 755
j
i+
1
2
,)
/
3
i+
1
2
,)
(j
i+1,)
j
i,)
)
_
.
_
_
j/
3 j
:
_
i
1
2
,)
: 756
Employing CDS about i
1
2
. , for the inner derivative wrt z, we get 757
3
6
3
.
2
F
i
n
i
t
e
D
i
e
r
e
n
c
e
f
o
r
m
j
i
1
2
,)
/
3
i
1
2
,)
(j
i,)
j
i1,)
)
_
.
_
Assembling all the nite dierences together gives us,
0 =
_
j
i,)+
1
2
/
3
i,)+
1
2
(j
i,)+1
j
i,)
)
_
:

_
j
i,)+
1
2
/
i,)+
1
2
.
j
i,)
1
2
/
3
i,)
1
2
(j
i,)
j
i,)1
)
_
:

_
j
i,)
1
2
/
i,)
1
2
.
+(
1
1)
2
j
i+
1
2
,)
/
3
i+
1
2
,)
(j
i+1,)
j
i,)
)
_

:
_
(
1
1)
2
j
i
1
2
,)
/
3
i
1
2
,)
(j
i,)
j
i1,)
)
_

:
_
where h is
/ = 1 + c (co: ( ,
0
)) + (j
i,)
1).
The terms to be determined in the above equations are j
i,)
, j
i,)+1
, j
i,)1
, j
i+1,)
, j
i1,)
. So gathering the terms together, 758
we get, 759
j
i,j

:

j
i,j+
1
2
I
3
i,j+
1
2
From1st
+
:

j
i,j
1
2
I
3
i,j
1
2
From2nd
+

:
(
R
L)
2
j
i+
1
2
,j
I
3
i+
1
2
,j
From3rd
+

:
(
R
L)
2
j
i
1
2
,j
I
3
i
1
2
,j
From4th
j
i,j+1

+
:

j
i,j+
1
2
I
3
i,j+
1
2
From1stTerm
j
i,j1

+
:

j
i,j
1
2
I
3
i,j
1
2
From2ndTerm
j
i+1,j

+

:
(
R
L)
2
j
i+
1
2
,j
I
3
i+
1
2
,j
From3rdTerm
j
i1,j

+

:
(
R
L)
2
j
i
1
2
,j
I
3
i
1
2
,j
From4thTerm
j
i,j+
1
2
I
i,j+
1
2
: + j
i,j
1
2
I
i,j
1
2
: = 0
In the above equation terms like j
i,)+
1
2
occur frequently. There are no grid points at these locations and I average pressure 760
values to their left and right/ top and bottom to get the pressure values at these intermediate points located in these no 761
3
7
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
3
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
o
f
S
t
e
a
d
y
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s
E
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
U
s
i
n
g
M
u
l
t
i
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l
N
e
w
t
o
n
R
a
p
h
s
o
n
s
M
e
t
h
o
d
mans land. 762
j
i,)

+
_

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)+1
2
__
1cn1-|Tcn
+
_

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)1
2
__
1cn2aoTcn
+
_
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i+1,)
2
__
1cn3oTcn
+
_
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i1,)
2
__
1cn4|ITcn
j
i,)+1

_
+
.

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)+1
2
__
1cn1-|Tcn
j
i,)1

_
+
.

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)1
2
__
1cn2aoTcn
j
i+1,)

_
+
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i+1,)
2
__
1cn3oTcn
j
i1,)

_
+
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i1,)
2
__
1cn4|ITcn
.
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)+1
2
_
+
.
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)1
2
_
= 0
3
8
3.3 Examples of Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons Method
The characteristics of the above equations are given below: 763
1. Number of points in j () direction = nj; 764
2. Number of points in i () direction = ni; 765
3. Before application of BC, number of nodes= ni*nj; 766
4. Before application of BC, number of unknown pressures= ni*nj; 767
5. After application of BC, number of unknown pressures= (ni-2)*(nj-2); 768
6. After application of BC, number of equations= (ni-2)*(nj-2); 769
Since we write 1 equation for each point at which pressure is unknown,Number Of 770
Equations=Number of Unknowns. What is important is each one of the equations 771
has all the unknowns in it, It is just that some of the co-ecients are zeros. Also the 772
above equation has the unknown quantities in the co-ecients, making it non linear. 773
So we linearize the equation rst in order to solve it. The method is illustrated using 774
the following example. 775
3.3. Examples of Multi Dimensional Newton 776
Raphsons Method 777
A one dimensional example of Newton Raphsons method is given below which then 778
leads to a multi-dimensional example. This Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons 779
method is actually used to solve the Reynolds equation here. 780
3.3.1. One Dimensional Example 781
Consider the following equation
r
3
+ 2r
2
+ 3r + 4 = 0 (3.5)
In functional form
)(r
|&cSc|&|ica
) = 0
The above statement is true for the value of x that satises the equation Equation 3.5. 782
We do not know the point which satises the equation now. So we guess some point 783
r
c
and assume that it satises Equation 3.5. Unless the guesser is really good, it 784
will not. So we move a small amount from the point x and enforce the condition 785
that the new point satises the equation. This statement can be written as 786
)(r
j&c--
+ /) = 0
39
Chapter 3
Raphsons Method
To know the distance we have to move, we use the truncated taylors series, leaving 787
out all terms of order 2 and more. 788
)(r
a
+ /) = )(r
a
) + /
_
)
r
_
a
= 0
)(r
a
+ /) is the same as )(r
j&c--
+ /) for the rst guess. Now we can express the 789
distance we have to move by 790
/ =
)(r
a
)
_
)
a
_
a
Note that we have to compute the partial derivative(It is ordinary derivative for 791
this example since we have only x) of the function to be solved at the current guess 792
point. The new point to which we have moved to will be 793
r
a+1
= r
a
+ /
= r
a

)(r
a
)
_
)
a
_
a
We keep movin by small distances until we reach the point where the function 794
evaluates to 0. For the example we have considered, the procedure is as follows: 795
1. Assume r
0
= 1; 796
2. Evalute function at r
0
as )(1) = 1
3
+ 2 1
2
+ 3 1 + 4 = 10 797
3. Derive the partial derivative as
)
a
= 3r
2
+ 4r + 3 798
4. Evaluate derivative at current point as 3 1
2
+ 4 1 + 3 = 10 799
5. Compute the next point =1
10
10
= 0 800
6. Keep iterating until step 2 evaluates to zero. 801
The Matlab code to do the above is given below: 802
1 %% 803
2 cl c ; 804
3 cl ear ; 805
4 x=1; 806
5 f x=x^3+2x^2+3x+4; 807
6 while ( abs ( f x)>=1) 808
7 f x=x^3+2x^2+3x+4; 809
8 f dx=3x^2+4x+3; 810
9 h=f x / f dx ; 811
10 x=x+h ; 812
11 end 813
40
3.3 Examples of Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons Method
This code return x=-1.6544. The answers can be checked by issuing 814
s ol ve ( x^3+2x^2+3x+4 ) 815
Which returns x= -1.6506. 816
3.3.2. Multi Dimensional Example 817
Consider the following equation set 818
)(r. ) = r
3
3r
2
1
p(r. ) = 3r
2

3
The equations are in 2 variables, they have 2 unknowns x and y. We need to linearize 819
the system so that it can be brought to a form that can be solved.Let us do the 820
linearization about the point r
a
.
a
. Let h be the small step in x direction, k 821
be the step in y direction. Since we need to nd these steps h and k , we proceed 822
similar to the previous 1D case 823
)(r + /. + /) = )(r. ) + /
_
)
r
_
+ /
_
)
_
+ o(/
2
) + o
_
/
2
_
(3.6)
p(r + /. + /) = p(r. ) + /
_
p
r
_
+ /
_
p
_
+ o(/
2
) + o
_
/
2
_
(3.7)
Omitting higher order terms, we get 824
)(r + /. + /) = )(r. ) + /
_
)
r
_
+ /
_
)
_
p(r + /. + /) = p(r. ) + /
_
p
r
_
+ /
_
p
_
This is equivalent to the system
_
)
a
)
j
a
j
_
/
/
=
_
)(r. )
p(r. )
_
(3.8)
Again nding the
/
/
vector and nding the solution vector as in the above 1D

example, we get
r
a+1
a+1
r
a
_
)
a
)
j
a
j
_
1
_
)(r
a
.
a
)
p(r
a
.
a
)
_
41
Chapter 3
Raphsons Method
Taking an initial guess as
r
a
.6
0.6
, and computing the Jacobian as J

a
= 825
_
3 (r
2

2
) 6r
6r 3 (r
2

2
)
_
, its inverse isJ
1
a
=
1
J
a
_
3 (r
2

2
) 6r
6r 3 (r
2

2
)
_
. The 826
Matlab code for the above is given below: 827
1 cl c ; 828
2 cl ear ; 829
3 x= [ .6 ; 830
4 0. 6 831
5 ] ; 832
6 f x= [ x(1)^33x ( 1) x(2)^2 1; 833
7 3x(1)^2x(2)x(2)^3 834
8 ] ; 835
9 for i =1:5 836
10 f x= [ x(1)^33x ( 1) x(2)^2 1; 837
11 3x(1)^2x(2)x(2)^3 838
12 ] ; 839
13 J= [ 3( x(1)^2x ( 2) ^2) 6x ( 1) x ( 2 ) ; 840
14 6x ( 1) x ( 2) 3( x(1)^2x ( 2) ^2) 841
15 ] ; 842
16 x=xJ^1 f x 843
17 end 844
The output from the code is given in table Table 3.1 : Now that the multi di-
Iteration 1(Guessed) 2 3 4 5
x -0.6 -0.4 -0.504789782 -0.499885398 -0.500000004
y 0.6 0.862962963 0.856464305 0.86603764 0.866025391
Table 3.1.: Solution at dierent Iterations
845
mensional Newton Raphson method has been illustrated, it can be applied to our 846
problem. An example of a nite dierence grid with uniform spacing is shown in 847
Figure 3.1 848
3.4. Linearizing the Reynolds equation 849
Consider the grid for nite dierencing shown in Figure 3.1. The discretization 850
discussed in the following content is applied to this grid. In order to construct the 851
partial derivative matrix( size =number of variables), we need to nd the partial 852
derivative of all the equations wrt all the unknowns. For example, the equation 853
corresponding to the unknown pressure at point (2,2) will be our rst equation. 854
42
3.4 Linearizing the Reynolds equation
Figure 3.1.: Finite dierence grid
This equation has to be dierentiated wrt all the unknown pressures. Thankfully 855
not all the unknown pressures enter into the equation and hence many terms in the 856
rst row of the Jacobian are zero. Pressures(unknowns) on which the pressure at 857
(2,2) depend are (2,2), (2,3), (2,1), (1,2) and (3,2). 858
43
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
3
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
o
f
S
t
e
a
d
y
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s
E
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
U
s
i
n
g
M
u
l
t
i
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l
N
e
w
t
o
n
R
a
p
h
s
o
n
s
M
e
t
h
o
d
The repeated colors are due to non availability of more colors. Please dierentiate using the subscript numbering. 859
j
i,)

+
_

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)+1
2
__
1cn1-|Tcn
+
_

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)1
2
__
1cn2aoTcn
+
_
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i+1,)
2
__
1cn3oTcn
+
_
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i1,)
2
__
1cn4|ITcn
j
i,)+1

_
+
.

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)+1
2
__
1cn1-|Tcn
(3.9)
j
i,)1

_
+
.

_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)1
2
__
1cn2aoTcn
j
i+1,)

_
+
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i+1,)
2
__
1cn3oTcn
j
i1,)

_
+
.
(
1
1)
2
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i1,)
2
__
1cn4|ITcn
.
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)+1
2
_
+
.
_
(j/
3
)
i,)
+ (j/
3
)
i,)1
2
_
= 0
4
4
3
.
4
L
i
n
e
a
r
i
z
i
n
g
t
h
e
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s
e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
) (j
j
. j
c
. j
&
. j
a
. j
-
)
Ccnjo--
=
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
j

.
2
_
1
_
j
c
/
3
c
j
j

.
2
_
1
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
j

.
2
_
2
_
j
&
/
3
&
j
j

.
2
_
2
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
3
_
j
a
/
3
a
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
3
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
4
_
j
-
/
3
-
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
4
+
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
c

.
2
_
5
+
_
j
c
/
3
c
j
c

.
2
_
5
+
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
&

.
2
_
6
+
_
j
&
/
3
&
j
&

.
2
_
6
+
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
a
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
7
+
_
j
a
/
3
a
j
a
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
7
+
_
j
j
/
3
j
j
-
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
8
+
_
j
-
/
3
-
j
-
(
1
1)
2

2 .
_
8
+
_
/
&
j
&

.
2
_
+
_
/
j
j
j

.
2
_
_
/
c
j
c

.
2
_

_
/
j
j
j

.
2
_
;
So the partial derivatives that concern us are 860
4
5
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
3
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
o
f
S
t
e
a
d
y
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s
E
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
U
s
i
n
g
M
u
l
t
i
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l
N
e
w
t
o
n
R
a
p
h
s
o
n
s
M
e
t
h
o
d
)
j
i,)
=
j
j

.
/
3
j
j
c

.
2
/
3
c
j
j
/
3
j

.
j
&
/
3
&

.
2
j
j
/
3
j
(
1
1)
2
j
a
/
3
a
(
1
1)
2

2 .
j
j
/
3
j
(
1
1)
2
j
-
/
3
-
(
1
1)
2

2 .
4
+
j
c
/
3
j

.
2
5
+
j
&
/
3
j

.
2
6
+
j
a
/
3
j
(
1
1)
2

2 .
7
+
j
-
/
3
j
(
1
1)
2

2 .
8
+
/
j

.
2
/
j

.
2
)
j
i,)+1
=
j
j

.
2
/
3
c
1
+
j
c

.
/
3
c
5
+
j
j

.
2
/
3
j
5

.
2
/
c
)
j
i,)1
=
j
j

.
2
/
3
&
2
+
j
&

.
/
3
&
6
+
j
j

.
2
/
3
j
6
+
.
2
/
&
)
j
i1,)
=
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2.
/
3
-
4
+
j
-
(
1
1)
2

.
/
3
-
8
+
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2.
/
3
-
8
)
j
i+1,)
=
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2.
/
3
a
3
+
j
a
(
1
1)
2

.
/
3
a
7
+
j
j
(
1
1)
2

2.
/
3
j
7
4
6
3
.
4
L
i
n
e
a
r
i
z
i
n
g
t
h
e
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s
e
q
u
a
t
i
o
n
The Pseudo-code for the estimation of derivatives is given below for comparison.
t
1=i,)
=
_
2 jj /j
3
./2d
_

_
jc /c
3
./2d
_
_
2 jj /j
3
./2d
_
_
jn /n
3
./2d
_
_
2 jj :/|2 /j
3
t/2.
_

_
j: :/|2 /:
3
t/2.
_
_
2 jj :/|2 /j
3
t/2.
_

_
j: :/|2 /:
3
t/2.
_
+
_
jc /j
3
./2d
_
+
_
jn /j
3
./2d
_
+
_
j: /j
3
:/|2 t/2.
_
+
_
j: /j
3
:/|2 t/2.
_
+(pc::c /j d. 2)(pc::c /j d. 2)
t
4=i,)+1
=
_
jj /c
3
./2d
_ _
jj /j
3
./2d
_
+
_
2 jc /c
3
./2d
_
(pc::c /c d. 2)
t
5=i,)1
=
_
jj /n
3
./2d
_
+
_
2 jn /n
3
./2d
_
+
_
jj /j
3
./2d
_
+ (pc::c /n d. 2)
t
2=i+1,)
= (jj /:
3
:/|2 t/2.) + (2 j: /:
3
:/|2 t/2.) + (jj /j
3
:/|2 t/2.);
t
3=i1,)
=
_
jj /:
3
:/|2 t/2.
_
+
_
2 j: /:
3
:/|2 t/2.
_
+
_
jj /j
3
:/|2 t/2.
_
4
7
Chapter 3
Raphsons Method
Now all the Partial derivatives required have been evaluated. We have already
derived the function
) (j
i,)
. j
i,)+1
. j
i,)1
. j
i+1,)
. j
i1,)
)
.&nocco
= ) (j
j
. j
c
. j
&
. j
a
. j
-
)
Ccnjo--
.With these two in hand, we may write the full-linearized Reynolds equation. The 861
linearized form of our Reynolds equation can be written in line with Equation 3.6 862
as 863
)(r + /. + /) = )(r. ) + /
_
)
r
_
+ /
_
)
) ()j
i,)
. j
i,)+1
. j
i,)1
. j
i+1,)
. j
i1,)
)
a+1
= ) (j
i,)
. j
i,)+1
. j
i,)1
. j
i+1,)
. j
i1,)
)
a
+
)
j
i,)
(j
a+1
i)
j
a
i,)
) + ..
This is in line with the equation presented in Heshmat Figure 3.2, so we are going 864
in the right track. Heshmat says this equation was obtained by linearisation using 865
Newton Raphson method. An alternative way to say is, the equation is linearized 866
using Taylors series approximation and solved using the multi dimensional Newton 867
Raphson method. The methodology he uses is consistent with Newton Raphsons 868
Multi Dimensional method, he has only named it dierently . The full equation is
Figure 3.2.: Heshmats equation
869
given in Equation 3.10. 870
11S
..
) (j
i,)
. j
i,)+1
. j
i,)1
. j
i+1,)
. j
i1,)
)
a
+
)
j
i,j
(j
a+1
i)
j
a
i,)
) +
)
j
i+1,j
(j
a+1
i+1)
j
a
i,+1)
)
+
)
j
i1,)
(j
a+1
i1)
j
a
i1,)
) +
)
j
i,j1
(j
a+1
i)1
j
a
i,)1
)+ = 0
)
j
i,)+1
(j
a+1
i)+1
j
a
i,)+1
)+
TIoaI)&||Zcc
..
)
j
i,)+2
(j
a+1
i)+2
j
a
i,)+2
) + .. .. (3.10)
48
3.4.1. Applying Multi-Dimensional Newtons Method 871
We represent the incremental change in pressures by operators henceforth. In a 872
more readable form these equations can be written as 873
_
)
j
i,)
_
a
j
i,)
+
_
)
j
i+1,)
_
a
j
i,)
+ 1 +
_
)
j
i1,)
_
a
j
i1,)
+
_
)
j
i,j+1
_
a
j
i,)+1
+
_
)
j
i,j1
_
a
j
i,)1
= ) (j
i,)
. j
i,)+1
. j
i,)1
. j
i+1,)
. j
i1,)
)
a
In matrix form, writing this equation only for the interior unknown points, for the 874
small grid shown in Figure 3.3 , we have Equation 3.11 .
Figure 3.3.: Finite dierence grid for demonstartion
875
3.4.2. Matrix form of equations: Method 1 876
Once we have the equation to be solved Equation 3.10, it can be solved in two 877
ways. The two methods dier in their representation of the unknown x vector only. 878
Consider the rst method, which is also the one commonly used in Fintie Element 879
Methods. The incremental pressures are the unknowns(x) . The A matrix(aka the 880
Jacobian) will have rows corresponding to the unknown rows in x only. The Rhs will 881
be of same structure. The number of columns on the A matrix will be = number 882
of grid points so that the boundary conditions may be applied. It is illustrated 883
in gure belowFigure 3.4. Certain terms of the A matrix get multiplied with the 884
boundary conditions and become rhs terms as shown in Figure 3.5 The assembled 885
set of equations look like the one in Figure 3.6. For our Reynolds equation, the 886
assembly procedure is more complex as boundary pressures not only occur at the 887
top and bottom but also in between the pressure vector. Our Reynolds equation, 888
before applying the boundary conditions(corresponding to Figure 3.4) looks like 889
Equation 3.11. 890
49
Chapter 3
Raphsons Method
Figure 3.4.: Assembly procedure for points
Figure 3.5.: Boundary condition Implemetation
Figure 3.6.: Assembled set
50
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
_
)
j
_
2
0 0
_
)
j
_
5
_
)
j
_
6
_
)
j
_
7
0 0
_
)
j
_
10
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
_
)
j
_
3
0 0
_
)
j
_
6
_
)
j
_
7
_
)
j
_
8
0 0
_
)
j
_
11
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
)
j
_
6
0 0
_
)
j
_
9
_
)
j
_
10
_
)
j
_
11
0 0
_
)
j
_
14
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
_
)
j
_
7
0 0
_
)
j
_
10
_
)
j
_
11
_
)
j
_
12
0 0
_
)
j
_
15
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
j
1
j
2
j
3
j
4
j
5
j
6
j
7
j
8
j
9
j
10
j
11
j
12
j
13
j
14
j
15
j
16
_
_
=
_
_
)(j
6
. .)
)(j
7
. ..)
)(j
10
. ...)
)(j
11
. ...)
_
_
(3.11)
Please note that in the x vector, the unknowns are in red, the boundary conditions are in green. In the A matrix,the terms 891
that get multiplied with the boundary pressures are in magenta . This color coding makes it easier to visualize the terms 892
characteristics. Thanks to the [5]. Note that the equations are non zero only for the unknown points. The x vector consist 893
of all pressures, including known boundary conditions and unknown pressures.Since we are not going to use this form we will 894
not proceed to boundary condition application to the above set to save space. 895
5
1
3.4.3. Matrix form of equations: Method 2 896
Since we have kept the the increments in the pressure as unknown (x), we have to take care of boundary terms occurring 897
in the X vector. This approach also means we have to add the increments in a separate step to the current pressures. An 898
alternative approach of treating the unknowns is a lot easier to program as shown below. The trick is to represent the 899
unknown as dierence of pressures at a point rather than as j. 900
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0

@ f
@ p
2
0 0

@ f
@ p
5

@ f
@ p
6

@ f
@ p
7
0 0

@ f
@ p
10
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0

@ f
@ p
3
0 0

@ f
@ p
6

@ f
@ p
7

@ f
@ p
8
0 0

@ f
@ p
11
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

@ f
@ p
6
0 0

@ f
@ p
9

@ f
@ p
10

@ f
@ p
11
0 0

@ f
@ p
14
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

@ f
@ p
7
0 0

@ f
@ p
10

@ f
@ p
11

@ f
@ p
12
0 0

@ f
@ p
15
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
j
next
1
j
now
1
j
next
2
j
now
2
j
next
3
j
now
3
j
next
4
j
now
4
j
next
5
j
now
5
j
next
6
j
now
6
j
next
7
j
now
7
j
next
8
j
now
8
j
next
9
j
now
9
j
next
10
j
now
10
j
next
11
j
now
11
j
next
12
j
now
12
j
next
13
j
now
13
j
next
14
j
now
14
j
next
15
j
now
15
j
next
16
j
now
16
_
_
=
_
_
)(j
6
, )
)(j
7
, )
)(j
10
, )
)(j
11
, )
_
_
(3.12)
5
2
Since the green colored terms are all boundary conditions, and are not going to
change, they subtractions for all green terms will be result in zero . So omitting all
those rows and columns (of A and RHS)that are going to get multiplied by zeros
we get the following set of equation Equation 3.13
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
)
j
_
6
_
)
j
_
7
_
)
j
_
10
0
_
)
j
_
6
_
)
j
_
7
0
_
)
j
_
11 _
)
j
_
6
0
_
)
j
_
10
_
)
j
_
11
0
_
)
j
_
7
_
)
j
_
10
_
)
j
_
11
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
j
aca|
6
j
aca|
7
j
aca|
10
j
aca|
11
_
_

_
_
j
ac&
6
j
ac&
7
j
ac&
10
j
ac&
11
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
)(j
6
. j
2
. j
10
. j
5
. j
7
)
)(j
7
. j
3
. j
11
. j
6
. j
8
)
)(j
10
. j
6
. j
14
. j
9
. j
11
)
)(j
11
. j
7
. j
15
. j
10
. j
12
)
_
_
(3.13)
The pressures now are all known and go to the rhs after getting multiplied by 901
the corresponding terms in A matrix. For a grid having ve points in x and y 902
direction, the matrices look as follows. The key advantage of using this method, is
Figure 3.7.: Example of an assembled system
903
that the solution at each step is directly the next solution and not the increment . 904
This speeds up the iterative solution process as no separate for loop for adding the 905
increments to the previous solution is required. The sparse banded structure of the 906
matrix obtained can be visualized from the following pictorial view of the A matrix. 907
It is shown for a 10x10 grid and a 40x40 grid. 908
3.4.4. Gauss-Seidel solver 909
The GaussSeidel method, also known as the Liebmann method or the method of 910
successive displacement, is an iterative method used to solve a linear system of 911
equations. Though it can be applied to any matrix with non-zero elements on the 912
diagonals, convergence is only guaranteed if the matrix is either diagonally dominant. 913
Here we use the Scarborough criterion to check if the solution will converge before 914
passing the matrix to the solver. The element-wise formula for the GaussSeidel 915
method is similar to that of the Jacobi method.The computation of the solution 916
53
Chapter 3
Raphsons Method
Figure 3.8.: Magnitude of terms in A matrix for 10x10 grid
Figure 3.9.: Magnitude of terms in A matrix for 40x40 grid
r
i
(/ + 1) uses only the elements of x(k+1) that have already been computed, and 917
only the elements of x(k) that have not yet to be advanced to iteration k+1. This 918
means that, unlike the Jacobi method, only one storage vector is required as elements 919
can be overwritten as they are computed, which can be advantageous for very large 920
problems. However, unlike the Jacobi method, the computations for each element 921
cannot be done in parallel. Furthermore, the values at each iteration are dependent 922
on the order of the original equations. 923
3.4.5. Force computation 924
To obtain the non-dimensional forces from the pressure distribution , we integrate
the pressures as shown below. x is the force parallel to the vertical line from which
the angle is measured. To get the forces from the non-dimensional quantities, we
54
3.5 Results
multiply them by length and radius. The length takes care of non dimensionalizing
the axial coordinate and radius takes care of converting d into a dierential length.
1r =
1
2
0
(1 1)co: () ddr
1 = +
1
2
0
(1 1):i:() ddr
3.5. Results 925
A description of the program written for the simulation is given in section 5.3. The
simulations are carried out with a convergence limit of 0.0001. When,
1
noa.c&
1
noa1cic&-
1
noa1cic&-
0.0001
the iteration stops. Both Gauss Seidel and Gauss elimination solvers are pro- 926
grammed in. For Gauss Seidel, the iteration of the solver loop stops for a conver- 927
gence limit of 0.1. This limit was found to converge to the solution faster through 928
trial and error studies. Post processing was done by writing data les and corre- 929
sponding GnuPlot script les at each iteration and then passing the scripts to the 930
GnuPlot program through shell scripts (bash). The the screen shots for a grid size 931
of 180x30 shown in Figure 3.10 displays the converged solution along with essential 932
details of the simulation run. Similar plots were also obtained from other discretiza- 933
tion schemes to be presented in later chapters. The post processing routines are 934
the same for all uid models. To avoid repetition, these plots are shown in the 935
forth coming chapters. Several grids were tried out and their results are plotted in 936
Figure 3.11and Figure 3.12. These solutions are so similar to each other that they 937
lie on top of each other and are indistinguishable. From these plots, a grid of 60x30 938
seems to be appropriate from computational and accuracy considerations. Hence 939
this grid will be used in future when results from dierent methods are compared 940
with each other in chapter 7. . 941
55
Chapter 3
Raphsons Method
Figure 3.10.: ScreenShot of Post processing Routine
56
3.5 Results
Figure 3.11.: Grid dependency of predicted pressure distribution
Figure 3.12.: Grid Dependency of Force Prediction
57
4. Solution Using Iterative 942
Non-Linear Scheme 943
4.1. Iterative Non-Linear Scheme 944
The non dimensional compressible steady Reynolds equation is repeated for conve-
nience (the tangential coordinate has been made , so that expressions correspond
to the expressions given in Ref.[26]). The axial length used in the non dimensional-
isation is L and not L/2 as is commonly used.
_
j/
3
j
_
+ (
1
1)
2

_
j/
3
j
_
=
(j/)
(4.1)
In this case the limits of the bearing will be from 0 to +1 in the non dimensional 945
space. The boundary conditions are the same as presented in the previous chapter. 946
This chapter just presents a dierent means of discretizing the governing equation 947
and the numerical technique used to solve the system ( iterative non-linear scheme.) 948
This solution will later be compared with the solution obtained using Multi Dimen- 949
sional Newton Raphsons method in the previous chapter. 950
Iterative non linear scheme are common in problems of type A = C where X is 951
the unknown vector. In this problem, this vector is the pressure distribution around 952
the shaft. The matrix A and vector C are also a function of pressures as the equation 953
is non-linear
1
. The strategy is to start with an assumed pressure distribution and 954
then evaluate the A matrix, solve for X, then update the A matrix and then solve 955
again, iteratively. The iteration stops after a specied level of convergence is reached. 956
To compare with the Finite Dierence solution of the linearized Reynolds equation 957
presented in the earlier chapter, the same convergence limits are used here too. 958
4.2. Finite Di erence form 959
The same grid as shown in the previous chapter is used. The nite dierence form 960
of the Reynolds equation is derived below. Taking the partial derivative operator 961
1
Unknown pressures appearing as coe cients is what makes the equation non-linear.
59
Chapter 4 Solution Using Iterative Non-Linear Scheme
inside the parenthesis and applying the UV rule, we get, 962
_
j/
3
j
_
+ (
1
1)
2

_
j/
3
j
_
=
(j/)
j/
3
2
j
2
+ /
3
j
+ 3/
2
j
/
+
_
1
1
_
2
j/
3
2
j
2
+
_
1
1
_
2
/
3
j
+
_
1
1
_
2
3/
2
j
/
= /
j
+ j
/
where h was shown to be,

/ = 1 + c (co: ( ,
0
)) + (j
i,)
1)
The choice of what to keep on the LHS and what to take to the RHS depends on
the user as all the terms contain either pressure or h which are both unknowns.
The author in Ref.[26] has kept the second order terms on the LHS to extract the
unknown and taken the rest to RHS. The same is done here too. The RHS and LHS
will then be
1Ho =/
3
j
3/
2
j
j

_
1
1
_
2
/
3
j

_
1
1
_
2
3/
2
j
/
+ /
j
+ j
/
1Ho =j/
3
2
j
2
+
_
1
1
_
2
j/
3
2
j
2
Dividing by j/
3
on both sides, we get
1Ho=
1
j
_
j
_
2
3
/
j

_
1
1
_
2
1
j
_
j
_
2
_
1
1
_
2
3
/
/
+
1
j/
2
j
+
1
/
3
/
1Ho =

2
j
2
+
_
1
1
_
2
2
j
2
In nite dierence form, the LHS would be
1Ho =
j
c
2j
j
+ jn
()
2
+
_
1
1
_
2
j
a
2j
j
+ j
-
()
2
=
_
2
_
1
2
_
2
_
_
1
1
_
2
1
2
__
j
j
+
_
1
2
_
j
c
+
_
1
2
_
j
&
+
_
_
1
1
_
2
1
2
_
j
a
+
_
_
1
1
_
2
1
2
_
j
-
And the RHS would be
1Ho =
_
1
j
j
_

_
j
c
j
&
2 d
_
2
_
3
/
j
_

j
c
j
&
2 d

/
c
/
&
2 d
_
1
j
j
_

_
1
1
_
2
_
j
a
j
-
2 d
_
2
_
3
/
j
_

_
1
1
_
2
j
a
j
-
2 d

/
a
/
-
2 d
+
_

j
j
/
2
j
_

j
c
j
&
2 d
+
_

/
3
j
_

/
c
/
&
2 d
60
4.3 Results
4.3. Results 963
Solver programmes , convergence limits and post processing routines are the same 964
as those used in the previous chapter for the Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons 965
method. In Figure 4.1 the comparison between the solutions using dierent grid sizes 966
are shown. The mid plane pressure plots are similar to each other that they literally
Figure 4.1.: Grid dependency of Pressure distribution
967
lie on top of each other. So the grid suitability has to be determined from predicted 968
forces which is shown in Figure 4.2. The run time required for dierent grid sizes is
Figure 4.2.: Grid dependency of predicted force
969
presented in Figure 4.3. From the grid study, it is seen that 60x30 is an optimum 970
grid for predicting the force generated by the pressure distribution(considering wrt 971
deviation from 180x60 grid and run time). This grid will be used in chapter 7 when 972
the solutions from dierent methods are compared. 973
61
Chapter 4 Solution Using Iterative Non-Linear Scheme
Figure 4.3.: Run time dependency on grid size
62
5. Solution Using Finite Volume 974
Method 975
5.1. Reynolds equation in Vector Form 976
The non dimensional compressible unsteady Reynolds equation is repeated below 977
(1H)
=
1
_
1H
3
1
+ 1H
_
+

2
_
1H
3
1
2
__
(5.1)
Please note that in this solution scheme, the non dimensionalisation of axial co-
ordinate has been done wrt radius itself and so the usual
_
1
1
_
factor does not occur
in front of the

Z
_
1H
3 1
Z
_
term. To keep with this scheme, we should multiply
the non dimensional force by1
2
j
o
and not the usual 1 1 j
o
to get the forces
in Newtons. Dening the divergence operator as
=

i
+

i
:
.
and rewrite the equation in vector from as 978
2
(1H)
= .
_
_
1H
3
1
+ 1H
_
+

i
:
_
1H
3
1
2
__
(5.2)
The squeeze number is written as twice the bearing number. Integrate this equation 979
over the surface of the bearing and we get 980

2
(1H)
do =

.
_
_
1H
3
1
+ 1H
_
+

i
:
_
1H
3
1
2
__
do
5.1.1. Greens Theorem in Normal Form 981
Greens theorem in tangential form is the familiar Stokes theorem, commonly used
in analysis of circulation around the airfoil. Here we use the Greens theorem in
63
Chapter 5 Solution Using Finite Volume Method
normal form to convert the area integrals into line integrals. Let the function and
its partial derivatives be single valued, nite and continuous in and on the boundary
C and the region R inside it. The outward ux of the eld V across a simple closed
curve C equals the double integral of divergence of V over the region R enclosed by
C.
C
_
\ .
:
_
d| =
1
_
.
\
_
dc
1
Please note that the vector n is the normal to the element dl and is not its tangent.
The above equation is obvious when one takes into account the physical meaning of
divergence of the velocity vector. Applying this theorem to the RHS , Equation 5.2
translates to

_
2
(1H)
_
do =
_
1H
3
1
+ 1H
_
+

i
:
_
1H
3
1
2
__
.
: d|
(5.3)
5.2. Finite Volume Procedure 982
A control volume is formed around each node as shown in RefFigure 5.2 and in 983
RefFigure 5.1. The advantage of this approach is that central dierence scheme(CDS) 984
approximations of derivatives at control volume (CV) faces are more accurate when 985
the face is midway between two nodes[11]. The integral conservation equation 986
Equation 5.3 applies to each CV, as well as to the solution domain as a whole. 987
If we sum equations for all control volumes, we obtain the global conservation equa- 988
tion, since surface integrals over inner CV faces cancel out. Thus global conservation 989
is built into the method and this provides one of its principal advantages. To obtain 990
an algebraic equation for a particular CV, the surface and line integrals need be 991
approximated using quadrature formula. 992
5.2.1. Evaluation of line integral 993
Evaluation of the integral

_
1H
3 1
+ 1H
_
+

i
:
_
1H
3 1
Z
_
.
: d| can be 994
decomposed into 995
=
_
_
_
_
1H
3 1
+ 1H
_
1o-|1occ
.
_
1H
3 1
+ 1H
_
Wc-|1occ
.
_
1H
3 1
Z
_
.c|I1occ

_
1H
3 1
Z
_
Sc&|I1occ

(5.4)
1
Proof in Mathematical Methods, Riley, Cambridge press, page 390
64
5.2 Finite Volume Procedure
Figure 5.1.: Control Volume grid
5.2.2. Flux At The East Face 996
The ux to be evaluated at the east face is
_
1H
3 1
+ 1H
_
.The east face is at
i+1/2,j. So
.
_
1H
3
1
+ 1H
_
i+
1,
2
,)
= .
_
H
i+
1,
2
)
_
1
i,)
+ 1
i+1,)
2
_

_
1H
3
_
i+
1,
2
,)
_
1
i+1,)
1
i,)
__
Take the pressure at the nodes outside,
1|nr ct 1c:t 1ccc =
Co:
i+
1
2
,)
2
(1
i,)
+ 1
i+1,)
) 1i))
i+
1
2
,)
(1
i+1,)
1
i,)
)
=
_
Co:
i+
1
2
,)
2
1i))
i+
1
2
,)
_
1
i+1,)
+
_
Co:
i+
1
2
,)
2
+ 1i))
i+
1
2
,)
_
1
i,)
where,
Co:
i+
1
2
,)
= . H
i+
1
2
,)
1i))
i+
1
2
,)
=
.

_
1H
3
_
i+
1
2
,)
1i))
:
i+
1
2
,)
=

.

_
1H
3
_
i+
1
2
,)
5.2.3. Flux At The West Face 997
The ux to be evaluated at the west face is
_
Q1H
3 1
+ 1H
_
.The west face is
at i-1/2,j. So
.
_
Q1H
3
1
+ 1H
_
i
1,
2
,)
= .
_
H
i
1,
2
)
_
1
i,)
+ 1
i1,)
2
_

_
Q1H
3
_
i
1,
2
,)
_
1
i,)
1
i1,)
__
65
Figure 5.2.: Finite Volume Grid
Taking the pressure at the nodes outside,
1|nr ct \c:t 1ccc =
Co:
i
1
2
,)
2
(1
i,)
+ 1
i1,)
) 1i))
i
1
2
,)
(1
i,)
1
i1,)
)
(5.5)
=
_
Co:
i
1
2
,)
2
+ 1i))
i
1
2
,)
_
1
i1,)
+
_
Co:
i
1
2
,)
2
1i))
i
1
2
,)
_
1
i,)
(5.6)
5.2.4. Flux At The North Face 998
The ux to be evaluated at the north face is +
_
1H
3 1
Z
_
.The north face is at
i,j+1/2. So
_
1H
3
1
2
_
i,)+
1
2
=
_
_
1H
3
_
i,)+
1,
2
_
1
i,)+1
1
i,)
.
__
66
1|nr ct `o:t/ 1ccc = 1i))
:
i,)+
1,
2
(1
i,)+1
1
i,)
) (5.7)
5.2.5. Flux At The South Face 999
The ux to be evaluated at the north face is +
_
1H
3 1
Z
_
.The north face is at
i,j-1/2. So
_
1H
3
1
2
_
i,)
1
2
=
_
_
1H
3
_
i,)
1,
2
_
1
i,)
1
i,)1
.
__
1|nr ct oont/ 1ccc = 1i))
:
i,)
1,
2
(1
i,)
1
i,)1
) (5.8)
5.2.6. Evaluation of Surface Integral 1000
The simplest approximation to the integral is the midpoint rule: the integral is
approximated as a product of the integrand at the cell-face center (which is itself an
approximation to the mean value over the surface) and the cell-face area. Hence the
surface integral on the LHS,

_
2
(11)
_
do can be evaluated by considering
the average value of the integrand over the surface .

_
2
(1H)
_
do =
2.
t
_
(1H)
a
cojci,)
(1H)
a1
cojci,)
_
(5.9)
5.2.7. Assembled equation 1001
Combining the uxes at the individual faces and the surface integral, we get
on:)ccc
ia|cjo|
+ 1|nr
co-|
1|nr
&c-|
+ 1|nr
ac|I
1|nr
-c&|I
= 0 (5.10)
The equation Equation 5.10 is for a single control volume surrounding the node i,j. 1002
+
_
C
i+
1
2
,j
2
1
i+
1
2
,)
_
1
i+1,)
+
_
C
i+
1
2
,j
2
+ 1
i+
1
2
,)
_
1
i,)
_
C
i
1
2
,j
2
1
i
1
2
,)
_
1
i,)
+
_
C
i
1
2
,j
2
+ 1
i
1
2
,)
_
1
i1,)
1
:
i,)+
1,
2
(1
i,)+1
1
i,)
)
1
:
i,)
1,
2
(1
i,)
1
i,)1
)
2 :
|
_
(1H)
a
cojci,)
(1H)
a1
cojci,)
_
= 0
67
Collecting the terms in the above equation and writing it in Patankars [25]form, 1003
+
_
C
i+
1
2
,)
2
1
i+
1
2
,)
_
1
i+1,)
+
_
C
i+
1
2
,)
2
+ 1
i+
1
2
,)

C
i
1
2
,)
2
+ 1
i
1
2
,)
+ 1
:
i,)+
1,
2
+ 1
:
i,)
1,
2
+
2.H
cojc
t
_
1
i,)
+
_
C
i
1
2
,)
2
1
i
1
2
,)
_
1
i1,)
+
_
1
:
i,)+
1,
2
_
1
i,)+1
+
_
1
:
i,)
1,
2
_
1
i,)1
2.
t
(1H)
a1
cojc, i,)
= 0
i,)1
1
a
i,)1
+
i,)
1
a
i,)
+
i,)+1
1
a
i,)+1
+
i1,)
1
a
i1,)
+
i+1,)
1
a
i+1,)
/
i,)
= 0
In compass notation, 1004
S
1
a
S
+
1
1
a
1
+
.
1
a
.
+
W
1
a
W
+
1
1
a
1
/
i,)
= 0 (5.11)
where, 1005
.
= 1
:
i,)+
1,
2
S
= 1
:
i,)
1,
2
1
=
C
i+
1
2
,)
2
+ 1
i+
1
2
,)

C
i
1
2
,)
2
+ 1
i
1
2
,)
+1
:
i,)+
1,
2
+ 1
:
i,)
1,
2
+
2.H
i,j,
cojc
t
1
=
C
i+
1
2
,)
2
1
i+
1
2
,)
W
=
C
i
1
2
,)
2
1
i
1
2
,)
/ =
2.
t
(1H)
a1
cojc, i,)
Using the denition of Peclets number which characterizes the balance between 1006
convection and diusion terms, 1007
1c
i,)
=
C
i,)
1
i,)
1c
:
i,)
=
C
i,)
1
:
i,)
68
we can rewrite the above coecients as 1008
.
= 1
:
i,)+
1,
2
S
= 1
:
i,)
1,
2
1
=
1

W

.

S
+ C
i+
1
2
,)
C
i
1
2
,)
+
2.H
i,j,
cojc
t
1
= 1
i+
1
2
,)
_
_
1
1c
i+
1
2
,)
2
_
_
W
= 1
i
1
2
,)
_
_
1 +
1c
i
1
2
,)
2
_
_
/ =
2.
t
(1H)
a1
cojc, i,)
The above discretization scheme does not use the power law scheme . Instead it 1009
simply averages the terms at the face in terms of nodal values towards left and right. 1010
The co-ecients obtained above will be re-derived using the Power law scheme. 1011
5.2.8. Evaluation of Fluxes 1012
Evaluate the uxes at the faces, power law scheme is recommended by Patankar. 1013
Power law scheme is an approximation to exponential scheme and here the original 1014
solution to 1D convection diusion equation is used. It is exact for 1D problems but 1015
its evaluation is expensive in computer time and hence is not recommended. Using 1016
this scheme nevertheless, we get 1017
i,)+
1
2
=
:
i,)
+
_
:
i,)+1

:
i,)
_
c
(1c 2)
1
c
(1c)
1
It is obvious that the above expression would shoot to innity when the convection 1018
is 0 (no ow conditions), but for very low values of Peclets number the prole is 1019
almost linear and approximates well with the solution of pure diusion equation. 1020
Consider the following computations Equation 5.11. 1021
1. For negative Peclets number point 3 has more inuence on 2(negative ow 1022
velocity) 1023
2. For high positive Peclets number, point 1 has more inuence on 2(positive 1024
ow velocity) 1025
3. For zero velocity ows, there is only diusion and no convection and hence the 1026
variation is linear between the terms. 1027
69
Figure 5.3.: Exact exponential scheme
Rewriting the Reynolds equation while keeping the diusive and convective terms 1028
separate from each other. 1029
2.
t
_
(1H)
a
i,)
(1H)
a1
i,)
_
=
_
_
+
_
1H
3 :

_
c
[1
i+1,)
1
i,)
] (H.)
c
1
c
_
1H
3 :

_
&
[1
i,)
1
i1,)
] + (H.)
&
1
&
+
_
1H
3
:
_
a
[1
i,)+1
1
i,)
]
_
1H
3
:
_
-
[1
i,)
1
i,)1
]
(5.12)
Dening the coecients as follows, 1030
1
c
=
_
1H
3
.
_
c
1
&
=
_
1H
3
.
_
&
C
c
= (H.)
c
C
&
= (H.)
&
1
:
a
=
_
1H
3
.
_
a
1
:
-
=
_
1H
3
.
_
we can rewrite the equation compactly as 1031
2.
t
_
(1H)
a
i,)
(1H)
a1
i,)
_
=
_
_
_
+1
c
1
i+1,)
+

1
c
1
&
1
:
a
1
:
-
1
i,)
+ 1
&
1
i1,)
+1
:
a
1
i,)+1
+1
:
-
1
i,)1
C
c
1
c
+ C
&
1
&
70
The whole furore over the exponential scheme is in the way it expresses the convec- 1032
tive uxesC
c
1
c
+ C
&
1
&
at the east and west faces. Once they are expressed in 1033
terms pressures at the nodal values we will be able to solve the set of equations. 1034
5.2.9. Evaluation of convective and di usive ux using exact 1035
solution 1036
Patankar also says dierent variables can be interpolated by dierent schemes at the 1037
face of the control volume. We have a source term that involves the computation of 1038
the dierential of the lm thickness. 1039

_
2
(1H)
_
do =
_
_
_
_
Q1H
3 1
H 1 1 H
_
1o-|1occ
.
_
Q1H
3 1
H 1 1 H
_
Wc-|1occ
.
_
Q1H
3 1
Z
_
.c|I1occ

_
Q1H
3 1
Z
_
Sc&|I1occ

_
2
(1H)
_
do =
_
_
_
_
1
1
_
c
.
_
1
1
_
&
.
_
1
:
1
Z
_
a

_
1
:
1
Z
_
-

The coecients in this section, are 1040
1
c
=
_
1H
3
_
c
=
(1H
3
)
1
+ (1H
3
)
1
2
1
&
=
_
1H
3
_
&
=
(1H
3
)
W
+ (1H
3
)
1
2
C
c
= (H)
c
=
(H)
1
+ (H)
1
2
C
&
= (H)
&
=
(H)
W
+ (H)
1
2
1
:
a
=
_
1H
3
_
a
=
(1H
3
)
.
+ (1H
3
)
1
2
1
:
-
=
_
1H
3
_
-
=
(1H
3
)
S
+ (1H
3
)
1
2
Expressing the pressure at the cell face 1
c
in terms of pressures at 1
1
and 1
1
we
have
1 = 1
1
+ (1
1
1
1
)
c
(
1c
x
L
)
1
c
(1c)
1
71
Since east face is at x=l/2 and l=
1
c
= 1
1
+ (1
1
1
1
)
c
(1c
e
2)
1
c
(1c
e
)
1
=
_
c
(1c
e
2)
1
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
1
1
+
_
1
c
(1c
e
2)
1
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
1
1
Here 1c
c
is given by
1c
P
+1c
E
2
=
C
ij
1
ij
+
C
i+1,j
1
i+1,j
. Similarly
1
&
= 1
W
+ (1
1
1
W
)
c
(1c
w
2)
1
c
(1c
w
)
1
=
_
c
(1c
w
2)
1
c
(1c
w
)
1
_
1
1
+
_
1
c
(1c
w
2)
1
c
(1c
w
)
1
_
1
W
Here 1c
&
is given by
1c
P
+1c
W
2
==
C
ij
D
ij
+
C
i1,j
D
i1,j
2
. Expressing
_
1
_
c
in terms of
pressures at 1
1
and 1
1
we have
_
1
_
c
=
1c
c
(1
1
1
1
)
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
=
_
_
1c
c

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
1
1
+
_
_
1c
c

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
1
1
Expressing
_
1
_
&
1
and 1
W
we have
_
1
_
&
=
1c
&
(1
1
1
W
)
c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
=
_
_
1c
&

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
1
W
+
_
_
1c
&

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
1
1
Expressing
_
1
_
a
1
and 1
.
we have
_
1
.
_
a
=
1
.
1
1
.
Expressing
_
1
_
-
1
and 1
S
we have
_
1
.
_
-
=
1
1
1
S
.
72
5
.
2
F
i
n
i
t
e
V
o
l
u
m
e
P
r
o
c
e
d
u
r
e
Substituting these expressions back into the equation,

_
2
(1H)
_
do =
_
_
+1
,c
.
_
1c
e

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
1
+
_
1c
e

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
1
C
,c
.
_
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
1
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
1
+
_
1
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
1
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
1
1
,&
.
_
1c
w

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
W
+
_
1c
w

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
1
+C
,&
.
_
c
(
Pe
w
2
)
1
c
(Pe
w
)
1
_
1
1
+
_
1
c
(
Pe
w
2
)
1
c
(Pe
w
)
1
_
1
W
+
_
1
:
1
N
1
P
:
_
a

_
1
:
1
P
1
S
:
_
-

_
2.H
a
1
t
_
1
a
1

_
2.H
a1
1
t
_
1
a1
1
=
_
_
1
1
+(1
,c
.)
_
1c
e

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
(C
,c
.)
_
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
1
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
W
+(1
,&
.)
_
1c
w

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
+ (C
,&
.)
_
1
c
(
Pe
w
2
)
1
c
(Pe
w
)
1
_
1
1
(C
,c
.)
_
1
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
1
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
(1
,c
.)
_
1c
e

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
1
+(C
,&
.)
_
c
(
Pe
w
2
)
1
c
(Pe
w
)
1
_
(1
,&
.)
_
1c
w

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(Pe
e
)
1
_
1
1
1
z,n
:

1
z,s
:
1
.
1
z,n
:
+ 1
S
1
z,s
:
Writing the above equation in compass notation, repeated here,
S
1
a
S
+
1
1
a
1
+
.
1
a
.
+
W
1
a
W
+
1
1
a
1
/
i,)
= 0 (5.13)
7
3
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
5
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
U
s
i
n
g
F
i
n
i
t
e
V
o
l
u
m
e
M
e
t
h
o
d
the coecients evaluate to
S
=
1
:,-
.
.
=
1
:,a
.
1
=
_
_
+(1
,c
.)
_
_
1c
c

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
(C
,c
.)
_
_
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
1
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
(C
,c
.)
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
(C
,c
.)
_
_
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
+ (C
,c
.)
_
1
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
_
= (C
,c
.)
_
1
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
W
=
_
_
+(1
,&
.)
_
_
1c
&

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
+ (C
,&
.)
_
1
c
(1c
w
2)
1
c
(1c
w
)
1
_
_
_
=
_
_
(C
,&
.)
c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
+ (C
,&
.) (C
,&
.)
c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(1c
w
)
1
+
(C
,&
.)
c
(1c
w
)
1
_
_
= (C
,&
.)
_
c
(1c
w
)
c
(1c
w
)
1
_
1
=
_
_
(C
,c
.)
_
_
1
c
(
Pe
e
2
)
1
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
(1
,c
.)
_
_
1c
c

c
(
Pe
e
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
+(C
,&
.)
_
c
(1c
w
2)
1
c
(1c
w
)
1
_
(1
,&
.)
_
_
1c
&

c
(
Pe
w
2
)
c
(1c
e
)
1
_
_
_
_
1
:,a
.

1
:,-
.
2.H
a
1
t
= (C
,c
.) + (C
,&
.)
W

1

.

S

2.H
a
1
t
/ =
2.H
a1
1
t
1
a1
1
7
4
5
.
2
F
i
n
i
t
e
V
o
l
u
m
e
P
r
o
c
e
d
u
r
e
5.2.9.1. Pseudo code for coe cient evaluation 1041
First we need to express the Convective and diusive coecients at the nodal points before evaluating the terms in the A 1042
matrix. 1043
Di_theta_P=p(i,j)*pow(h(i,j),3)*(Dz/Dtheta); 1044
Di_theta_E=p(i+1,j)*pow(h(i+1,j),3)*(Dz/Dtheta); 1045
Di_theta_W=p(i-1,j)*pow(h(i-1,j),3)*(Dz/Dtheta); 1046
Di_z_P=p(i,j)*pow(h(i,j),3)*(Dtheta/Dz); 1047
Di_z_N=p(i,j+1)*pow(h(i,j+1),3)*(Dtheta/Dz); 1048
Di_z_S=p(i,j-1)*pow(h(i,j-1),3)*(Dtheta/Dz); 1049
Conv_P=gamma*(h(i,j))*(Dz); 1050
Conv_E=gamma*(h(i+1,j))*(Dz); 1051
Conv_W=gamma*(h(i-1,j))*(Dz); 1052
In compass notation, the equations become more readable as follows 1053
Di_theta_P=pp*pow(hp,3)*(Dz/Dtheta); 1054
Di_theta_E=pe*pow(he,3)*(Dz/Dtheta); 1055
Di_theta_W=pw*pow(hw,3)*(Dz/Dtheta); 1056
Di_z_P=pp*pow(hp,3)*(Dtheta/Dz); 1057
Di_z_N=pn*pow(hn,3)*(Dtheta/Dz); 1058
Di_z_S=ps*pow(hs,3)*(Dtheta/Dz); 1059
Conv_P=gamma*(hp)*(Dz); 1060
Conv_E=gamma*(he)*(Dz); 1061
7
5
C
h
a
p
t
e
r
5
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
U
s
i
n
g
F
i
n
i
t
e
V
o
l
u
m
e
M
e
t
h
o
d
Conv_W=gamma*(hw)*(Dz); 1062
We also need some temporary variables to make our expressions look more compact. 1063
Pec_theta_P=Conv_P/Di_theta_P; 1064
Pec_theta_E=Conv_E/Di_theta_E; 1065
Pec_theta_W=Conv_W/Di_theta_W; 1066
We can now proceed to expressing the terms in A matrix. 1067
An=(Di_z_N+Di_z_P)/2; 1068
As=(Di_z_S+Di_z_P)/2; 1069
Ae_pow=pow((1-0.5*(abs(Pec_theta_P+Pec_theta_E)/2)),5); 1070
Ae=-((Di_theta_P+Di_theta_E)/2)*((max(0,Ae_pow))-((Pec_theta_P+Pec_theta_E)/2)); 1071
Aw_pow=pow((1-0.5*(abs(Pec_theta_P+Pec_theta_W)/2)),5); 1072
Aw=-((Di_theta_P+Di_theta_W)/2)*((max(0,Aw_pow))-((Pec_theta_P+Pec_theta_W)/2)); 1073
Ap=-Ae-Aw-An-As+max(0,(((Conv_P+Conv_E)/2)-((Conv_P+Conv_W)/2)))+2*gamma*Dtheta*Dz*hp/Dt; 1074
b=max(0,(((Conv_P+Conv_E)/2)-((Conv_P+Conv_W)/2)))*pp+2*gamma*Dtheta*Dz*hp_old*pp_old/Dt; 1075
7
6
5.3 Description of Program
5.2.10. Handling the Non-Linearities 1076
The coecient matrix A has diusive coecients which are themselves functions 1077
of the unknown pressures. In a normal FD method this would have warranted 1078
us to linearise the whole equation and ensure that the A matrix is composed of 1079
constants. But in this nite volume method since we use the iterative solver, it is 1080
possible to solve the system even with unknowns in the A matrix. In a nonlinear 1081
problem such as this it is not wise nor necessary to take the solution of the algebraic 1082
set of equations to the converged solution for a xed set of coecients. With a 1083
given set of theses coecients a few iterations of the equation solving algorithm 1084
are sucient before updating the coecients. There should be a balance between 1085
the eort required to calculate the coecients and the eort required to solve the 1086
equations.Once the coecients are calculated , we must perform sucient iterations 1087
of the equations solver to extract substantial benet from the coecients, but it is 1088
unwise to spend an excessive amount eort on solving equations that are based on 1089
tentative coecients[25].The method is that we assume the initial pressure calculate 1090
the A and Rhs matrices from them and update them after each iteration. 1091
5.3. Description of Program 1092
5.3.1. Outline of the program 1093
An object oriented approach is used for the coding of this equation. The advantages 1094
become apparent as one peruses the code. At the outset, it is obvious that we need 1095
2 Pressure arrays. One for the pressures now(which we dont know and are evolving 1096
with each Seidel iteration) and one for the old pressures(from the previous time 1097
step). The pressure at each node depends on other pressures now and old pressure 1098
at that node. The iteration has to be started by assuming the pressure distribution 1099
over the surface. That distribution will be the 1
c|o
for the rst iteration. 1100
Number of points in I direction(NI) and number of points in J direction (NJ) are the 1101
main variables. Number of points at which pressure has to be solved for can be found 1102
by`1 = (`1 2) (`J 2). The spacing between the points in the z direction 1103
Dz=1/(NI-1) in direction Dtheta =(2*3.141592654)/(NJ-1). It is necessary to 1104
typecast the number of divisions as oats before dividing with them. Attitude of 1105
the bearing is user input and is kept as (60 3.141592654 180) for the test case. 1106
Epsilon is like wise set at 0.79. The memory for A matrix, RHS and solution vectors 1107
are assigned in the main program. 1108
5.3.2. Description of the object model 1109
Each point(Node in the grid) is an object. The nodes on the boundaries are not con- 1110
sidered. The computation of the coecients is done in the object member functions 1111
77
and stored as properties of the object. The properties and the member functions of 1112
the object are detailed below. 1113
5.3.2.1. Object properties 1114
The 13 properties of each point object are 1115
1. Point number 1116
2. Flag whether it is on the boundary or not. 1117
3. Face at which the node is located on if it is on the boundary. 1118
4. Angular location of the Node 1119
5. Bearing Number(This property is not object specic) 1120
6. Pe => Pressure at the node towards the east of current node 1121
7. Pw=> Pressure at the node towards the west of current node 1122
8. Pp=> Pressure at the node 1123
9. Pn=> Pressure at the node towards the north of current node 1124
10. Ps=> Pressure at the node towards the south of current node 1125
11. Pp_old=>Pressure at this node in the previous time step 1126
12. He => Film thickness at the node towards the east of current node 1127
13. Hw=> Film thickness at the node towards the west of current node 1128
14. Hp=> Film thickness at the node 1129
15. Pp_old=> Film thickness at the node in the previous time step 1130
16. Hn=> Film thickness at the node towards the north of current node 1131
17. Hs=> Film thickness at the node towards the south of current node 1132
18. Coecients Ae, Ap,As... and RHS . 1133
5.3.2.2. Member Functions 1134
The major member functions are described below. 1135
assignNumberLocationGamma 1136
This function assigns the angular location and its point number to the point object. 1137
amIonBoundary: 1138
This function checks if a point is on the boundary. It sets the ag to yes and also 1139
assigns the face at which the node is located on. This function assigns properties 2 1140
and 3. 1141
78
5.4 Results
assignNeighborPressureAndH 1142
Based on the location of the node, this function assigns all the neighborhood pres- 1143
sures to their variables. If a point is on the boundary, this functions takes care of 1144
giving the boundary pressure as their neighborhood pressure. 1145
assignOldPressureAndH 1146
It assigns the old pressure(from the previous time step) to its point as pp_old. It 1147
also assigns the previous lm thickness to hp_old. 1148
assignAmatrixTerms 1149
From the pressures and lm thickness , this function calculates and assigns all the 1150
individual coecients to the points , such as Ae,Ap,Aw and so on. 1151
assignRHS 1152
From the pressures at the previous time step and lm thickness , this function 1153
calculates and assigns the rhs term corresponding to each row in the A matrix(each 1154
node) 1155
5.3.3. Flow chart 1156
Flow chart of the operations performed in the uid part of the simulation are given 1157
below and shown in . 1158
1. First we assume a pressure distribution over the grid. 1159
2. Calculate the A matrix and C Vector from the current pressure distribution 1160
3. Perform an iteration of the Gauss-Seidel algorithm 1161
4. Update all pressures except the 1
a1
term in the C vector. 1162
5. Go to step 2 and iterate till convergence of solution for a single time step. 1163
5.4. Results 1164
Other than the part concerned with estimating the terms in the A matrix and the 1165
iterative scheme described above, the other routines involved in the procedure are the 1166
same as that of the previous two methods. In fact due to the object oriented model of 1167
programming, great exibility is given to us. Just by changing the methos involved in 1168
estimating the coecients (named AssignAmatrixTermsAndRHS in the program), 1169
dierent discretisations schemes can be used with the same initialisation, solving and 1170
post processing routines. Again the outputs are presented in chapter 7. 1171
79
Figure 5.4.: Flow chart of uid solver
80
6. Pseudo Spectral Method 1172
Finite dierence and nite volume methods are predominantly local methods in the 1173
sense that they consider the only the information available at the neighboring points 1174
while evaluating the dierential of the dependent function at a point. Spectral 1175
methods are global methods, where the computed derivative at a point depends 1176
not only on information at neighboring points, but on information from the entire 1177
domain. For functions that vary considerably spatially or in time, it is obviously 1178
advantageous to use an interpolating polynomial that takes in information from 1179
more neighboring points. In this line, the best interpolating polynomial we can use 1180
is a polynomial that takes in information from all the points in the domain. So 1181
each of the coecient of the interpolating polynomial will depend on all the grid 1182
points. The Fourier and Chebyshev spectral methods basically give us polynomial 1183
expressions for the dependent variable that are global, which are valid every where 1184
in the grid. The use of global polynomials will make the phase errors zero, wrt the 1185
analytical solution. The errors will then be mostly from the temporal discretization. 1186
A very good example of the reduction in phase errors as the order of the scheme is 1187
increased (from second order polynomial to a global scheme) can be found in [16]. 1188
Gottlieb has also shown that the error when using a second order scheme with 2048 1189
grid points is the same as using a global scheme with only 12 grid points. Of course 1190
there are requirements on the grid spacing while using these polynomials which 1191
have to be taken care of to get meaningful polynomial coecients. In this chapter, 1192
the Fourier interpolating polynomial is used in tangential direction and Chebyshev 1193
interpolating polynomial in the axial direction. The major advantage of spectral 1194
methods becomes evident when orbit scheme is presented in later chapters. They 1195
justify the extra mathematical complexity when long term integrations on coarse 1196
grids are involved [16]. 1197
_
1H
3
1
_
+
_
1
1
_
2
2
_
1H
3
1
2
_
=
_
(1H)
_
+
_
(1H)
_
(6.1)
The above non dimensional Reynolds equation has non-dimensionalized wrt half 1198
the length in the axial direction. It is done so that the limits will be from -1 to 1199
+1 in the non dimensional plane which is advantageous when using the Chebyshev 1200
polynomials which are also dened between -1 and +1. This equation has certain 1201
properties that can be used to accelerate the numerical solution procedure of the 1202
81
Chapter 6 Pseudo Spectral Method
uid model. The rst and the most obvious is that the bearing is symmetrical 1203
about the mid plane (2 = 0) and only one half needs to be solved for. The other 1204
is that, assuming a continuous encircling foil around the shaft, the pressure prole 1205
is continuous in the tangential direction () and is hence very suitable for solution 1206
using a Fourier series expansion which is the subject of this work.(Lower case p is 1207
used to denote the non dimensional pressure in physical plane, P is used to represent 1208
the coecient of Fourier series.) 1209
6.1. Fourier Series 1210
Let us consider the direction and solve for the mid plane pressure distribution of 1211
the bearing. We will be considering the diusion term in the direction, convection 1212
term and time marching term only. The diusion term in the axial direction is 1213
omitted for now. Thus the equation becomes, 1214
_
1H
3
1
_
=
_
(1H)
_
+
_
(1H)
_
(6.2)
The task now is to nd the distribution of pressure p, at various time intervals. 1215
Alternately, pressure can be approximated by a Fourier series. Then the task is 1216
to nd the Fourier expression for pressure at these time intervals. The Fourier 1217
expression has the Fourier coecients which then have to be computed at each 1218
time step. Instead of nding the the pressure at N nodes, we will have to nd 1219
the N Fourier coecients. Let us approximate the pressure distribution using the 1220
expression 1221
j =
1
I=1
~
1
I
c
iI
The above expression would be an exact representation of the pressure around the
shaft in terms of Fourier coecients
~
1. Approximating it by leaving out terms above
N, we have
j =
N
2
1
I=
N
2
^
1
I
c
iI
The above is a truncated Fourier series containing N terms from
.
2
to
.
2
1. The
.
2
term does not have a symmetrical counterpart on the positive side and hence is
usually explicitly made zero. The coecients are given by
1
I
=
1
2
2
0
)()c
iI
d (6.3)
82
6.1 Fourier Series
In terms of the familiar Fourier series this becomes
j =
1
0
2
+ 1
c1
co:() + 1
c2
co:(2) + 1
c3
co:(3) + ... + 1
c
N
2
1
co:
__
`
2
1
_
_
+ 1
-1
:i:() + 1
-2
:i:(2) + 1
-3
:i:(3) + ... + 1
-
N
2
1
:i:
__
`
2
1
_
_
The coecient can be found directly from the pressure data at nodes using numerical
approximation of the following integrals
1
0
=
1
0
)(r)dr
1
(cn,-n)
=
1
0
)(r)(co:(:r). :i:(:r))dr
The complex Fourier coecients can be obtained from the real Fourier coecients
by using the formula
1
0
= 1
0c,
: = 0 (6.4)
1
I
=
_
_
_
(1
mc
i1
ms
)
2
: 0
(1
mc
+i1
ms
)
2
: < 0
(6.5)
The real Fourier coecients can be obtained from the complex Fourier coecients 1222
returned by Matlab using the formula 1223
1
-n
=
2
`
(i:(1
n
)). 0 < : <
`
2
1
cn
=
+2
`
(R(1
n
)). 0 < : <
`
2
The above formula is in line with Equation 6.5, with the only point to note being, 1224
Matlab multiplies the Fourier coecients by the total number of sampling points. 1225
Hence if there are N nodes, there are N complex Fourier coecients of which we 1226
neglect one to maintain symmetry. Then we are left with
.
2
1 sin and
.
2
1 cosine 1227
series. Including the constant term, we have in total `1 co-ecients which will be 1228
used to form an expression for pressure at each time step. Then highest frequency 1229
that can then be resolved is thus
.
2
1. Since the original data in the physical plane 1230
is real, the Fourier coecients are complex conjugates of each other 1
I
=

1
I
.This 1231
also implies that the negative Fourier coecients reveal no unknown information for 1232
this problem. 1233
6.1.1. Estimation of Derivatives and transformations 1234
In this section we attempt to transform a given pressure distribution into Fourier 1235
coecients, evaluate its derivative and transform the coecients back into the pres- 1236
83
sures. In doing this we would have demonstrated forward and backward transfor- 1237
mations and estimating the derivative while using a Fourier series approximation 1238
of the distribution. We also analyze the code used in the process alongside. These 1239
methods are much simpler and much slower than the highly optimized and complex 1240
inbuilt t and it routines used by Matlab. The code snippet shown in section 6.3 1241
use t and it for simplicity. 1242
The forward transformation, given in Equation 6.3 is continuous. Transforming it 1243
into discrete case, we have 1244
1
I
=

`
)=.
)=0
)(
)
) c
iI
j
1
I
=
1
`
)=.
)=0
)(
)
) c
iI
j
There are NP=N+1 points, NP-1 divisions and hence the point indices run from 1245
(0 to `) or (1 to `1) in case of Matlab. Rewriting this expression for Matlab, 1246
1
I
=
1
(`1 1)
)=.1
)=1
)(
)
) c
iI
j
/ = 0. 1. 2. 3. ..`1 1
For the purposes of this example, let us assume the pressure distribution is sinusoidal 1247
as shown in Figure 6.1. Since there are NP number of points, then we can have the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Tangential direction
A
s
s
u
m
e
d

n
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Figure 6.1.: Assumed pressure distribution
1248
84
6.1 Fourier Series
mode numbers varying from
_
.1
2
1
_
to
_
.1
2
1
_
. Including the constant term, 1249
we have NP-1 n umber of terms in the Fourier expansion. The complex Fourier 1250
coecients can be estimated by the code snippet shown in Listing 6.1. 1251
Listing 6.1: Obtaining Fourier coecients
1 %% Obtai n Fouri er c o e f f i c i e n t s
2 % Summation Loop
3 modeCounter =1;
4 for mode=(NP/21):+(NP/21)
5 sum=0;
6 for j =1:NP
7 sum=sum+(p( j ) ) exp(i mode t het a ( j ) ) ;
8 end
9 Pk( modeCounter )=(1/(NP1))sum;
10 modeCounter=modeCounter +1;
11 end
The Fourier coecients have been plotted in Figure 6.2. In the one dimensional
15 10 5 0 5 10 15
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Mode number
a
b
s
(
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
)
Figure 6.2.: Fourier coecients of assumed pressure distribution in Figure 6.1
1252
time marching scheme, the pressure distribution expressed as Fourier series and 1253
dierentiated in Fourier plane and brought back as derivatives to the physical plane 1254
where time marching is done. The pressure distribution is taken to Fourier plane, 1255
multiplied by the wave number and transformed back. In other words, 1256
1. The Fourier coecients are found 1257
85
Listing 6.2: Obtaining coecients of pressure derivative
1 %% Mul t i pl y t he Fouri er c o e f f i c i e n t s by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e wave numbers
2 PkDash=zeros (NP1 , 1);
3 modeCounter =1;
4 for mode =(NP/21):+(NP/21)
5 PkDash( modeCounter )=(mode i )Pk( modeCounter ) ;
7 end
2. The Fourier coecients are multiplied by their respective wave numbers 1258
3. The new Fourier coecients are transformed back to pressure values. 1259
Multiplying the Fourier coecients of pressure distribution by their respective wave
numbers , we get the following.
j = 1
0
c
0i
+ 1
1
c
1i
+ 1
2
c
2i
+ 1
3
c
3i
+ .. (6.6)
j
0
= 0 + (1i) 1
1
c
1i
+ (2i) 1
2
c
2i
+ (3i) 1
3
c
3i
+ .. (6.7)
= 0 + (1i1
1
) c
1i
+ (2i1
2
) c
2i
+ (3i1
3
) c
3i
+ .. (6.8)
The multiplication of the Fourier coecient by their wave numbers is accomplished 1260
in the code snippet shown in Listing 6.2. 1261
The terms in the (.) in Equation 6.8 are the Fourier coecients of the derivative of 1262
pressure. It is to be noted that the Equation 6.8 is also in the form of the Fourier 1263
series expansion and transforming this back will give us the derivative of pressure. 1264
The Fourier coecients of the derivative of pressure and the actual derivative of 1265
pressure are plotted in Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4 respectively. It is to be noted 1266
that for this problem the absolute value of Fourier coecients of pressure and its 1267
derivative are same and dier by multiplication by i of coecients of derivative. 1268
The Fourier coecients were transformed back to pressures using the code shown in 1269
Listing 6.3. This demonstrates the inverse transformation from Fourier to physical 1270
data. 1271
6.1.2. Fourier approximation of pressure distribution 1272
In this section, the Fourier approximation of mid plane pressure distribution is at- 1273
tempted to obtain a feel of the number of modes required to the pressure distribution 1274
satisfactorily. Quantitative studies to determine the mode numbers required for sat- 1275
isfactory approximation in both theta and axial direction are given later. The mid 1276
plane distribution is obtained from previous numerical schemes. This distribution 1277
is approximated using increasing number of Fourier mode pairs. Each pair has one 1278
cos and one sin term. Successive plots are shown in 6.5a and in 6.5b . It can be 1279
86
6.1 Fourier Series
15 10 5 0 5 10 15
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Mode number
a
b
s
(
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
)
Figure 6.3.: Fourier coecient of the derivative of pressure
Listing 6.3: Backward transformation
1 %% Transforming t he Fouri er c o e f f i c i e n t s back t o pr es s ur e d e r i v a t i v e
2 pDash=zeros ( 1 ,NP) ;
3 % De r i v at i v e of pr es s ur e d i s t r i b u t i o n
4 modeCounter =1;
5 for mode=(NP/2 1): (NP/21)
6 pDash=pDash+PkDash( modeCounter ) . exp( i mode t het a ) ;
8 end
seen in 6.5c that for 8 modes, the approximation literally sits on top of the original 1280
function. 1281
6.1.3. Fourier derivative matrix 1282
It is possible to do away with the transformation (front and back) and do an equiva- 1283
lent dierentiation operation on the pressure distribution using a matrix multiplica- 1284
tion.For example, to dierentiate the pressure distribution in theta direction,
_
j
_
, 1285
pressure distribution has to be multiplied by the DF matrix. Likewise to dieren- 1286
tiate the pressure distribution in axial direction,
_
j
a
_
, pressure distribution has to 1287
be multiplied by the DC matrix
1
. A simplied derivation of the derivative matrix 1288
(DF) is given below. Consider the following interpolating polynomial. 1289
1
DC and DF are the Chebyshev di erentiation and Fourier di erentiation matrices respectively
87
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
D
e
r
i
v
a
t
i
v
e

o
f

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Figure 6.4.: Derivative of pressure distribution given in Figure 6.1
n(r) =
1
2r
2
(rr
)
)(rr
)+1
)n
)1
1
r
2
(rr
)1
)(rr
)+1
)n
)
+
1
2r
2
(rr
)1
)(rr
)
)n
)+1
.
To evaluate the rst derivative of the function u(x) about the point r
)
.we dieren-
tiate the above polynomial. This yields an expression for the rst derivative that is
second order accurate.
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
n
)+1
n
)1
2r
(6.9)
Using a fourth degree polynomial for interpolating, we get an fourth order accurate
expression for rst derivative given by
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
n
)2
8n
)1
+ 8n
)+1
n
)+2
12r
The pattern that emerges is that to evaluate a derivative, we multiply the nodal
values of the function by specic constants. For the rst order scheme presented in
Equation 6.9 , the constants are
1
2 a
. 0.
1
2 a
(going from left to right in the compass
notation). For a global scheme, each of the nodal values will have to be multiplied
by a constant. This operation when written in a matrix notation is
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
.
0
1
i)
n
i
88
6.1 Fourier Series
To make the derivation easier, dene, for a (2:)
|I
order accurate rst derivative,
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
a=n
a=1

n
a
G
a
(n
a
j
) (6.10)
where
G
a
(n
a
j
) =
n
a
j+n
n
a
jn
2:r
and

n
a
= 2(1)
a
(:!)
2
(: :)! (: + :)!
The above two terms can be used to express the derivatives as follows. To get a
second order accurate expression for rst derivative using Equation 6.10 , we put
m=1 so that 2m=2. Since the index runs from =1 to m, only value of possible is n
= m = 1. So
a
n
evaluates to +1 and G
a
(n
a
j
) =
&
x
j+1
&
x
j1
2 a
, which is the familiar
expression for second order accurate rst derivative. Using Equation 6.10 to express
a innite order derivative, noting that 2 = , we have
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
1
a=1

1
a
G
a
(n
a
j
) (6.11)
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
1
a=1

1
a
n
a
j+n
n
a
jn
2:r
(6.12)
Once the values of
1
a
are obtained, the matrix form
_
o&
oa
_
a
j
=
.
0
1
i)
n
i
can be 1290
written. The approximating polynomial is c
ia|
where l is the mode number, and x 1291
is the location about which the approximation is done. Equation 6.12 now becomes 1292
i|c
i|a
=
1
a=1

1
a
c
i|(a+a a)
c
i|(aa a)
2:r
(6.13)
=
1
a=1

1
a
c
i|(a+a a)
c
i|(aa a)
2:r
(6.14)
=
1
a=1

1
a
c
ia| a
c
ia| a
2:r
c
i|a
(6.15)
i|c
i|a
=
1
a=1

1
a
(2i :i:(:|r))
2:r
c
i|a
(6.16)
| =
1
a=1

1
a
(:i:(:|r))
:r
(6.17)
r | =
1
a=1

1
a
:
:i:(:|r) (6.18)
c =
1
a=1

1
a
:
:i:(:c) (6.19)
89
From Equation 6.19 it is obvious that

1
n
a
are the co-ecients of the sin series of c 1293
which is | r. Therefore

1
n
a
=
2(1)
n+1
a
. : 1. Now Equation 6.12 can be written 1294
as following. Substituting for r =
2
.+1
, we have 1295
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
a=+1
a=1

1
a
n
a
j+n
2:r
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
` + 1
2 2
a=+1
a=1

1
a
:
n
a
j+n
Instead of going from 1 to and having n
a
j+n
n
a
jn
, we have n going from to 1296
and we have n
a
j+n
only. In the above expression, the subtraction symbol needed 1297
in front of n
a
jn
is supplied by the n in the denominator. We also note that the 1298
coecient becomes 0 for n=0, hence the subtraction works out ne. Since we are 1299
using Fourier series to approximate the function, it implies that the function is 2 1300
continuous. So n
)+a
= n
)+a+j(.+1)
j = 0. 1. 2. 3... Please note that (N+1) grid 1301
points span over a space of 2 . So only N coecients ( from 0 to N-1) are unique. 1302
If the expansion is about ,
|I
point, then N-j to -j are unique. The summation can 1303
be re-arranged using this continuity as follows. 1304
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
` + 1
4
a=+1
a=1

1
a
:
n
a
j+n
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
` + 1
4
a=.)
a=)
_
_
1
j=1

1
a+j(.+1)
: + j(` + 1)
_
_
n
a
j+n
Substituting the value of
a
, we get
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
` + 1
4
a=.)
a=)
_
_
1
j=1
2(1)
(a+j(.+1))+1
(` + 1)
_
a
.+1
+ j
_
_
_
n
a
j+n
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
1
2
a=.)
a=)
(1)
a+1
_
_
1
j=1
(1)
j(.+1)
_
a
.+1
+ j
_
_
_
n
a
j+n
Consider the j(` + 1) term in the exponent. When N is even and p is odd,
j(` + 1) i:
_
_
j i: odd
_
_
_
` i: odd cc:
` i: cc: odd
j i: cc:
_
_
_
` i: odd cc:
` i: cc: cc:
90
6.2 Chebyshev polynomials
Placing a restriction on the grid that N should be an even integer, we make the
symbol of the inner summation term depends only on the value of p. Hence,
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
1
2
a=.)
a=)
(1)
a+1
_
_
1
j=1
(1)
j
_
a
.+1
+ j
_
_
_
n
a
j+n
Using the identity

I=1
I=1
(1)
k
I+a
=

-ia( a)
and i=j+N, 1305
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
1
2
a=.)
a=)
(1)
a+1
_
_

_
:i:
_
a
.+1
__
_
_
n
a
j+n
_
dn
dr
_
a
j
=
i=.
i=0
(1)
i+)
2
_
_
1
_
:i:
_
()i)
.+1
__
_
_
n
a
i
The u vector will be single column vector , and to get the derivative at a point, say
j=7, entries of this column vector have to be multiplied by the row vector 1
7i
and
summed up. In matrix form,
1
)i
=
i=.
i=0
(1)
i+)
2
_
_
1
_
:i:
_
()i)
.+1
__
_
_
Similar ways to derive the derivative matrix for Chebyshev polynomials is given in 1306
Ref [12]. 1307
6.2. Chebyshev polynomials 1308
This section gives a concise view of the theoretical foundations of Chebyshev polyno-
mials. The bulk of the material has been derived from references [12, 16, 3]. Readers
should consult them for a more in depth study. The Jacobi polynomials are eigen
functions of the following dierential equation
d
dr
_
(1 r)
1+
(1 + r)
1+
dn
dr
_
= (1 r)

(1 + r)
n. 1 r +1. . 1
These Jacobi polynomials are dened between -1 and +1 and have k distinct roots 1309
in that interval. If u is a sequence of polynomials that satisfy the above equation, 1310
the successive terms of the polynomials can be obtained from the recurrence relation 1311
given below (-1<x<1). 1312
n
a
(r) = (
a
r +
a
) n
a1
(r) +
a
n
a2
(r) . : 2. (1 < r < 1)
91
where n
a
(r) =
a
.
a
.
a
are real sequences dened for dierent polynomial classes.
Expressions for these sequences can be found in Ref[12], page 6. By dierentiating
the above recurrence relation, successive derivatives can also be obtained from rst
two derivatives.
n
0
a
(r) = (
a
r +
a
) n
0
a1
(r) +
a
n
0
a2
(r) . : 2. (1 < r < 1)
For = =
1
2
. we get the Chebyshevs polynomials that were used in this project. 1313
For this value of and , the dierential equation reduces to 1314
d
dr
_
_
1 r
2
_
+
1
2
dn
dr
_
= :
2
_
1 r
2
_
1
2
n (6.20)
d
dr
_
_
1 r
2
_
+
1
2
dn
dr
_
+:
2
_
1 r
2
_
1
2
n = 0 (6.21)
_
1 r
2
_
1
2
d
dr
dn
dr
+
dn
dr
d
dr
_
1 r
2
_
+
1
2
+ :
2
_
1 r
2
_
1
2
n = 0 (6.22)
_
1 r
2
_
1
2
d
2
n
dr
2
+
dn
dr
_
1
2

_
1 r
2
_
3
2
(2r)
_
+ :
2
_
1 r
2
_
1
2
n = 0 (6.23)
_
1 r
2
_
d
2
n
dr
2

dn
dr
r + :
2
n = 0 (6.24)
where = :(:+ + +1) is a result that is quoted without proof. For proof please 1315
refer to Ref[12], page 5 . Equation 6.24 is the Chebyshev dierential equation, whose 1316
eigen functions are Chebyshev polynomials. 1317
Let x=cos(t), we obtain
d
2
n
dt
2
+ :
2
n = 0
whose general solution is the solution of
1
2
+ :
2
= 0
1 = 0 i(:)
The solution is given by = c
0|
(co:(:t) + 1:i:(:t)), which reduces to
n = co:(:t) + 1:i:(:t)
n = co:(:co:
1
r) + 1:i:(:co:
1
r)
n = 1
a
+ 1l
a
1
a
(r) and l
a
(r) are the Chebyshev polynomials of the rst and second kind of degree
n respectively. We use only the rst kind here. They are given by the equation
1
a
(r) = co:(:co:
1
(r)). : = 0. 1. 2. ...
92
It can be seen that 1318
1
0
= 1
1
1
= r
1
2
= 2r
2
1
1
3
= 4r
3
3r...
The recurrence relation for this class of polynomials is obtained by substituting 1319
appropriate values of and in the the general recursive relation for Jacobi poly- 1320
nomials. 1321
1
a+1
= 2r1
a
1
a1
The It can be seen that 1322
1
0
= 1
1
1
= r
1
2
= 2r
2
1
1
3
= 4r
3
3r...
Many peculiar properties of these polynomials can be found in references cited. The
orthogonality of these polynomials follow from the orthogonality of cos functions.
0
co:(:)co:(:)d =
_
_
0 : = :
2
: = : = 0
: = : = 0
Substituting x=cos(), we get the orthogonality property of Chebyshev polynomials
wrt to the proper weighing function.
1
1
1
n
(r)1
a
(r)
dr
1 r
2
=
_
_
0 : = :
2
: = : = 0
: = : = 0
(6.25)
Thus the Chebyshev polynomials are orthogonal wrt the inner weighted product
dened as
< ). p =
1
1
)(r)p(r)n(r)dr
93
where the weighing function is w(x). Now using these Chebyshev polynomials , we
can approximate out axial distribution of pressure as follows
)(r) =

0
2
1
0
(r) +
1
1
1
(r) +
2
1
2
(r) +
3
1
3
(r).. (6.26)
)(r) =

0
2
co:(0 co:
1
(r)) +
1
co:(1 co:
1
(r)) +
2
co:(2 co:
1
(r))..
(6.27)
)(r) =

0
2
+
1
r +
2
(2r
2
1) +
3
(4r
3
3r).. (6.28)
)() =

0
2
+
1
co:() +
2
co:(2) +
3
co:(3).. (6.29)
The transformation r = co:() is used in the above expression. The coecients can
now be obtained the same way the Fourier co-ecients are obtained, by multiplying
both sides with the cos/polynomial function whose coecient we are evaluating and
then integrating with the weighing function. It is important that the polynomials
are orthogonal for us to use this property. Using Equation 6.28 and Equation 6.25
a
=
2
1
)(r)1
a
(r)
1 r
2
dr. : = 0. 1. 2. 3..
Or using the transformed form, with Equation 6.25 and Equation 6.29
a
=
2
)()1
a
() (d). : = 0. 1. 2. 3..
a
=
2
0
)()1
a
() d. : = 0. 1. 2. 3.. (6.30)
Thus using the above relation, the coecients of the polynomials can be estimated.
The above expressions in discrete form over a Gauss Lobato grid can be written as
I
=
2
c
I
`
1
c
)
n(r
)
)co:(/,

`
). / = 0. 1. 2. ...` (6.31)
where
c
0
= c
.
= 2.
c
I
= 1. 1 / ` 1
The outer coecient c
I
accounts for the LHS integral being

2
when is between 0 1323
and 2 and LHS being at the these boundaries. The inner coecient c
)
accounts 1324
for the singularity that occurs when r = 1. 1325
94
Gauss Lobato grid points These Gauss Lobato grid points are equally spaced
around the circle and are the extremums of the highest degree Chebyshev polynomial
we are using . Hence the grid points in the co-ordinate are
= 0.

`
.
2
`
.
3
`
.
4
`
. .....
In the x plane, through the simple transformation we used before, we get the corre- 1326
sponding x values.Using Gauss Lobato points for the grid, we get the following grid 1327
points and their corresponding weights for the discrete case. 1328
r
0
= 1 r
)
= co:(
)
.
) r
.
= 1
n
0
=

2`
n
)
=

.
n
.
=

2`
6.2.1. Estimation of derivatives and transformations 1329
In this section we attempt to transform a given pressure distribution into Cheby-
shev coecients, evaluate its derivative and transform the coecients back into
the pressures. In doing this we would have demonstrated forward and backward
transformations and estimating the derivative while using a Chebyshev polynomial
approximation of the distribution. We also analyze the code used in the process
alongside. It is to be noted that in this method, we have already assumed that
the data is available at the Gauss-Lobato grid points. This Gauss-Lobato grid that
is used is plotted along with the highest Chebyshev polynomial in Figure 6.6 and
Figure 6.6. It can be seen that the nodes are compressed in near the boundaries
which is an obvious result of projection from circle to a line. Assuming a pressure
distribution as shown in Figure 6.8 , we get the Chebyshev coecients as shown
in Figure 6.9 . The formula used in the estimation of coecients is Equation 6.31,
the discrete form. The code snippet to estimate the Chebyshev polynomials coe-
cients is given in Listing 6.4. Estimation of derivatives of the pressure distribution
while expressing the distribution as a Chebyshev series is obviously not as simple
as that of the Fourier series expansion. There are two approaches that can be used.
One way is to dierentiate the Chebyshev polynomial used, which can be done in
theta or x co-ordinates. The other more computer friendly way is to estimate the
new coecients of the derivative while using the same Chebyshev polynomials. The
rst way deals with the polynomials while other concerns the coecients. Since we
have only two non zero Chebyshev coecients, let us try the rst method. The
Chebyshev expansion is
j = 1.5 0.5 co:
_
2 co:
1
(r)
_
1 r +1
j = 1.5 0.5 co: (2) 0
95
The term wise derivative formula is given in the appendices of Ref[3], page 497.The
derivatives should then be
dj
d
= 0 0.5
_
2
:i:(2)
:i:()
_
0 (6.32)
Plot of the above derivative can be found in Figure 6.10. It is obvious that since we
are dierentiating the polynomials themselves, there is no need of transformation
backward to the physical plane. However if method two is used, we rst have to
obtain the coecients of the derivative of pressure and then transform it back to the
physical plane. To obtain the coecients of the derivative, we use the recurrence
relation given below, also obtained from Ref[3].
d
q
j
dr
q
=
.1
I=0
c
q
I
1
I
(r)
c
q
.
= c
q
.1
= 0
c
q
I1
=
1
c
I1
2/c
q1
I
+ c
q
I+1
where c
I
= 2 if k=0 and 1 otherwise. The superscript q denotes the coecients 1330
of the q-th derivative. These are computed from the Chebyshev coecients of the 1331
( 1)
|I
derivative by the above recurrence relation in descending order. 1332
6.2.2. Chebyshev approximation of pressure distribution 1333
The approximation of a parabolic pressure distribution using Chebyshev polynomi- 1334
als is shown in subsection 6.4.1 and in Figure 6.8. Since the assumed distribution is 1335
parabolic and the third term of the Chebyshev series contains the quadratic term, 1336
we get an exact approximation of the distribution using the rst three terms alone. 1337
Of these the linear second term is zero. So it is pointless to study the improve- 1338
ment in approximation as successive terms are included as all terms after the third 1339
are zero. Please note that this is not true for the Fourier approximation of the 1340
same distribution. This points to a major advantage of using the Chebyshev series 1341
when approximating functions that we know will be polynomials. Often we do not 1342
know what function we are approximating. But it can always be assumed that the 1343
distribution is polynomial in nature. It is explicitly stated in Ref[3] that, 1344
MORAL PRINCIPLE : 1345
1. When in doubt, use Chebyshev polynomials unless the solution 1346
is spatial ly periodic, in which case an ordinary Fourier series is 1347
better. 1348
2. Unless youre sure another set of basis functions is better, use 1349
Chebyshev polynomials. 1350
96
Listing 6.4: Estimation of Chebyshev coecients
1 for l =1: numberOfColumnsInDataMatrix
2 % Do Transform f or each column .
3 for k=1:N
4 sum=0;
5 % Summer Loop
6 for j =1:N
7
8 c i =1;
9 i f ( j==1 | | j==N)
10 c i =2;
11 end
12 sum=sum+(y( j , l ) cos ( ( k1)( j 1)pi /(N1)))/ c i ;
13 end
14 ck=1;
15 i f ( k==1 | | k==N)
16 ck=2;
17 end
18 Chebys hevCoef f i ci ent s ( k , l )=(2/( ck (N1)))(sum) ;
19 end
20 end
3. Unless youre real ly, real ly sure that another set of basis functions 1351
is better, use Chebyshev polynomials. 1352
A formal presentation of the advantages of these Chebyshevs polynomials is given 1353
in subsection 6.4.1. 1354
6.2.3. Chebyshev derivative matrix 1355
Multiplication by the rst order Chebyshev dierentiation matrix 1
.
transforms a
vector of data at the Chebyshev-Lobato grid points into approximate derivatives at
those points. The derivative matrix is given by
(1
.
)
00
=
2`
2
+ 1
6
(1
.
)
..
=
2`
2
+ 1
6
(1
.
)
))
=
r
)
2
_
1 r
2
)
_
1 , ` 1
(1
.
)
i)
=
c
i
(1)
i+)
2c
)
(r
i
r
)
)
i = ,
97
where the coecient c
)
is dened in Equation 6.31.For example the dierentiation 1356
matrix for N=3 is is 1
3
=
_
_
3.1667 4.0000 1.3333 0.5000
1.0000 0.3333 1.0000 0.3333
0.3333 1.0000 0.3333 1.0000
0.5000 1.3333 4.0000 3.1667
_
_
. Multiplying 1357
the assumed pressure distribution in with this matrix, we get the same derivative 1358
as shown in Figure 6.10. 1359
6.3. One dimensional solution 1360
Consider the Equation 6.2. The transformation between Fourier and physical planes 1361
can be done through t and it functions of Matlab. The product term p.*h is 1362
evaluated in the physical plane and is transformed into the Fourier plane. It is 1363
then multiplied by its corresponding wave number. Please note that either the 1364
wave numbers or the coecients should be tshifted before multiplication due to 1365
the reverse-wrap around ordering of the t coecients returned by Matlab, if sing 1366
inbuilt functions. The dierentiated PH term is transformed back to physical plane 1367
as shown in Figure 6.11. It is then multiplied by the bearing number to obtain 1368
the convection term. Similarly the diusion term is also obtained. The rhs is now 1369
computed and the equation becomes 1370
(j/)
ac&
= (j/)
c|o
+
_
1t
oncc.c1c:ji:p
_
(1i))n:io:1c::Co:cctio:1c::)
The code snippet showing the transformations and derivative estimations for the 1371
one dimensional scheme is given in Listing 6.5 . 1372
Listing 6.5: One dimensional scheme
1373
ph = ( p. h);%% Compute Convecti on Term 1374
PH = f f t ( ph ) ; 1375
PH_theta = kv . PH; 1376
ph_theta = i f f t ( PH_theta ) ; 1377
convect i on = bearingNumph_theta ; 1378
P = f f t ( p);%% Compute Di f f us i on term 1379
P_theta = kv . P; 1380
p_theta = i f f t ( P_theta ) ; 1381
ph3p_theta = p. h. h. h. p_theta ; 1382
PH3P_theta = f f t ( ph3p_theta ) ; 1383
PH3P_theta_theta = kv . PH3P_theta ; 1384
ph3p_theta_theta = i f f t ( PH3P_theta_theta ) ; 1385
98
6.4 Two Dimensional solution
d i f f u s i o n = ph3p_theta_theta ; 1386
ph = ph+(Dt/squeezeDam) ( di f f us i o n convect i on ) ; 1387
p = ph . / h ; 1388
6.4. Two Dimensional solution 1389
The two dimensional method is then just an extension of the one dimensional scheme. 1390
However instead of using Fourier series in both axial and tangential direction, it is 1391
wiser to use Chebyshev polynomials as in the axial direction. The distribution is 1392
polynomial in the axial direction for incompressible ow and hence a series with 1393
polynomial basis functions like Chebyshev series is more likely to give a better 1394
approximation with fewer terms of the series considered. 1395
6.4.1. Choice of Chebyshev polynomials in the axial direction 1396
This section gives justication for the use of Chebyshev polynomials in the axial 1397
direction. It is known that the pressure distribution in axial direction is polynomial 1398
and it is parabolic for the incompressible case. It is expected to deviate slightly from 1399
the parabolic case for compressible distribution but still polynomial. Chebyshev 1400
polynomials are better suited to represent the polynomial pressure distribution as the 1401
basis function are themselves polynomials. In fact for the parabolic(in compressible) 1402
case, the rst three polynomials give an exact t for the pressure distribution. It 1403
can be seen in 6.12a and in 6.12b that for the same number of approximating 1404
modes, the Chebyshev polynomials give a better t to the pressure distribution 1405
than the Fourier series. The Fourier series consist of cos terms only. The rates of 1406
decay of Chebyshev and Fourier coecients is given in 6.12c for 10 modes. Since the 1407
Chebyshev polynomials give a faster decay than the Fourier cosine series, Chebyshev 1408
polynomials are a better set of basis functions for approximation . 1409
6.4.2. Time Marching Scheme 1410
Once the Chebyshev and Fourier dierentiation matrices are in hand, the time 1411
marching scheme proceeds exactly similar to the one dimensional case. The only 1412
dierence being, in 1 D case we evaluated the derivatives by actually transforming 1413
to the frequency plane, while the dierentiation is achieved in physical plane itself 1414
in 2 dimensional case using derivative matrices. The snippet of code showing the 1415
time marching is given in Listing 6.6. 1416
99
Listing 6.6: Two dimensional scheme
1
2 %============================================
3 % Compute Convect i on Term
4 ph = (pNow. hNow) ;
5 % Compute t he d e r i v a t i v e of PH by mul t i pl y i ng wi t h DF
6 ph_theta = (DF( ph ) ) ;
7 t3 = gammaph_theta ;
8 % Compute t he d e r i v a t i v e of P by mul t i pl y i ng wi t h DC
9 p_axi al = DCpNow;
10 t2 = ( 1/4) DC(pNow. hNow. hNow. hNow. p_axi al ) ;
11 pNow = pNow ;
12 hNow = hNow ;
13 % Compute t he d e r i v a t i v e of P by mul t i pl y i ng wi t h DF
14 p_theta = DFpNow;
15 t1 = DF(pNow. hNow. hNow. hNow. p_theta ) ;
16 hNow = hNow ;
17 t1 = t1 ;
18 % Eval uat e t he RHS
19 rhs = ( 1/( 2gamma) ) ( t1+t2+t3 ) ;
20 % Eul er i nt e g r at i on s t e p
21 ph = ( pOld . hOld)+Dt rhs ;
22 % Get pr es s ur e from PH
23 pNow = ph . /hNow;
24 % Appl y t he Boundary c ondi t i ons
25 pNow( 1 , : ) = 1;
26 pNow(end , : ) = 1;
27 %============================================
100
6.5 Integration of pressure to get force.
6.5. Integration of pressure to get force. 1417
A double integral has to be made to get the forces from the pressure distribution.
In the tangential direction, since the nodes are equally spaced, it is much easier to
use the trapezoidal rule to get the integrated pressure. In the axial direction, since
there are unequal spacings between the nodes and due to the fact that there are only
10 polynomials, it is much easier to do the integration manually. The advantage is
that the integral is in a closed form and just by supplying the coecients to the
integral, we can get the integrated pressure. The ten Chebyshev polynomials used
as the basis for approximation in the axial direction are
1
0
= 1
1
2
= 2r
2
1
1
4
= 8r
4
8r
2
+ 1
1
6
= 32r
6
48r
4
+ 18r
2
1
1
8
= 128r
8
256r
6
+ 160r
4
32r
2
+ 1
1
10
= 512r
10
1280r
8
+ 1120r
6
400r
4
+ 50r
2
1
The approximate pressure distribution is then
1 = c
0
1
0
+ c
2
1
2
+ c
4
1
4
+ c
6
1
6
+ c
8
1
8
+ c
10
1
10
1
1
1dr =
1
1
c
0
1
0
+ c
2
1
2
+ c
4
1
4
+ c
6
1
6
+ c
8
1
8
+ c
10
1
10
dr
=
c
0
r + c
2
(
2
3
r
3
r) + c
4
(8
r
5
5
8
r
3
3
+ r) + c
6
(32
r
7
7
48
r
5
5
+ 18
r
3
3
r)
+ c
8
_
128
r
9
9
256
r
7
7
+ 160
r
5
5
32
r
3
3
+ r
_
+ c
10
_
512
r
11
11
1280
r
9
9
+ 1120
r
7
7
400
r
4
5
+ 50
r
3
3
r
_
1
1
=
[c
0
+
_
1
3
c
2
_
+ (0.066c
4
) +
_
1
35
c
6
_
0.015c
8
0.010c
10
]
[c
0
+
_
1
3
c
2
_
+ (0.066c
4
) +
_
1
35
c
6
_
0.015c
8
0.010c
10
]

1
1
1dr = 2
c
0
+
_
1
3
c
2
_
+ (0.066c
4
) +
_
1
35
c
6
_
0.015c
8
0.010c
10
(6.33)
The axial integration process is now reduced to a single operation.By passing the 1418
coecients to Equation 6.33, one can readily obtain the integral

1
1
1dr. 1419
101
6.6. Grid dependency studies 1420
The dependency of the predicted solution on the grid used to predict the solution
is analyzed and presented in this section. Ideally the solution must be independent
of the grid that is used to obtain the solution. In order to study the dependence,
the grid is made successively ner and the changes in solutions are observed. When
the solution ceases to change for successive renements of the grid, the grid is said
to be converged. The successive grid renements in axial direction are presented
rst. As the bearing number (the non dimensional RPM) plays a major part in
determining the pressure distribution, it is also varied simultaneously so that the
results cited here are valid for all practical bearing numbers. Also in order to show
that the study for number of modes in axial direction is valid for dierent number
of modes in tangential direction, the study is done for dierent Ntheta
2
also. The
grid convergence studies are for the indicated bearing numbers
3
, attitude=0 and
epsilon = 0.79 unless otherwise stated. Figure 6.13 shows the dependence of extreme
pressures on Nx
4
. Since the extreme pressures occur on the mid-plane of the bearing,
there is no remarkable dependence in this respect. Comparing the resultant force,
gives a much better dependency study. This is shown inFigure 6.14. From the plots,
it is clear that an axial grid of size Nx=10 is well suited to predict the resultant force
and no appreciable improvement is experienced by increasing the grid size beyond
that. This result is independent of the Ntheta and bearing number. . Similar studies
are carried out for Ntheta, in the tangential direction. Three dimensional plots of the
pressure distribution are shown in Figure 6.15 as the Ntheta is increased successively.
The maximum predicted pressure and minimum pressure predicted for dierent
bearing numbers for dierent Ntheta are shown in Figure 6.16. The plots are shown
separately and together to show the eect of scaling. Ultimately, the grid size to
use is determined based on the variation of integrated pressures(forces) and not the
individual maximum or minimum pressures. The dependency of the predicted lifting
force Vs Ntheta is shown for various bearing numbers and for bearing number =0.4
in particular in Figure 6.17. Based on these plots, it is concluded that, 60 is an
optimum number of modes in the tangential direction from both accuracy and run
time points of view. The increase in run time of the code as the grid size varies
in both axial and tangential direction is shown in Figure 6.18. This should also be
taken into account while choosing a grid size as it increases the run time of each
time. It not only increases the run time of each time step but also reduces the time
step of the simulation through the formula,
1t =
21.6
(`
)
4
(6.34)
so the number of time steps required for a given time duration increases. Hence 1421
the total run time of the code to run for a specic interval of time also goes up 1422
2
Number of modes in tangential direction
3
Indicated as gamma in the plots
4
Number of modes in axial direction
102
6.7 Results
exponentially and is shown in 6.18c. Similarly, though Nx doesnt decrease the 1423
time step Dt
5
, it increases the number of operations to be done and so it increases 1424
the total run time as shown in 6.18b. Also to be noted from 6.18b and 6.18c 1425
is that the code takes less time to simulate pressures around shafts rotating at 1426
higher speeds. This is because, occurs in the numerator of Equation 6.34 and 1427
higher speeds decrease the number of time steps required to simulate a specied 1428
time duration. 1429
6.7. Results 1430
Based on comparative studies (to be presented in chapter 7) and comments in [16], it 1431
was concluded that this pseudo spectral scheme provides the most accurate solution 1432
with the least dispersive error. The grid convergence study has been presented in 1433
section 6.6.The grid size required for the same accuracy as that of other discretiza- 1434
tion schemes is far less in this method. Stated otherwise, for the same grid, the 1435
accuracy is much improved using a pseudo spectral scheme over the conventional 1436
discretization schemes. To identify the time step required for simulation, the time 1437
step was increased from a very low value(1e-8) successively and simulation was car- 1438
ried out to nd the time step at which there is appreciable dierence in predicted 1439
pressure when compared with predictions using a smaller time step. One such plot 1440
is shown in Figure 6.19, where the curves for predicted max and min pressures Vs 1441
time lie on top each other for dierent time steps. Based on the above study, it 1442
was found that a time step of 0.005/360 wielded a satisfactory prediction up to a 1443
bearing numbers of 0.4 with 0.4 as structural compliance coecient. The grid size 1444
used in the time step study is 120x9. 1445
5
Dt is the non dimensional time step used in the time marching scheme
103
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
Theta in radians

A
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
d

N
o
n

D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Comparison between original and Approximated Pressure Distribution using 2 Modes

Original Pressure Distribution
Approximated Pressure Distribution using 2 Modes
(a) Approximation of mid plane pressure using
2 Fourier pairs
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
Theta in radians

A
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
d

N
o
n

D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(b) Approximation of mid plane pressure using
4 Fourier pairs
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
Theta in radians

A
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
d

N
o
n

D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(c) Approximation of mid plane pressure using
8 Fourier pairs
Figure 6.5.: Approximations using Fourier Series
104
6.7 Results
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Nodes along the axial direction(x coordinate)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

o
f

C
h
e
b
y
s
h
e
v

P
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
Figure 6.6.: Gauss Lobato grid in x
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Nodes along the axial direction( coordinate)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

o
f

C
h
e
b
y
s
h
e
v

P
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
Figure 6.7.: Gauss Loabato grid in
105
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
Axial direction
A
s
s
u
m
e
d

n
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Figure 6.8.: Assumed pressure pressure distribution
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Modes
C
h
e
b
y
s
h
e
v

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s
Figure 6.9.: Chebyshev coecients for the assumed pressure distribution shown in
Figure 6.8
106
6.7 Results
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Axial direction
D
e
r
i
v
a
t
i
v
e

o
f

N
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Figure 6.10.: Derivative of pressure distribution using Equation 6.32
Figure 6.11.: Computation of
1
107
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
Non dimensional bearing length
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

N
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l
Number of modes = 10

Approximated
Chebyshev
Approximated
Fourier
Original
(a) 10 Modes
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
Non dimensional bearing length
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

N
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l
Number of modes = 20

Approximated
Chebyshev
Approximated
Fourier
Original
(b) 20 Modes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Mode number
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

o
f

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
e
n
t
Decay of coefficents , Number of modes = 10

Chebyshev
Fourier
(c) Decay of Coe cients
Figure 6.12.: Comparison of Fourier and Chebyshev approximations
108
6.7 Results
(a) Ntheta=40
(b) Ntheta=80
Figure 6.13.: Extreme Pressures Vs Number of modes in axial direction for dierent
Bearing Numbers.
109
(a) Ntheta=40
(b) Ntheta=60
Figure 6.14.: Dependence of Resultant Force on Nx
110
6.7 Results
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Axial direction
Force/(P*L*R) And Pressure/P,fx =0.40028 fy =0.11651
N
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
(a) Ntheta=20
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Axial direction
N
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
(b) Ntheta=40
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Axial direction
N
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
(c) Ntheta=60
Figure 6.15.: 3D Pressure Plots for various Ntheta
111
(a) Maximum predicted pressures Vs Ntheta
(b) Minimum predicted pressures Vs Ntheta
(c) Maximum and Minimum predicted pressures Vs Ntheta
Figure 6.16.: Variation of Extreme pressures with Ntheta
112
6.7 Results
(a) Resultant forces Vs Ntheta
(b) Resultant forces Vs Ntheta for Gamma=0.4
Figure 6.17.: Dependency of predicted forces on Ntheta
113
(a) Increase of run time with Ntheta
(b) Increase of total run time with Nx
(c) Increase of total run time with Ntheta
Figure 6.18.: Run Time of the code Vs Grid size
114
6.7 Results
Figure 6.19.: Time step study
115
7. Comparative study 1446
In this chapter the four uid models
1
presented till now are compared against each 1447
other and pseudo spectral scheme for the bearing numbers and structural compliance 1448
factors that are of interest in this study. The models that are compared are 1449
1. Finite Dierence, Non linear iterative scheme 1450
2. Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons method (MDNR) 1451
3. Finite Volume method, unsteady code 1452
4. Finite Volume method, steady code 1453
5. Pseudo spectral scheme.
2
1454
The comparison is in terms of steady state pressure the model is predicting. To make 1455
the study uniform, same grid size(60x30) and convergence limit(0.0001) is used for 1456
all models. We already know from Ref[16] that the pseudo spectral scheme gives 1457
the least error for a given grid sized when compared to schemes using a lesser order 1458
polynomial for approximation. 1459
7.1. Validation case, Eccentricity =0.79 and Bearing 1460
Number =0.4985 1461
As mentioned, the models are compared with published data in this section. Mid- 1462
plane pressures of the bearing are available from [26] for a bearing number of 0.4985 1463
and a compliance coecient of 0.4. Comparison between all models is shown in 1464
Figure 7.1. To avoid clutter, The pseudo spectral 1D code is not shown in Figure 7.1. 1465
All curves shown have been obtained with alpha=0 and hence they are essentially 1466
rigid bearing case, but still the structural model is in the loop. For purposes of this 1467
study the published data is considered accurate. It has also been obtained using 1468
numerical methods and is not experimental. Non Linear Finite Dierence method 1469
are said to have been used to obtain this curve. However there is no information on 1470
grid size or convergence limit used to obtain that curve. It has been super imposed 1471
over the other curves so that a comparative study would be easier. 1472
1
The steady non-linear nite volume scheme can be easily derived from the formulation of the
unsteady scheme and is not presented in detail
2
The Pseudo spectral 1D code does not account for di usion in axial direction and always over
predicts the forces. It is still put here for the sake of completeness.
117
Chapter 7 Comparative study
Figure 7.1.: Validation Case
The rst thing obvious is that at these relatively high Reynolds numbers, the Fi- 1473
nite Volume codes over predict the negative peak pressure. This may be because 1474
the convective term in the tangential direction dominates the diusion in tangential 1475
direction. A higher diusion will always lead to lower peak pressures. Finite Dif- 1476
ference Non linear scheme neither predicts the positive peak nor the negative peak 1477
accurately. All the other 3 methods, are very near the distribution given by the 1478
published data and can be considered satisfactory. 1479
A similar study for the same conguration has been carried out using a much larger 1480
grid (180 modes in tangential direction) and and a lower convergence limit(1e-5). 1481
The results are shown in Figure 7.2 . The plots are the same as that of Figure 7.1. . 1482
The variation of maximum pressure and percentage limit Vs the number of iterations 1483
is given in Figure 7.3 and in Figure 7.4. For nite volume method unsteady code, 1484
the plots are wrt non dimensional time step. From the percentage change plot, it 1485
is clear that the Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons method shows the steepest 1486
decline in percentage change which is very good. It also reaches the steady state 1487
maximum pressure the fastest. The nite dierence non linear iterative scheme 1488
shows a very slow convergence to maximum pressure. The reduction of percentage 1489
change is also very slow for this method. Moreover the predicted maximum pressure 1490
is also over 0.2 bar lower than the published 2.1 bar. From these studies, it is clear 1491
that for bearing numbers around 0.4, Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons method 1492
performs the best and the nite dierence non linear iterative scheme performs the 1493
worst. The converged steady state pressure distributions of these 4 methods is given 1494
in Figure 7.5,Figure 7.6,Figure 7.7 and Figure 7.8. 1495
118
7.2 Behavior at Other Eccentricity and Bearing Numbers
Figure 7.2.: Validation Case with 180 modes
7.2. Behavior at Other Eccentricity and Bearing 1496
Numbers 1497
To study the characteristics of these models at bearing numbers and epsilons other 1498
than the validation case, a comparative study spanning these parameters of interest 1499
was carried out with compliance =0. Hence these studies are essentially for the rigid 1500
bearing . 1501
7.2.1. High Eccentricity 1502
The percentage change with iteration number for high and low bearing numbers 1503
for high epsilon case is shown in Figure 7.9 and Figure 7.10. It is obvious that 1504
at high bearing numbers, a higher number of iterations is required for achieving a 1505
low enough percentage change. The dependency is much higher for Finite Volume 1506
Non Linear Unsteady code, which is time accurate. A higher (approximately twice) 1507
number of non dimensional time steps is required to reach the steady state at higher 1508
bearing numbers. The variation of maximum pressure with iterations is shown in 1509
Figure 7.11 and Figure 7.12. The inferences are 1510
1. At this high eccentricity, for both high and low bearing numbers, the maximum 1511
pressure predicted by both the nite volume schemes agree very well with each 1512
other. 1513
2. At high eccentricity, there is remarkable dierence between nite dierence 1514
and nite volume codes, of the order of 1.8%. 1515
119
Figure 7.3.: Variation of maximum pressure with iteration number
3. While the Multi dimensional Newton Raphsons method agrees very well with 1516
Non linear Finite Dierence method at low bearing numbers, the dierence in 1517
the predicted maximum pressures is large at higher bearing numbers, of the 1518
order of 2.5%. 1519
7.2.2. Low Eccentricity 1520
The percentage change with iteration number for high and low bearing numbers for 1521
low epsilon case is shown in Figure 7.13 and Figure 7.14. Similar to high eccentricity 1522
case, higher bearing numbers require more non dimensional time steps and itera- 1523
tions.The variation of maximum pressure with iterations is shown in Figure 7.15 1524
and Figure 7.16 . The inferences are 1525
1. At this low eccentricities, for both high and low bearing numbers, the max- 1526
imum pressure predicted by both the nite volume schemes agree very well 1527
with each other. 1528
2. Similarly both the nite dierence codes also agree with each other. 1529
3. The Multi dimensional Newton Raphsons method agrees very well with Non 1530
linear Finite Dierence method at both high and low bearing numbers. 1531
Similar comparative studies were also done for cases where alpha was not zero and 1532
hence the foil structure was exible and similar trends was seen. 1533
120
Figure 7.4.: Variation of percentage change with iteration number
121
Figure 7.5.: Output of Finite Dierence, Non Linear Steady
122
Figure 7.6.
123
Figure 7.7.: Output of Non linear Finite Volume Steady Code
124
Figure 7.8.: Output of Non linear Finite Volume Steady Code
125
Figure 7.9.: Variation of percentage change with iteration number for = 0.01. =
0.9
Figure 7.10.: Variation of percentage change with iteration number for =
0.04. = 0.9
126
Figure 7.11.: Variation of maximum pressure with iteration at = 0.01. = 0.9
Figure 7.12.: Variation of maximum pressure with iteration at = 0.04. = 0.9
127
Figure 7.13.: Variation of Percentage Change with Iteration Number for =
0.01. = 0.79
Figure 7.14.: Variation of percentage change with iteration number for =
0.04. = 0.79
128
Figure 7.15.: Variation of maximum pressure with iteration number for =
0.04. = 0.79
Figure 7.16.: Variation of maximum pressure with iteration number for =
0.04. = 0.79
129
8. Experimental Validation 1534
Experiments conducted and their results to validate the above model is presented in 1535
this chapter. The validation is done in two parts. The predicted shaft center inside 1536
the bearing sleeve is compared against the shaft center at that RPM obtained from 1537
the ADRE system. Second, the predicted pressures around the shaft are compared 1538
against measured pressures obtained from the ESP scanner. 1539
8.1. Experimental setup 1540
A brief overview of the modied bearing and the the bearing rig is provided below. 1541
An ADRE system was used to measure the orbit and the shaft location inside the 1542
bearing. ESP steady state scanners were used to measure the pressure around the 1543
shaft, though an unsteady pressure scanner with a triggering circuit would have 1544
revealed more information. The triggering circuit would have triggered the shaft 1545
location sensor and the pressure sensor together and we could have obtained instan- 1546
taneous pressure Vs shaft location, that would have enabled us to validate the model 1547
more incisively. In that case we could have compared the measured and predicted 1548
pressure at each position of the shaft in its orbit around the shaft center. On ac- 1549
count of time constraints and non-availability unsteady pressure sensors, a steady 1550
state pressure sensor was used so that we could ensure that we are not grossly over 1551
predicting or under-predicting the pressures. 1552
8.1.0.1. Encircling foil and bearing geometry 1553
In order to measure the pressures around the shaft, drills were made in the Beryllium 1554
Copper encircling foil and SS tubes were soldered to the encircling foil. The outside 1555
diameter of the tube is 0.8 mm. The encircling foil is 0.4 mm thick and is not 1556
hardened. The bump foils and encircling foil are 14 mm wide each. The chord of 1557
the bump is 20 mm and height of the bump from the base line is 4mm on average. All 1558
foils are made of Beryllium Copper alloy of Youngs Modulus 131Gpa. This material 1559
is commonly used in bearing applications due to its anti corrosive and better fatigue 1560
tolerance. These bump foils are also hardened by heating up to 230
c
C, after pressing 1561
them to the required arch shape in a die. While xing the pressure sensing tubes to 1562
the encircling foil, care was taken to maintain a ush surface on the inner surface 1563
that comes in contact with the shaft. The tubes were then connected to nylon tubes 1564
131
Chapter 8 Experimental Validation
that were then taken to the ESP scanner . The eect of these tubes on the developed 1565
pressure is assumed negligible. The photograph of the encircling foil showing the 1566
drilled holes and the SS tubes is shown in Figure 8.1 . A close-up view showing
Figure 8.1.: Encircling foil with drilled holes
1567
the drilled holes is shown in Figure 8.2. The rectangular projections on either side 1568
will later fold away on either side of the bump foil. This will prevent the encircling 1569
foil from sliding out of the bump foil if there were any axial movement of the shaft 1570
during run. The casing of the bearing was drilled to allow the tubes to pass through. 1571
The holes were later enlarged as the tubes were hitting the boundaries of the hole 1572
during the run. These enlarged holes and the tubes that supply the turbine with 1573
compressed air can be seen clearly in Figure 8.3. The shaft diameter at bearing 1574
location was 23 mm. 1575
8.1.0.2. Experimental Rig 1576
The encircling foil was initially designed to have interference t with the shaft. The 1577
rotation was achieved by applying torque through air turbines that were connected 1578
to the pressure reservoir. Speed control was achieved by controlling the ball valve 1579
between the air turbine and the pressure reservoir. An end view showing the air 1580
turbine is shown in Figure 8.4. The whole setup is mounted on a 20 mm thick SS 1581
132
8.1 Experimental setup
Figure 8.2.: Close-up of encircling foil
plate so that the setup can be moved when required and still provide a rm base to 1582
the bearing during its run. The orbit of the shaft and the location of shaft center 1583
are measured by eddy current probes that take the x and y measurements of the 1584
shaft center. Actually they measure the gap between the probe and the shaft surface 1585
and readings are then shifted using the radius of the shaft later. The clearance is 1586
measured at the end of all runs using a lever type dial gauge with a least count of 1587
10 microns. The ESP scanner that is used to measure the pressure is shown in . It 1588
has an uncertainty of 0.03 percentage of full scale reading. The full scale reading of 1589
the scanner is 10 psi of dierential pressure. The reference pressure port is vented 1590
to atmosphere (666mmHg=0.887927 bar) which was at 25 degree Celsius on the day 1591
of the experiments at an altitude of 920m from sea level. 1592
8.1.0.3. ADRE system 1593
The ADRE(Automated Diagnostics for Rotary Equipment) system is supplied by 1594
Bentley Nevada of General Electrics and is touted as an integrated asset condition 1595
133
Figure 8.3.: Enlarged Holes
monitoring system. The system is able to accept eddy proximity probes, optical 1596
sensors and magnetic pickups as sensor inputs. All signal conditioning systems and 1597
lters are located on-board. The recorded data is stored on board on a 130 GB hard 1598
disk. ADRE SXP software is used retrieve data from the hard disk and make plots 1599
such as orbit plot, shaft center line plot and cascade plot. The ADRE system is 1600
capable of acquiring simultaneous data from all 5 channels at 50 Khz max sampling 1601
rate. The system supports an RPM of up to 120,000 that translates into a minimum 1602
required sampling rate of 2x2Khz. 1603
Four proximity probes to measure the distance the distance between the probe 1604
and shaft surface 1605
One optical probe to measure the RPM. 1606
8.2. Shaft center location. 1607
The model shows reasonably good agreement between the predicted shaft center and 1608
the measured shaft center. Two methods have been tried to identify the shaft center. 1609
Both the methods are detailed here for the 20000 RPM case. Validation at other 1610
RPM can be done in a similar manner. The post processed shaft center locations 1611
134
8.2 Shaft center location.
Figure 8.4.: End View of the Experiment rig
acquired from ADRE system are shown below in Table 8.1. One of the shaft center 1612
line plots from the ADRE sensor from which this information was obtained is given 1613
in Figure 8.6. Please note that in this plot the X and Y information are from the 1614
reference position, which is the position when the shaft was lying at the bottom of 1615
the sleeve, along the vertical axis of the bearing. 1616
S.No RPM Run 1 Run 2
Eccentricity Attitude in degrees Eccentricity Attitude in degrees
1 20000 0.994 0.844 0.719 16.724
2 23000 0.964 9.576 0.799 8.752
3 25000 0.951 10.335 0.882 2.108
4 30000 1.002 4.463 1.033 1.024
5 35000 1.065 4.382 1.054 4.604
6 40000 1.038 1.40 1.074 2.54
Table 8.1.: Shaft center locations, measured data
135
Figure 8.5.: ESP scanner used to measure pressures
8.2.1. Using minimization approach 1617
The minimization approach seeks to nd the settled state of the shaft in the bearing 1618
by minimizing the following function 1619
1c:idnc = () 101325 |c:pt/ :cdin: ncip/t)
2
+ )r
2
.
Here, fx and fy are the non dimensional force terms in the bearing plane, oriented 1620
along vertical and horizontal respectively. Please note that the above function will 1621
become a minimum if the horizontal force is zero and the vertical force exactly 1622
balances the weight of the shaft. By repeatedly trying for dierent combinations 1623
of attitude and epsilon, we can nd a minimum of this function which would give 1624
us the equilibrium state of the shaft. The optimization toolbox of Matlab is ideally 1625
suited for this task. 1626
8.2.2. Conventional method 1627
The above method works well if the equilibrium position of the shaft is well within 1628
the clearance circle. However, for a exible encircling foil, the shaft might settle at a 1629
point that is outside the clearance circle too. This location will not be predicted by 1630
the minimization approach as the location outside the clearance circle is not possible 1631
unless the foil has deformed. So the shaft is rst xed at 0.9 epsilon and a certain 1632
attitude and steady state pressure distribution is generated around the shaft, This 1633
pressure is not enough to support the shaft and the shaft has a net downward force 1634
136
8.2 Shaft center location.
Figure 8.6.: ADRE output at 20000 RPM
acting on it. When the shaft is released , the weight of the shaft pulls it down. 1635
As it descends, the clearance decreases and the generated pressure increases. This 1636
deforms the encircling foil and lets the shaft to descend beyond the clearance circle. 1637
The shaft eventually stabilizes at a point when the net force acting on it is zero. 1638
That is, there is no horizontal force and the weight of the shaft is exactly balanced. 1639
The draw back of this method is that the time required for nding the equilibrium 1640
position by letting the shaft settle on its own is very large. The non dimensional 1641
time step of the simulation is around 0.001/360, which means every degree is split 1642
into at-least three divisions in the simulation. For a release point near 0.9 epsilon, 1643
at-least 10 shaft rotations are required for the shaft to reach a point where the shafts 1644
weight is supported by the pressure distribution. Using this method the eccentricity 1645
at which the shaft reaches equilibrium state is shown in Table 8.2 for dierent RPM. 1646
The simulations also account for the growth of the shaft at high RPM. The clearance 1647
was measured to be 200 microns at the end of all experimental runs using a lever 1648
type plunge gauge . The initial clearance aects both the structural compliance and 1649
bearing numbers in the simulation run.
RPM Experiment readings Simulation model prediction Error
1
20000 0.994 1.0992 10.48%
30000 1.002 1.0714 7.11%
35000 1.065 1.0557 -0.8%
40000 1.038 1.0433 0.5%
Table 8.2.: Comparison between experiment and simulation model
1650
137
From the Table 8.2 it can be seen that the models prediction ability improves at 1651
higher RPM. 1652
8.3. Prediction of pressures 1653
The shaft center location is obtained from the ADRE system and can also be pre- 1654
dicted using the above mentioned methods. The shape of the orbit and its diameter 1655
can be obtained from the ADRE system and the plot looks like the one shown in . 1656
By forcing the shaft to move on the exact orbit in the simulation model and mon- 1657
itoring the pressures at the locations were the ports are located, a time history of 1658
pressures at the pressure ports as the shaft rotates along the orbit can be obtained. 1659
Thought the transient pressures have not been measured and there is no triggering 1660
circuit, the measured and predicted pressures provide condence that the model 1661
does not predict pressures that are widely o the mark. The measured pressures 1662
are plotted individually over the variation of pressures at each of the ports. The 1663
variation of pressures occurs as the shaft moves along the orbit. The x location of 1664
experimental readings doesnt have any signicance as these are steady state read- 1665
ings. The plots given below (Figure 8.7Figure 8.8Figure 8.9Figure 8.10Figure 8.11) 1666
correspond to the orbit at 20000 RPM. The error bars in the plots are obtained 1667
by monitoring the uctuation in ports exposed to ambient pressure. Since we
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
0.9
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.1
Shaft Location in orbit circle, in degrees
N
o
n

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Sensed pressure and Predicted Pressure , 45 degrees

Simulated Probe at 45 degrees
Measured Pressures
Figure 8.7.: Measured Vs simulated pressure at 45 degree port
1668
are measuring the average pressure at the port, it is instructive to average out the 1669
pressure uctuations at the port from the simulation and compare the averaged 1670
138
8.3 Prediction of pressures
simulated pressure and measured steady state
2
pressure. The plot in shows the this 1671
comparison. In this plot, the mean of all the 7 experiment runs is plotted alongside 1672
the experiment run that agrees the best with averaged simulated pressures. Half the 1673
standard deviation is used to plot the error bars above and below the mean values. 1674
8.3.1. Conclusion 1675
The prediction of the eccentricity at which the shaft settles is achieved satisfactorily 1676
by the simulation model. This in turn means that the model is able to predict 1677
the load carrying capacity of the bearing satisfactorily. It can be seen from the 1678
output plots that the uctuation in the measured pressure values is too high for any 1679
meaningful analysis. Plus there is a high variance between the individual pressure 1680
measurements at the same port. It is there fore concluded that the experiment 1681
design as far as the pressure measurement is concerned is not ideal. The corrections 1682
suggested for a better experimental rig to measure the pressures are 1683
1. Replace air turbines by variable speed electric drives. This eliminates the high 1684
uctuation in RPM while using a compressed air driven turbine. 1685
2. Shield the bearings from the air turbine so that air leaving the air turbine does 1686
not aect the ow in the clearance space of the bearing. 1687
3. Use unsteady pressure measurement probes. Synchronize the ADRE system 1688
and the pressure measurement system such that one is able to correlate the 1689
2
It is assumed that the EPS scanner takes su cient reading is one orbit circle to obtain a meaning
full average. It was assumed as it was not possible to know the exact shaft locations at which
the samples where taken and averaged out.
139
pressure value with the exact location of the shaft at the same instant. 1690
4. Ensure a proper t between the shaft and the encircling foil. The clearance 1691
measured at the end of experiment runs was 200 microns while maximum the 1692
operating range of clearances for air bearings is 25 microns. Having a low 1693
clearance also means that solid lubricant coatings would have to be made on 1694
the encircling foil so that the starting torque is not excessively high. 1695
5. Balance the shaft prior to the experiment over the expected operating range. 1696
On the simulation front the incorporation of frictional eects in the structural model 1697
and a more realistic FEM will improve the predictions and also enable us to perform 1698
practical xed point stability predictions. Further with the incorporation of these 1699
two, the structural and damping coecients of the bearing can also be estimated by 1700
applying sinusoidal loading to the shaft and studying its response. 1701
140
8.3 Prediction of pressures
141
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.94
0.96
0.98
1
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
x 10
5
Shaft Location in orbit circle, in degrees

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

i
n

P
a
s
c
a
l
Comparison between measured pressure and Predicted Pressure , 20000 RPM

Best fitting pressure measurement
Mean of simulated variation at the port
Mean of measured pressures at each port with std deviation
Figure 8.12.: Comparison of experimental and averaged simulated pressure.
142
Acknowledgments 1702
I thank my guide for the valuable guidance and fruitful discussions during the course 1703
of this project work. I also thank Mr. Pavan Kumar of the CTFD division of NAL 1704
for guidance regarding the pseudo spectral scheme. Many a thanks to Mr. Dilip 1705
Kumar Alone for letting me use the ESP scanner at his lab for pressure measurement. 1706
I thank Mr Babu from the workshop for assistance in assembling the bearing, Ms 1707
Veena for helping in shaft enlargement study using ANSYS and Ms Soniya for help 1708
in retrieving the data from the ADRE system. Thanks to Mr Basava too, for lending 1709
me his mini TV for taking pictures of the experimental setup. 1710
143
A. Appendix 1711
The Navier Stokes Equations transformation into cylindrical co-ordinates using 1712
chain rule is given below. The commonly used stokes approximation and Greens 1713
theorem in normal from are also given. 1714
A.1. Navier Stokes Equations 1715
1n
1t
= A
1
r
+

r
_
j
2
n
r

2
3
_
n
r
+

+
n
.
_ _
+

j
_
n
+

r
_
+

.
j
_
n
r
+
n
.
_
(A.1)
1
1t
= 1
1
_
j

2
3
_
n
r
+

+
n
.
_ _
+

.
j
_
.
+
n
_
+

r
j
_
n
+

r
_
(A.2)
1n
1t
= 2
1
.
+

.
_
j
2
n
.

2
3
_
n
r
+

+
n
.
_ _
+

r
j
_
n
r
+
n
.
_
+

j
_
.
+
n
_
(A.3)
The above 3 equations are in non-conservative form. Since we deal with numerical
solution in subsequent chapters, we look at the dierence between conservative and
non_conservative form in this context. In the numerical solution of the conservation
equations, it is often preferable to express them in "divergence form" or "conservation
form" to avoid numerical diculties that may arise in some ows, such as ows con-
taining shock waves, when the non-divergence form or the non-conservation form
of the equations is used. In conservation form the coecients of the derivative
terms can be constant or variable; if variable, their derivatives do not appear in
the equation. In a nonlinear equation, coecients can be constants or functions of
independent variable. Here , in dierentiating conservative and non-conservative
form, we are concerned whether or not the coecients have their derivatives else
145
Chapter A Appendix
where in the equation or not[20]. Conservative form is obtained by applying laws to
xed control volume, while non-conservative form is obtained by applying the same
laws to a xed control volume in space.We can convert conservative to non conser-
vative and vice versa by using the continuity equation. the procedure is detailed
very nicely by Anderson in Ref[20]. Relevant steps for the u momentum equation
are given below.
1n
1t
=
_
n
t
+

\ .
_
i

r
+

,

+

/

.
_
n
_
(A.4)
where
n
t
=
( n)
t
n
t
(A.5)
and
\ .
_
i

r
+

,

+

/

.
_
n =
_
i

r
+

,

+

/

.
_
.
_
n
\
_
n
_
i

r
+

,

+

/

.
_
.
_
\
_
Upon substituting the above two into the substantial derivative expansion, we get
1n
1t
=
( n)
t
n
t
+
_
i

r
+

,

+

/

.
_
.
_
n
\
_
n
_
i

r
+

,

+

/

.
_
.
_
\
_
(A.6)
Upon substituting the continuity equation, we get
1n
1t
=
( n)
t
+
_
i

r
+

,

+

/

.
_
.
_
n
\
_
(A.7)
Thus the conservative form momentum equation can be written for the u component 1716
as(with .
\ for divergence and for grad) 1717

( n)
t
+ .
_
n
\
_
= A
1
r
+

r
_
j
2
n
r

2
3
_
.
\
_
_
(A.8)
+

j
_
n
+

r
_
+

.
j
_
n
r
+
n
.
_
Similar operations can be performed on the other two directions as well. 1718
146
A.2 Stokes Approximation
A.2. Stokes Approximation 1719
Before we jump into the equations, we look at the underlying Stokes assumption
in some detail. Pressure is dened to be the average of the normal components of
stresses acting on the uid element.
aa
+
+
::
= 31 (A.9)
Conventional way of accounting for this distortion is 1720
i)
= j
n
i
r
)
+
n
)
r
i

i)
1 (A.10)
The term in the parenthesis measure the distortion as opposed to the rigid uid
motion. From the normal stress components, for which i=j, we have to subtract the
pressure. Here is a physical explanation. Let us assume that the uids(water) rate
of deformation is such that the normal stresses at each face is tensile, say 10,000
Pascals. But if that uid element is at a depth of 1 m in a pond, where the pressure
is approximately 10,000 Pascals, then we can conclude that the uid element is not
experiencing any stress in normal direction at all. The tensile stresses due to the
uid deformation where canceled out by the pressure forces, which we subtracted.
This also reasons out why we put negative sign for the pressure. In the end, it all
boils down to convention. The purpose of the
i)
term is that we subtract pressure
only from normal component and the delta function is 1 only when i=j, the normal
direction. Now writing the normal components explicitly,
aa
= j + j
n
r
+
n
r
= j + j
::
= j + j
n
.
+
n
.
The sum of these normal components can be written as
aa
+
+
::
= 3j + 2j
n
r
+

+
n
.
The term in the paranthesis is the divergence, the rate at which uid owing out
from each point. Herein comes the stokes approximation that bulk viscosiy is zero.
We have already dened pressure to be the average of the 3 normal components.
147
Chapter A Appendix
So in order to have the three normal components add up to 3j, some multiple of
divergence( in our case) must be added to them. Thus we redene the stresses as
aa
= j + j
n
r
+
n
r
n
r
+

+
n
.
= j + j
n
r
+

+
n
.
::
= j + j
n
.
+
n
.
n
r
+

+
n
.
Now we set out to make the sum of the normal components -3P, and we added an 1721
arbitrary multiple of divergence, to get that. That arbitrary multiple should have 1722
the value =
2
3
jto make the sum of the normal components -3P. Physically it 1723
means, that the uid is not only resisting the pressure and rate of shear strain, 1724
but also change in its volume given by the divergence term. We call this volume 1725
viscosity. In other words, the bulk viscosity or volume viscosity provides a damping 1726
of volumetric vibrations such as might occur during sound absorption. In the case of 1727
the uid with volume viscosity, +
2
3
j will not be zero. We, assume volume viscosity 1728
to be zero in the Navier stokes equation we list below. 1729
A.3. Grosss approach 1730
Reynolds equation is derived from Navier Stokes through 8 assumptions listed below. 1731
1. The height of the uid lm is small compared to the span and length 1732
2. No variation of pressure across the lm 1733
3. Flow is laminar 1734
4. No external forces act on the lm 1735
5. Fluid inertia is small compared to the viscous forces 1736
6. No slip at the bearing surfaces. 1737
7. Compared to
&
and
&
, all other velocity gradients are negligible. 1738

The method is to obtain expressions for u and w by applying the approximations
to the x and z momentum equations. The approximated equtions are integrated
to obtain expressions for u and w . Then they are substituted in the continuity
equation and the integrated. Using the above assumptions, the u momentum and
w momentum equations can be written as
1
j
j
r
=

2
n
2
(A.11)
1
j
j
.
=

2
n
2
(A.12)
148
A.3 Grosss approach
By integrating twice with the boundary conditions given in Table A.1, 1739
Table A.1.: Boundary conditions
y=0 y=h
u l
1
l
2
w 0 0
1740
we get 1741
u =
1
2j
j
r
( /) +
/
/
l
1
+

/
l
2
(A.13)
n =
1
2j
j
.
( /) (A.14)
Substituting for u and w in the continuity equation
( )
=
1
2
_

r
j
j
r
( /)
+

.
j
j
.
( /)
_
_
/
/
l
1
+

/
l
2
_
(A.15)
By integrating with respect to y with the conditions v=V at y=0 and v=0 at y=h
, we have
\ =
1
2
_
I
0
j
j
r
( /)
d +
I
0
j
j
.
( /)
d
_
I
0
_
/
/
l
1
+

/
l
2
_
d
(A.16)
Since the upper limit is a function of x and y, it is a variable. So in order to take 1742
integration inside we need to apply Leibnitz rule given by, 1743
I( )
0

)(. )d =

I( )
0
)(. )d )(/( ). )
/( )

(A.17)
After performing the integration and the dierentiation, we get
\ =
1
2
r
_
/
3
j
j
r
_
+

.
_
/
3
j
j
.
_
1
2
/

r
(l
1
+ l
2
) + (l
1
l
2
)
( /)
r
(A.18)
The Reynolds equation can also be written as 1744
r
_
/
3
j
j
r
_
+

.
_
/
3
j
j
.
_
= 6(l
1
l
2
)
( /)
r
+6 /

r
(l
1
+ l
2
) +12 \
(A.19)
149
Chapter A Appendix
A.4. Conversion to cylindrical co-ordinates using 1745
chain rule 1746
Since we are concerned with cylindrical geometries here and so we briey look at 1747
transformation of equations to cylindrical coordinates. This method is dierent from 1748
the jacobian method in one way only.(Equation A.4) 1749
r = : co:()
= : :i:()
we replace the

a
operator using chain rule by
r
=
:
r
:
+

r
(A.20)
and

operator by
=
:
:
+

(A.21)
1
Now that we have transformed x , y and their rst derivatives, we transform the 1750
second derivative to polar coordinates. Only the second derivative w.r.t to x is 1751
shown here. 1752
n
aa
= (n
:
a
+ n
a
)
a
n
aa
= (n
a
:
a
+ n
:
aa
+ n
a
a
+ n
aa
)
They have to be further decomposed as they have the derivative of the dependent
variable(u) with respect to the original independent variable(the co-ordinate x). We
want dependent variables to have derivatives with respect to the new independent
variables, r and respectively.
(n
)
a
= n
:
a
+ n
a
(n
)
a
= n
:
a
+ n
a
Now all that remains to be done is to estimate the terms :
a
, :
aa
,
a
and
aa
.
The dierence between Jacobi method and the chain rule method arises now. Note
that this method requires us to express the new co-ordinate variables in terms of
1
For the remaining part of this section we represent the derivatives using su xes due to space
constraints.
150
A.4 Conversion to cylindrical co-ordinates using chain rule
the old co-ordinate variables. i.e. , r in terms of x and y. It is nicer to have the
transformation work with only the forward direction, x in terms of r and ( As done
in Jacobi method). Notwithstanding this notion,we continue with the chain rule,
using the relations
: =

r
2
+
2
= arctan
_
r
_
we can estimate the derivatives as shown in Table Table A.2 on page 151 1753
Table A.2.: Estimation of Derivatives
Radial direction Tangential direction
:
a
a
2
:
aa
3

aa
2a
4
:
2
:
a
2
2a
4
Now that we have transformed the derivatives, what remains to be done is to express 1754
the velocities in radial coordinates. 1755
n = n
co:() n
:i:()
= n
:i:() + n
co:()
Once the above substitutions are made, after carrying out the dierentiation we get, 1756
co:()
2
( n
:i:()co:()( n

:i:()co:()
:
( n
+ n
:i:()
2
:
+
:i:()
2
:
( n
+
n
:i:()co:()
:
+ :i:()
2
( n
+ :i:()co:()( n
+
:i:()co:()
:
( n
+
co:()
2
n
:

:i:()co:()
:
( n
+
c
2
:
( n
= 0
This upon simplication yields
( n
:)
+ ( n
= 0 (A.22)
The above equation is the continuity equation in polar co-ordinates. Similar work 1757
can also be done on cylindrical co-ordinates but they are obviously more laborious. 1758
Final form of eauations can be found in all books on uid dynamics. Moreover we 1759
will use only the cartesian form of the equations due to a common approximation 1760
made in the derivation of Reynolds equation. For the above 2 reasons, polar form of 1761
momentum equations is not derived. We now proceed to the derivation of Reynolds 1762
equation from the Navier Stokes equations. 1763
151
Chapter A Appendix
A.5. Greens Theorem 1764
Greens theorem over a plane in tangential form for a plane is the Stokes theorem. 1765
In normal form it relates divergence of a vector eld in plane and its integral over a 1766
surface. The corollary between 3D and 2D becomes obvious if viewed as below. 1767
_
.
\
_
d =
\ .
:
_
d: (A.23)
_
.
\
_
d: =
\ .
:
_
d| (A.24)
The n vector in Equation A.23 is to the area element and takes care of direction 1768
of ow. The n vector in Equation A.24 is to the line element and also takes care 1769
of direction of ow. 1770
152
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155
Index
Assumptions, 13 1848
Boundary Conditions, 34 1849
Bulk viscosity, 148 1850
CDS, 36 1851
Chebyshev derivative matrix, 97 1852
Chebyshev polynomials, 91 1853
compass notation, 68 1854
Compressible Reynolds Equation, 22 1855
Conservative form, 146 1856
Continuity Equation, 16 1857
cylindrical coordinates, 150 1858
Finite Dierence, 35 1859
Finite Volume Procedure, 64 1860
Fluid Model, 13 1861
Forward transformation, 84 1862
Fourier derivative matrix, 87 1863
Gas Foil Bearings, 3 1864
Gauss Lobato grid points, 95 1865
Greens Theorem, 63 1866
Grid dependency studies, 102 1867
Harrison Number, 23 1868
High Eccentricity, 119 1869
Incompressible Reynolds Equation, 19 1870
Innitely long bearing, 26 1871
Innitely Short Bearing, 26 1872
Integration of pressure to get force, 101 1873
Inverse transformation, 86 1874
Lift-o speed, 4 1875
Low Eccentricity, 120 1876
Momentum Equation, 18 1877
Multi Dimensional Newton Raphsons 1878
Method, 39 1879
Non-Conservative form, 145 1880
Non-dimensionalization, 22 1881
Non-Linear Scheme, 59 1882
object model, 77 1883
One dimensional solution, 98 1884
Pseudo Spectral Method, 81 1885
Reynolds equation, 149 1886
Stokes assumption, 147 1887
Structure Model, 27 1888
Time Marching Scheme, 99 1889
Validation case, 117 1890
Vector Form, 63 1891
Volume viscosity, 148 1892
157

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Master of Technology 1

Numerical Simulation and 2

in the continuity equation we get, 560

ly short bearing consider only co-ordinate direction.

vector and nding the solution vector as in the above 1D

, and computing the Jacobian as J

where h was shown to be,

Writing the above equation in compass notation, repeated here,

\ for divergence and for grad) 1717

The sum of these normal components can be written as

, all other velocity gradients are negligible. 1738

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