Synopsis Grade 4 Math

Chapter 1: Number System

Reading and writing numbers according to Indian number system The place value chart in the Indian Number System can be represented as follows: Periods Place Lakhs Ten lakhs TL Lakhs L Thousands Ten Thousands Hundreds thousands T Th Th H ones Tens T Ones O

For example: 1732256 can be placed in the place value chart as follows: TL 1 L 7 T Th 3 Th 2 H 2 T 5 O 6

All the digits in the same period are read together and the name of the period (except ones) is read together. The periods in numerals are separated by commas. Example: 1732256 can be read and written in the Indian Number System as follows: Seventeen lakh thirty-two thousand two hundred fifty-six and 17, 32,256 respectively The expanded form of the number is obtained by multiplying the digits in the number with the place value and separating them with + sign. Expanded form of 17, 32,256 = 10, 00,000 + 7, 00,000 + 30,000 + 2,000 + 200 + 50 + 6

Reading and writing numbers according to International system The place value chart in the International System can be written as follows: millionsHundred Millions Thousands Periods Millions Ten millions Hundred thousands Thousands Ten Thousands Hundreds ones Ones O

Place

HM

TM

H Th

T Th

Th

In the International System, millions comes after thousands. For example: 1732256 can be placed in the place value chart as follows: HM TM M 1 H Th 7 T Th 3 Th 2 H 2 T 5 O 6

Tens

All the digits in the same period are read together and the name of the period (except the ones) is read together. The periods in the numerals are separated by commas. Example: 1732256 can be read in the International System as one million, seven hundred thirty-two thousands, two hundred fifty six. 1732256 can be written in the International System as 1,732,256. The expanded form of the number is obtained by multiplying the digits in the number with the place value and separating them with + sign. Expanded form of 1,732,256 = 1,000,000 + 7, 00,000 + 30,000 + 2,000 + 200 + 50 + 6

Representing numbers on abacus Abacus is a calculating tool. It consists of beads that can slide on vertical spikes. Numbers can be represented on an abacus by inserting suitable number of beads in the spikes. The number represented on the following abacus is 4, 37,365.

Representing numbers on number line To draw a number line, we take a line and mark a point on it, labelling it as 0. Then, we mark the points to the right of zero at equal intervals and label them as 1, 2, 3 , as follows:

On the number line, we can say that out of any two whole numbers, the number to the right of the other number is greater. Comparing and ordering numbers Rule 1: If numbers with different number of digits are given, then the number that has more digits is greater. Example: 2, 56,325 > 97,325 Rule 2: If numbers having the same number of digits are given, the number with the greater digit at the leftmost place is greater. If the leftmost digits are the same, then we compare the next digit to the right and continue until the digits are different.

Example: 6258 < 6289 Arranging numbers in the ascending order means arranging the numbers from smaller to greater 325 < 437 < 567 < 892 << 1023 325, 437, 567, 892, 1023 are in the ascending order Arranging numbers in the descending order means arranging the numbers from greater to smaller 1023 > 892 > 576 > 437 > 325 1023, 892, 567, 437, 325 are in the descending order

Formation of numbers from given digits The greatest and smallest numbers, without repetition, can be formed using any number of digits by arranging them in the descending and ascending order respectively. For example, if we form a 4-digit number from the digits, 9, 2, 7 and 3, then Greatest number = 9732 Smallest number = 2379 When repetition of digits is allowed, then the greatest number can be formed by writing the greatest digit as many times as the number is required. Similarly, the smallest number can be formed by writing the smallest digit as many times as required. Greatest number (with repetition) = 9999 Smallest number (with repetition) = 2222 Roman numerals Roman numeral is another system for writing numerals. In this system, symbols are used for representing numbers. The symbols are I, V, X, L, C, D and M. Number Roman numeral 1 I 5 V 10 X 50 L 100 C 500 D 1000 M

Rules for writing Roman numerals 1. Any symbol cannot be repeated more than 3 times. 2. If a smaller symbol is written to the left of a bigger symbol, then subtract it from the bigger symbol. 3. If a smaller symbol is written to the right of a bigger symbol, then add it to the bigger symbol. 4. V, L and D cannot be written to the left of a bigger symbol. 5. V, L and D cannot be repeated, whereas I, X, C and M can be repeated

Chapter 2: Arithmetic Operations on Numbers

Addition facts If zero is added to a number, then its value remains the same. 23 + 0 = 23 Changing the order of the numbers to be added does not alter the sum of the numbers. 25 + 35 = 60 35 + 25 = 60 Grouping of numbers in any order does not alter the sum of the numbers. (35 + 15) + 45 = 50 + 45 = 95 35 + (15 + 45) = 35 + 60 = 95 The numbers being added are called addends and the result of addition of addends is called the sum. Th 5 + 5 H T O 3 6 2 5 3 8 9 0 0

Here, 5362 and 538 are addends and 5900 is the sum. Addition of numbers Smaller numbers can easily be added horizontally. 12 + 62 = 74 Larger numbers are added in vertical columns according to the place value chart. Example: 526 + 3124 + 2576 =? Th H T O 5 2 6 3 1 2 4 + 2 5 7 6 6 2 2 6

526 + 3124 + 2576 = 6226 Subtraction of numbers The value of any number does not change when 0 is subtracted from it. 30 0 = 30 Smaller numbers can easily be subtracted horizontally. 32 23 = 9 Larger numbers can be subtracted vertically by arranging the numbers according to their place values. For example: 2376 938 = ?

Th H T O 1 13 6 16 2 1 3 9 4 7 3 3 6 8 8

2376 938 = 1438 The number from which the other number is subtracted is called the minuend. The number that is subtracted is called the subtrahend. The number obtained on subtraction is called the difference. In the expression 2376 938 = 1438, 2376 is the minuend, 938 is the subtrahend and 1438 is the difference.

Finding missing numbers in addition and subtraction To find the missing addend in an addition, the given addend is to be subtracted from the sum. For example: The sum of two numbers is 1235. If one number is 835, find the other number. Missing addend = 1235 835 = 400 To find the missing minuend, the subtrahend is to be added to the difference. To find the missing subtrahend, the difference is subtracted from the minuend. For example: Find the number from which 1230 must be subtracted in order to get 2337. Here, difference = 2337 and subtrahend = 1230 Minuend = Difference + subtrahend = 2337 + 1230 = 3567 Multiplication facts The product of any number with 1 is the number itself. 15 1 = 15 The product of any number with 0 is always zero. 30 0 = 30 The product remains unaltered when the numbers are multiplied in any order. 2 7 = 7 2 = 14 (2 5) 6 = 2 (5 6) = 60 Multiplication by numbers ending in zeros Count the number of zeros in the numbers. Multiply the numbers leaving the zeros. Write the product followed by the counted number of zeros. For example: Find the value of 160 240. Number of zeros in the given numbers = 2 16 24 = 384 160 240 = 38400

 Multiplication with one, two and three-digit numbers The value of 2356 4 can be found as follows: T Th Th H T O 2 3 5 6 4 9 4 2 4 2356 4 = 98952 The value of 2356 42 can be found as follows: Multiplier = 42 = 4 tens and 2 ones Multiply 2356 with 2 ones = 4712 Multiply 2356 with 4 tens = 94240 Adding the partial products, 4712 + 94240 = 98952 T-Th Th H T O 2 3 5 6 4 2 9 9 4 4 8 7 1 2 2 4 0 9 5 2

2356 42 = 98952 The value of 2356 423 can be found as follows: Multiplier = 423 = 4 hundreds, 2 tens and 3 ones Multiply 2356 with 3 ones = 7068 Multiply 2356 with 2 tens =47120 Multiply 2356 with 4 hundreds = 942400 Adding the partial products, 7068 + 47120 + 942400 = 996588 L T Th Th H T O 2 3 5 6 4 2 3 7 0 6 8 4 7 1 2 0 9 4 2 4 0 0 9 9 6 5 8 8 2356 423 = 996588 Division facts When any number is divided by 1, the quotient is the number itself. 30 1 = 30 A non-zero number divided by itself gives the quotient as 1.

30 30 = 1 Zero divided by any non-zero number, gives the quotient as 0. 0 30 = 0 Any number cannot be divided by zero.

Division by numbers ending in zeros If the remainder is zero: 1. When divided by 10, remove 1 zero 500 10 = 50 2. When divided by 100, remove 2 zeros 5, 00,000 100 = 5,000 3. When divided by 1000, remove 3 zeros 3, 75,000 1000 = 375 If the remainder is non zero: 1. When a number is divided by 10, the remainder is the digit at ones place, while the quotient is obtained by removing the digit at ones place. In the division 2756 10, remainder = 6 and quotient = 275 2. When a number is divided by 100, the remainder is formed by the digits at the tens and ones places, while the quotient is obtained by removing these two digits. In the division 2756 100; remainder = 56 and quotient = 27 Division by one, two and three-digit numbers The number 5236 can be divided by 7 as follows:

Remainder = 0 and quotient = 748 The number 5236 can be divided by 72 as follows:

Remainder = 52 and quotient = 72

The number 5236 can be divided by 723 as follows: Th H T O 7 723 5236 5061 175 Remainder = 175 and quotient = 7 Observation: Divisor quotient + remainder = 723 7 + 175 = 5061 + 175 = 5236 = Dividend This observation is used to check whether the division is correct or not.

Estimation Estimation is done to approximate a quantity. For example, 53256 Rounding to nearest tens = 53260 Rounding to nearest hundreds = 53300 Rounding to nearest thousands = 53000 Rounding to nearest ten thousands = 50000 Similarly, sum, difference or product can also be estimated to ease calculations. For example, 5243 + 389 = 5200 + 400 = 5600 21 438 = 20 440 = 8800

Chapter 3: Factors and Multiples

Multiples of a number The multiples of a given number are the products obtained on multiplying the number with any number. Example: Find the multiples of 12. 12 1 = 12, 12 2 = 24, 12 3 = 36, 12 4 = 48 , and so on Hence, the numbers 12, 24, 36, 48, etc. are the multiples of 12. Zero is a multiple of every number. 0 1 = 0, 0 2 = 0, 0 3 = 0, 0 4 = 0 Every number is a multiple of 1. 1 1 = 1, 1 2 = 2, 0 3 = 0, 0 4 = 0 Every multiple of a number is greater than or equal to that number. For example, the multiple of 6 is 6, 12, 18 Here, the multiples of 6 are greater than or equal to 6. Factors of a number When a number exactly divides another number, the divisor is called a factor of the dividend and the dividend is called a multiple of the divisor. 6 12 72 72 0 Since 12 exactly divide 72, 12 is a factor of 72. Here, 72 is a multiple of 12. 1 is a factor of every number. E.g., 5 = 1 5, 19 = 1 19 Every number is a factor of itself. For example: 20 = 20 1. This shows that 20 is a factor of 20. Every factor of a number is less than or equal to the number. For example, factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. Here, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 are less than or equal to 12. The greatest factor of a number is the number itself. Numbers that are multiples of 2 are called even numbers. For example, 12, 16, 22 are even numbers. Numbers that are not multiples of 2 are called odd numbers. For example 3, 5, 7 are odd numbers.

Common multiples and LCM Multiples of 4: 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 Multiples of 6: 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 The common multiples of 4 and 6 are 12, 24, 36 The lowest common multiple (LCM) of two or more given numbers is the least of their common multiples. LCM of 4 and 6 is 12.

 Common factors and HCF The factors common to the given numbers are called common factors. The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 The factors of 32 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 The common factors of 24 and 32 are 1, 2, 4 and 8. The highest common factor (H.C.F.) of two or more given numbers is the highest of their common factors. The HCF of 24 and 32 is 8. Common divisibility tests A number is divisible by 2 if the digit at ones place is either 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8. For example, the numbers 9218, 6054, 932 are divisible by 2. A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits in the number is divisible by 3. For example, the sum of the digits of 9528 is 9 + 5 + 2 + 8 = 24, which is a multiple of 3. Hence, 9528 is divisible by 3. A number is divisible by 6 if it is divisible by both 2 and 3. For example, 39612 is divisible by 2. The sum of the digits of 39612 is 3 + 9 + 6 + 1 + 2 = 21, which is a multiple of 3. Hence, 39612 is divisible by 3. Now, 39612 is divisible by both 2 and 3. Hence, it is divisible by 6. A number is divisible by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5. For example, 5235 is divisible by 5 because it ends in 5. A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits in the number is divisible by 9. For example, the sum of the digits in the number 9567 is 9 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 27, which is divisible by 9. Hence, 9567 is divisible by 9. A number is divisible by 10 if it ends in 0. For example, 120 is divisible by 10 because 120 ends in 0. Prime and composite numbers Prime numbers are numbers having exactly two factors i.e.,1 and the number itself. For example, the factors of 23 are 1 and 23 only. Hence, 23 is a prime number. Some of the prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 Composite numbers are numbers having more than two factors. For example, the factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 20. Since 20 have more than two factors, it is a composite number. Prime factorisation When a number is factorised into a set of factors that are a set of prime numbers only, the method followed is called prime factorisation. Prime factorisation by factor tree method The number 96 can be prime factorised by factor tree method as follows:

Here, we consider 96 as the base of the tree. 96 is expressed as 96 = 2 48 Factorise the composite factors completely till the prime factors are reached. 96 can be prime factorised as follows: 96 = 2 2 2 2 2 3 Prime factorisation by division method To find the prime factorisation of a number, we need to divide it by prime numbers that are factors of the given number, till we get 1. Example: Find the prime factorisation of 24. We can proceed as follows: 2 2 2 3 24 12 6 3 1

Hence, the prime factorisation of 24 is given by 24 = 2 2 2 3. Finding H.C.F. and L.C.M. by prime factors The H.C.F. of two or more numbers is the product of the common prime factors of the numbers. To find the H.C.F. of given numbers, we first need to prime factorise the given numbers. For example, the H.C.F. of 24 and 42 can be found as follows: 2 2 7 28 14 7 1 2 3 7 42 21 7 1

28 = 2 2 7 42 = 2 3 7 H.C.F. of 28 and 42 = 2 7 = 14 L.C.M. is the product of the prime factors counted the maximum number of times they occur in the prime factorisation of any number.

28 = 2 2 7 42 = 2 3 7 L.C.M. of 28 and 42 = 2 2 3 7 = 84 Here, the maximum number of times 2 occurs is two and each of the other primes occurs once. When the H.C.F. of a pair of numbers is 1, the pair of numbers is called co-prime Consider 28 and 33: 1 28, 33 28, 33

H.C.F. of 28 and 33 = 1 28 and 33 are co-prime.

Chapter 4: Fractions
A fraction is a number representing a part of a whole. The whole may be a single object or a group of objects. Example:

Numbers such as half, one-third, three-fifths etc. are called fractional numbers. 1 1 3 For example, , , etc. are called fractions 2 3 5 Fractions that have the same denominator belong to the same fraction family. 1 2 3 For example, , , etc. belong to the fourth fraction family. 4 4 4 The smallest member of a fraction family with numerator as 1 is called a unit fraction. 1 1 1 1 For example, is a unit fraction of the fourth fraction family. , , are some other 4 6 7 15 examples of unit fractions. Like and unlike fractions Fractions that have the same denominator are called like fractions. 2 6 8 For example, , , etc. are like fractions. 7 7 7 Fractions that have different denominators are called unlike fractions. 2 3 5 For example, , , etc. are unlike fractions 5 7 9 Fractions can be categorized into three types: proper, improper and mixed. Proper fractions are those fractions in which the numerator is less than the denominator. These fractions are always less than 1. 17 Example: is a proper fraction since the numerator, 17, is less than the denominator, 24 24. Improper fractions are those fractions in which the numerator is greater than the denominator. These fractions are always greater than 1.

15 is an improper fraction since the numerator (15) > denominator (7). 7 A mixed fraction or mixed number is a combination of a whole number and a part. 5 5 = 9 Example: 9 + is a mixed fraction. 13 13 Example:

Conversion of mixed fractions into improper fractions and vice-versa A mixed fraction can be converted into an improper fraction as follows:
(Whole Denominator) + Numerator Denominator 2 (3 7) + 2 21 + 2 23 = = Example: 3 = 7 7 7 7 To convert an improper fraction into a mixed fraction, first of all, the quotient and remainder are obtained by just dividing the numerator by the denominator. Then, the mixed fraction corresponding to the given improper fraction is written as follows: Remainder Quotient Divisor(= Denominator) 23 Example: To find the mixed fraction corresponding to the improper fraction , first of 7 all, 23 is divided by 7. 3 7 23 21 2 Here, divisor = 7, quotient = 3 and remainder = 2 23 2 = 3 7 7 A fraction obtained on multiplying or dividing both the numerator and denominator by the same non-zero number is called equivalent fraction. Such fractions express the same value of the part of a whole. 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 6 2 2 5 10 = , = = , = = Example: = 3 3 2 6 3 3 3 9 3 3 5 15 A fraction can be reduced to its simplest form or lowest form by dividing both numerator and denominator by their H.C.F. 49 Example: can be converted into its lowest form as follows: 91 The H.C.F. of 49 and 91 is 7.

49 49 7 7 = = 91 91 7 13 7 49 Therefore, is the simplest form of . 13 91

Comparing and ordering of fractions If two or more fractions have the same denominator, then greater the numerator, greater is the fraction. 2 5 3 6 and , 2 < 3 < 5 < 6. Example: Among the fractions , , 7 7 7 7 2 3 5 6 < < < 7 7 7 7 If two or more fractions have the same numerator, then smaller the denominator, greater is the fraction. 17 17 17 , Example: Among the fractions and , 3 < 5 < 11. 5 3 11 17 17 17 > > 3 5 11 To compare two unlike fractions (without the same numerator), first of all, these fractions are converted into their equivalent fractions of the same denominator, which is the L.C.M. of the denominators of the fractions. The like fractions are then obtained, which can be easily compared. Addition and subtraction of fractions The addition of two fractions with the same denominators can be performed by just adding the numerators and retaining the common denominator of the fractions. 17 3 17 + 3 20 20 5 4 + = = = = Example: 25 25 25 25 25 5 5 The subtraction of two like fractions can be performed by just subtracting the numerators and retaining the common denominator of the fractions. 31 4 31 4 27 27 3 9 = = = = Example: 15 15 15 15 15 3 5 To perform the addition and subtraction of unlike fractions, first of all, they are converted into their equivalent fractions with the denominator as the L.C.M. of their denominators. Then, addition or subtraction can be easily performed. 5 7 Example: Subtract from . 8 6 H.C.F. of 6 and 8 = 24

7 4 28 = 6 4 24 5 3 15 = 8 3 24 7 5 28 15 28 15 13 = = Thus, = 6 8 24 24 24 24 To add or subtract mixed fractions, first of all, they are converted into improper fractions. Then, they can be easily added or subtracted. Example: 2 4 37 31 7 +3 = + 5 9 5 9 37 9 31 5 = + ( L.C.M. of 5 and 9 is 45.) 5 9 9 5 333 155 = + 45 45 333 + 155 = 45 488 = 45 38 = 10 45 7 = 6 5 = 8

Chapter 5: Decimals
The fractions in which the denominators are 10, 100, 1000 etc. are called decimal fractions. Decimals are used for separating whole numbers from decimal fractions. 58 2.58 = 2 + 100 58 In 2.58, 2 is the whole number and is the decimal fraction. 100 Fractional number 1 tenth 9 tenth 1 hundredth 99 hundredth 1 thousandth 999 thousandth Common fraction 1 10 9 10 1 100 99 100 1 1000 999 1000 Decimal fraction 0.1 0.9 0.01 0.99 0.001 0.999

Conversion of decimals into fractions and vice-versa For converting a given decimal into common fraction, consider the given decimal without the decimal point as the numerator and take the denominator as the number formed by placing as many zeros to the right of 1 as the number of decimal places. 92 923 9234 , 9.23 = , 9.234 = Example: 9.2 = 10 100 1000 For converting common fractions into decimals, place the decimal point in the numerator after as many digits as there are zeros in the denominator. 2536 235 23 = 2.536, = 2.35, = 2.3 Example: 1000 100 10 Place value chart for decimals Ten thousands Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones Decimal point 10000 1000 100 10 1 .

Tenths Hundredths Thousandths

1 10 1 100 1 1000

The decimal 235.523 can be represented in the place value chart as follows: Hundreds Tens Ones Decimal point Tenths Hundredths Thousandths 2 3 5 . 5 2 3

The decimal 235.523 can be read as two hundred thirty-five point five two three or two hundred thirty-five five tenths two hundredths and three thousandths. The decimal number 235.523 can be written in expanded form as follows: 235.523 = 2 hundreds + 3 tens + 5 ones + 5 tenths + 2 hundredths + 3 thousandths 5 2 3 = 200 + 30 + 5 + + + 10 100 1000

Decimals can be represented using figures as well as the number line Representation of decimals using figures Example: Decimal 0.7 can be represented using a figure as follows:

Here, the figure is divided into 10 equal parts, out of which 7 are shaded. 7 or 0.7 . The shaded portion of the figure represents 10 Representation of decimals on number line Example:

Here, the gap between consecutive whole numbers is divided into ten equal parts to represent tenths. 0.2, 0.5, 1.1, 1.2, 1.6 are represented by the marked points.

 Comparing and ordering of decimal fractions The comparison starts with the whole part. If the whole parts are equal, then the tenth part is compared and so on. Arranging the decimals in the ascending order means arranging them from the smallest to the greatest Arranging the decimals in the descending order means arranging them from the greatest to the smallest Example: The decimals 1.235, 2.356, 2.536 and 3.528 can be arranged in the ascending order As follows: In the whole parts, 3 > 2 > 1 3.528 > (2.356, 2.536) > 1.235 Now, consider 2.356 and 2.536. The whole parts are equal. The digit at the tenths place of 2.536 i.e., 5 is greater than the digit at the tenths place of 2.356 i.e., 3. 2.536 > 2.356 Hence, 3.528 > 2.536 > 2.356 > 1.235 Addition and subtraction of decimals 1. Write the numbers according to the place value chart such that the decimal point falls on the decimal line. 2. Adding zeros to the extreme right of the decimal column makes no difference to the value of the number. 3. Now, the addition or subtraction of decimals is exactly the same as the addition or subtraction of whole numbers. Example: Find the value of 194.506 93.52. thousandthsOne 6 0 6 One hundredths 10 0 2 8 Decimal line One tenths 14 3 1 1 9 9 0 4 3 0 . . . 4 5 5 9

Hundred

194.506 93.52 = 100.986

One

Ten

Chapter 6: Unitary Method

Unitary method is the method of carrying out calculation for finding the value of required number of units by first finding the value of one unit. Example: If the cost of 5 pens is Rs 30, then find the cost of 8 pens. Solution: Firstly, calculate the cost of 1 pen and then calculate the cost of 8 pens. Cost of 5 pens = Rs 30 Cost of 1 pen = Rs 30 5 = Rs 6 Cost of 8 pens = Rs 6 8 = Rs 48

Chapter 7: Metric System

Table of metric measures Thousand 1000 Metric unit Length Mass Capacit y Kilo ( 1000) Kilometre Kilogram Kilolitre Hundred 100 Hecto (100) Ten 10 Deca ( 10) One 1 Basic unit Tenth 1 10 Deci ( 10) Deci metre Deci gram Deci litre Hundred 1 100 Centi ( 100) Centi metre Centigra m Centilitre Thousandth 1 1000 Milli ( 1000) Millimetre Milligram Millilitre

Hectometr Decametr Metr e e e Hecto Decagram Gram gram Hecto Decalitre Litre litre

Metric conversions Measures of length 10 millimetres 10 centimetres 10 decimetres 10 metres 10 decametres 10 hectometres = = = = = = Measures of mass Measures of capacity 1 10 1 10 1 = = centimetre milligrams centigram millilitres centilitre 1 10 1 10 1 = = decimetre centigrams decigram centilitres decilitre 10 10 1 metre = 1 gram = 1 litre decigrams decilitres 1 1 1 10 grams = 10 litres = decametre decagram decalitre 1 10 1 10 1 = = hectometre decagrams hectogram decilitres hectolitre 10 1 10 1 1 kilometre = = hectograms kilogram hectolitres kilolitre

Conversion of length Smaller units to bigger units Example: 8653 mm can be converted into bigger units as follows: 10 8653 mm 10 865 cm 3 mm 10 86 dm 5 cm 8 m 6 dm 8653 mm = 6 m 6 dm 5 cm 3 mm Bigger units to smaller units Example: 7 m 8 dm 9 cm 2 mm can be converted into millimetres as follows:

1 m = 1000 mm 1 dm = 100 mm 1 cm = 10 mm 7 m 8 dm 9 cm 2 mm = (7 1000 + 8 100 + 9 10 + 2) mm = (7000 + 800 + 90 + 2) mm = 7892 mm Similarly, conversions of weights or capacities from smaller to bigger units or bigger to smaller units can also be performed. Arithmetic operation on metric units Arithmetic operations on metric units are performed just as on whole numbers. 1. 5 dag 5 dg 8 cg and 2 dag 1 g 4 dg 5 cg can be added as follows: dag g dg cg 1 1 5 0 5 8 + 2 1 4 5 7 2 0 3 5 dag 5 dg 8 cg + 2 dag 1 g 4 dg 5 cg = 7 dag 2 g 3 cg 2. 7 gm 5 cg 2 mg can be divided by 4 as follows: gm dg cg mg 4 7 0 5 2 1 7 6 3 7 gm 5 cg 2 mg 4 = 1 gm 7 dg 6 cg 3 mg Similarly, subtraction and multiplication can be performed on metric units. Inter-conversion of metric units involving decimals To convert from higher units to lower units, multiply the higher unit with the difference between the two units. Example: 2.38 dl can be converted into ml as follows: 1 dl = 100 ml 2.38 dl = 2.38 100 l = 238 ml To convert a lower unit into higher unit, first convert the lower unit into a decimal fraction and then change it into decimal number. Example: 3253 dag can be converted into kg as follows: 3253 3253 dag = (100 dag = 1 kg) 100 = 32.53 kg More conversions of metric units

Arrange the numbers in the correct place values. Then, the decimal point should lie on the right of the place corresponding to the given unit. For the length 4.523 dam, the decimal should lie between deca and metre. Example: 4.523 dam can be converted into mm as follows: Kilo Hecto Deca Metre Deci Centi Milli 4.523 4. 5 2 3 0 45230 mm 4.523 dam = 45230 mm If there is no decimal, then place the last digit of the number in the corresponding column and if there are not enough digits, then place as many zeros at the front. Example: 2437 m can be converted into km as follows: Kilo Hecto 2437 m 2 4 2437 m = 2.437 km Deca 3 Metre 7 Deci Centi Milli 2.437 km

For addition or subtraction on metric units given in decimal form, first convert the decimals into same metric units and then add or subtract as in the case of whole numbers. Example: Find the value of 5.326 kg + 3.254 kg + 7.328 kg. 11 5. 3 2 6 kg 3. 2 5 4 kg + 7. 3 2 8 kg 15. 9 0 8 kg 5.326 kg + 3.254 kg + 7.328 kg = 15.908 kg

Chapter 8: Money
Money is an object that is usually accepted as the payment for goods or services. In India, the units of measuring money are rupees and paise. 1 Rs 1 = 100 paise or 1 paise = Re 100 While we read the amount of money given in decimals, the number in rupees column is read together and the number in paise column is read together. Example: Rs 26.93 can be read in words as twenty-six rupees and ninety-three paise. Similarly, an amount of money given in words can be written in decimals. Example: Five rupees and eight paise can be written in decimals as follows: Five rupees and eight paise = Rs 5 + 8p 1 = Rs 5 + Re (8 100) (1 p = Re ) 100 = Rs 5 + Re 0.08 = Rs 5.08 The amounts of money are added or subtracted just as decimals are added or subtracted. Example: Rs 93.75 and 26.35 can be added as follows: Rupees Paise 93 75 26 35 120 10 Rs 93.75 + Rs 26.35 = Rs 120.10 To multiply an amount of money with a whole number, we are required to follow the given steps. Step 1: Write the given amount of money in decimals. Step 2: Multiply the obtained decimal with the given whole number as the numbers are multiplied. Step 3: In the product, put the decimal point after the second digit from the right. Example: Rs 19.63 can be multiplied with 8 as follows: 19.63 8 157.04 8 Rs 19.63 = Rs 157.04 To divide a given amount of money by a whole number, we are required to follow the given steps.

Step 1: Write the given amount of money in decimals. Step 2: Divide the obtained decimal by the given whole number taking the decimal as an ordinary number. Step 3: In the quotient, put a decimal point after 2 digits from the right. Example: Rs 23.04 can be divided by 12 as follows: 1.92 12 23.04 12 110 108 24 24 0 Rs 23.04 12 = Rs 1.92 Contribute to this Revision Note: If you find anything of importance missing from this note, email it to us at revision-notes@meritnation.com, and well add it to this note under your name!

Chapter 9: Time
The measurement of time is an important aspect of daily life. The time is read from a clock. The face of a clock is divided into 12 equal big divisions and the space between two consecutive big divisions is divided into 5 equal parts. It consists of a minute-hand (long hand) and an hour hand (short hand) at the centre. Sometimes, it consists of a second hand at centre.

Some of the units used while measuring time are second, minute, hour, day etc. The conversions between these units are given as follows: 1 minute = 60 seconds 1 hour = 60 minutes 1 day = 24 hours The time in a clock is read by looking at the positions of its hands. Example:

The time shown in the given clock can be read as follows: In the given clock, it is observed that the hour hand is between 3 and 4. Hence, the time is between 3 oclock and 4 oclock. It is also observed that the minute hand is at 9. This means that the minute hand has moved 9 5 = 45 small divisions. Thus, the time shown in the clock is 3:45 or quarter to 4 oclock. The time between 12 midnight to 12 noon is denoted by A.M. The time between 12 noon to 12 midnight is denotes by P.M.

 The time of a day is expressed in terms of 24-hour clock. If the time is in between 12 noon and 12 midnight, then the time is expressed in 24-hour clock by adding 12:00.00 hours to the given time. Example: The times 9:31 A.M. and 9:31 P.M. can be expressed in 24-hours clock As follows: 9:31 A.M. = 9:31 hours 9:31 P.M. = (9:31 + 12:00) hours = 21:31 hours Time is added or subtracted as the decimals are added by keeping in the mind that 1 hour = 60 minutes and 1 minute = 60 seconds. Example: 9 hours 41 minutes 32 seconds can be subtracted from 4:25:17 P.M. as follows: 4:25:17 P.M. = 16:25:17 hours Hours Minutes Seconds 60 15 24 60 16 9 6 25 41 43 17 32 45

6:43:45 hours = 6:43:45 A.M. 4:25:17 P.M. 9 hours 41 minutes 32 seconds = 6:43:45 A.M. The time duration of an activity is calculated by subtracting the time at which the activity started from the time at which the activity is ended. A year is said to be a leap year if any of the following conditions is satisfied. If the year ends in 00 and is divisible by 400. If the years does not end in 00 and is divisible by 4 In a leap year, there are 29 days in the month of February. There are 28 days in the month of February if the year is not a leap year. There are 31 days in the months of January, March, May, July, August, October and December. There are 30 days in the months of April, June, September and November.

Chapter 10: Geometry

The length of a line segment can be measured using a ruler and a pencil. To do so, we are required to follow these steps. 1. Place the scale in such a manner that the left end-point of the line segment coincides with the zero mark of the ruler and the line segment coincides with the edge of the ruler. 2. Read the position of the other end-point of the line segment with respect to the scale. This reading is the measure of the line segment. Example: The given figure shows the position of a scale while measuring a line segment XY. Find the length of XY.

Solution: It can be observed in the given figure that the length of the given line segment XY is 5.6 cm. Angles and its types Angles can be measured in degree units. An angle is said to be acute if its measure is less than 90.

An angle is said to be a right angle if its measure is 90.

An angle is said to be obtuse if its measure is between 90 and180.

An angle is said to be straight if its measure is 180.

An angle is said to be reflex if its measure is between 180 and 360.

Measurement of an angle An angle is measured and drawn by using a protractor. A protractor is divided into 180 small divisions. Each small division of a protractor measures 1. There are two scales in a protractor an outer scale and an inner scale. In each scale, 0, 10, 20, 180 are marked and there are 10 equal divisions between these marks. To measure an angle using a protractor, we are required to follow these steps. 1. Place the protractor on the given angle so that the vertex of the angle coincides with the centre point of the protractor and one arm of the angle coincides with the zero mark of the protractor. 2. Start counting 0 from this arm and see the reading of the remaining arm of the angle in the protractor. This reading gives the measure of the given angle in degree unit. Example: The given figure shows the position of a protractor while measuring an angle PQR.

Find the measure of PQR. Solution: It can be observed in the given figure that the measure of PQR is 118. To draw an angle of the given measure, we are required to follow these steps. 1. Draw a line segment.

2. Place the protractor on this line segment such that the centre of the protractor coincides with one end-point of the line segment and the zero mark of the protractor coincides with this line segment. 3. Mark a point on the outer edge of the protractor that represents the given angle. 4. Join this point and the point at which the centre of the protractor was placed. In this way, an angle of given measure can be drawn. Perpendicular lines A line is said to be perpendicular to another line if the measure of the angle between the lines is 90.

If a line l is perpendicular to another line m, then it is represented as l m.

To draw a perpendicular m to a given line l through a point P on l using a set-square, we are required to follow these steps. 1. Place a ruler with one of its edges along line l. Take a point P on it. Hold this firmly. 2. Place a set-square with one of its edges along the already aligned edge of the ruler such that the right-angled corner is in contact with the ruler at P. 3. Hold the set-square firmly and draw a line m through P. 4. l is perpendicular to m through point P.

If a curve does not intersect itself, then it is called a simple curve. If a simple closed curve is made of line segments only, then it is called a polygon. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle. Classification of triangles A triangle can be classified as an equilateral triangle or an isosceles triangle or a scalene triangle on the basis of the length of its sides. 1. Equilateral triangle: All the sides are of equal length. 2. Isosceles triangle: Two sides are of equal length. 3. Scalene triangle: All the sides are of different length. A triangle can be classified as acute-angled or obtuse-angled or right-angled on the basis of the measures of the angles.

1. Acute-angled triangle: If all the angles are acute. 2. Obtuse-angled triangle: If one of the angles is obtuse. 3. Right-angled triangle: If an angle is right. A quadrilateral is a polygon of four sides. It may be a parallelogram or a rhombus or a rectangle or a square or a trapezium or simply a general quadrilateral. Parallelogram: It is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are of equal length and opposite angles are of equal measure.

Rhombus: It is a parallelogram all of whose sides are of equal length.

Rectangle: It is a parallelogram the measure of all of whose interior angles is 90.

In a rectangle, the diagonals are equal in length. Square: It is a rectangle whose sides are of equal length.

In a square, the diagonals are equal in length. Trapezium: It is a quadrilateral in which exactly one pair of opposite sides is parallel.

Polygons of five and six sides are called pentagon and hexagon respectively. A circle is a collection of points that are at a fixed distance from a fixed point. The fixed distance is the radius and the fixed point is the called centre of the circle.

The line segment joining any two points on the circle is called a chord. The chord through the centre of the circle is called the diameter of the circle. The relation between the diameter and radius of a circle is given by diameter = 2 radius.

To draw a circle of given radius, we are required to follow these steps. Insert a pencil in a compass. Take the distance between the tip of the pencil and the tip of the compass equal to the radius of the circle.

By keeping the tip of the compass at a fixed point, rotate the pencil smoothly. Hence, a circle of the given radius is obtained.

Chapter 11: Tiling Patterns

Tiling is the pattern obtained when a collection of individual tiles are fit together without any gaps or overlaps. Tiling is done to fill flat surfaces such as floors, table tops etc. Example:

Two tiles are congruent if they are of the same shape and size.

Example: The pair of tiles

and

is congruent.

A tiling, like the one shown below with only one tile as the generating set, is called monohedral tiling.

A tiling with two tiles in its generating set is called a dihedral tiling. Example: The tiling shown below is a dihedral tiling.

Here, the tiling is generated by the tiles

and .

Chapter 12: Symmetry

A figure is said to be symmetrical if it is in an evenly-balanced proportion. A figure has line symmetry if a line can be drawn dividing the figure into two identical parts in such a way that the obtained two parts exactly overlap each other when they are folded along the line. The line is called the line of symmetry. Example:

In this figure, line l divides the figure into two identical parts and the obtained two parts exactly overlap each other when they are folded along line l. This line l is known as the line of symmetry. Hence, this figure has a line of symmetry. A figure may have no line of symmetry, only one line of symmetry or multiple lines of symmetry. Example: A scalene triangle and a parallelogram have no line of symmetry.

An isosceles triangle and the letters of the English alphabet such as A, B etc. show one line of symmetry.

An equilateral triangle, a square, a circle etc., show multiple lines of symmetry.

The line of symmetry is closely related to mirror reflection. When we deal with mirror reflection, we have to take into account that the object and the image are symmetrical with reference to the mirror line. There is no change in the length and the angle of the object and the corresponding length and angle of the image, with respect to the mirror line; only the left-and-right alignment changes.

Example: Draw the reflection of the given shape considering the dotted line as the mirror line.

The reflection of the given shape can be drawn considering the dotted line as the mirror line as follows:

The concept of symmetry is widely used in the field of technology, architecture, geometrical reasoning, designing etc.

Chapter 13: Three-Dimensional Shapes

We see certain shapes in our day-to-day life that are not flat. Some of these shapes are solids.

An object that has fixed shape and size is called a solid. The corners of a solid figure are called its vertices; the line segments joining the vertices are known as its edges and its flat surfaces are called faces.

Solid Cube

Figure

Properties 6 faces 12 edges 8 vertices (corners) 6 faces 12 edges 8 vertices 2 flat faces (circles) 1 curved face 1 flat surface 1 curved surface 1 vertex 4 faces 6 edges 4 vertices

Cuboid

Cylinder

Cone

Triangular pyramid

Square pyramid

5 faces 8 edges 5 vertices

A net is a skeleton outline of a solid, which can be folded to make the solid. Example:

Net of a cube

A three-dimensional shape can be drawn on paper using lines or can be made using twodimensional objects. A three-dimensional drawing of an object is called isometric drawing. The isometric drawing of a solid is drawn on isometric dot paper. For example, the isometric drawing of a cube is drawn as follows:

There are three possible views of an object. They are elevation view, plan view and side view.

The given solid, when viewed from the given directions, gives

as the elevation view

as the plan view

as the side view

Chapter 14: Area and Perimeter

The perimeter of a closed figure is the length of the boundary of the figure. Example: Find the perimeter of the given figure.

Solution: Perimeter of the given figure = (2 + 7 + 4 + 1 + 1 + 3 + 1 + 3) cm = 22 cm Perimeter of a rectangle = 2 (length + breadth) When the perimeter and the length of a rectangle are known, its breadth can be found by 1 using the formula, breadth = perimeter length. 2 When the perimeter and the breadth of a rectangle are known, its length can be found by 1 using the formula, length = perimeter breadth. 2 The area of a closed figure is the amount of surface enclosed by the figure. The units of area are square cm, square m etc. The concept of area is widely used in our daily life. For example, for finding the area of the carpet required for covering the floor etc. We can estimate the area of a surface by drawing it on a square graph paper, where every square measures 1 cm 1 cm. For this, we have to adopt the following conventions. 1. The area of 1 full square is taken as 1 square unit. 2. The area of a region which is more than half the square is taken as 1 square unit. 1 3. The area of half the square is taken as square unit. 2 4. We have to ignore the portions of area that are less than half-a-square. Example: The given figure shows a shape drawn on a squared paper. Here, the side of each small square is 1 cm.

Find the area enclosed by the given shape. Solution: The given figure covers 17 complete squares and 8 half squares. Thus, area enclosed by the given figure = (17 + 8 2) sq cm = 21 sq cm Area of a rectangle = length breadth Area of a square = side side

Chapter 15: Data Representation

In a pictograph, pictures of objects are used for representing data. Example: The given data represents the number of mobile phones sold by a shopkeeper in the first half of a certain year. Month January February March April May June Number of mobile phones sold 400 400 320 400 240 480

Represent the given data using pictograph.

Solution: We can solve this question by assuming that the symbol phones sold by the shopkeeper.

represents 80 mobile

Thus, 400 mobile phones can be represented by

320 mobile phones can be represented by Thus, the pictograph can be represented as follows: Month January

, and so on.

Number of mobile phones sold

February

March

April

May

June

Key: Each

represents 80 mobile phones sold by the shopkeeper

Data can also be represented using column graph (also called bar graph). In a bar graph, bars of uniform width are drawn horizontally or vertically. These bars are placed at equal distance from each other. The length of each bar gives the required information. Example: The given data represents the number of bikes sold by a retailer in the first five months of a year. Construct a bar graph of this data. Month January February March April May Number of bikes sold 600 700 400 500 800

Solution: To represent the bar graph of the given data, we proceed as follows: 1. Draw two perpendicular lines, one vertical line OY and another horizontal line OX. 2. Mark the months along the horizontal line and mark the corresponding number of bikes sold along the vertical line. 3. Choose a suitable scale along the vertical line. Let 1 unit length = 100 bikes sold. 4. Draw bars of height corresponding to each month. Make sure that the bars are of the same width and maintain uniform gaps between them.

Hence, the bar graph of the given data can be drawn as follows:

Double bar graphs (double column graphs) are also drawn as bar graphs. It is the collection of two sets of data on the same graph. It is helpful in comparing two sets of data. Example: The given data shows the revenue generated (in lakhs) by two companies, A and B, in 6 months. A B January 28 32 February 16 18 March 24 30 April 22 31 May 38 26 June 20 26

Construct a double bar graph representing the given data. Also, in which particular month is the revenue generated by company A more than that generated by company B. Solution: In the given data, the lowest value of observation is 16. Therefore, choosing the scale as 1 unit = 4 lakhs and drawing bars of corresponding lengths for each month, we obtain the bar graph as follows:

It can be seen that the bar for the month of May is higher for company A as compared to company B. Therefore, company A generated more revenue in the month of May as compared to company B.