Midterm

Joint and synovial membranes

Bones are joined to ane another by connective tissue structure that permit varying degrees of movement between the adjoining bones such structures are called Joints or Articulations These present extreme variations in character which depend primarily upon the type of bones w/c are joined & varying degrees of motion permitted by the articulation. 1. Immovable joints (skull) the connected bones are seperated only by thin connective tissue layer, the sutural ligament 2. Slightly movable the succeding vertabrae are joined by densed fibrous tissue and cartilage

3. Freely movable here the bones completely seperated by cartilage and the articular surfaces are
surrounded by fibrous capsule Synarthroses joints in which there is little or no movement Types : 1. Synostosis if the connection between the bones is of bone 2. Synchondrosis if it consist of cartilage 3. Syndesmosis if it consist connective tissue Diarthroses joints that permit movement of the bones Diarthrodial joint: - There is a cavity and the walls of the joint cavities are composed of dense connective tissue whose cells are irreggular distributed - Small amount of cartilage and all transitions between the cartilage cells and the joint or synovial cells can be found. - Articular of bones is covered with hyaline cartilage, where the opposing cartilage touch , they are not covered with dense connective tissue but at their bases a small are of perichondrium is reflected. Many cartilage cells extending into synovial membrane - Articular cartilages contain no blood vessels and they are nourished by diffusion from the joint fluid and surrounding tissues * Layers of the joint capsule 1. Fibrous layer external layer consisting of dense fibrous tissue

2. Synovial layer inner layer which is more cellular, secretes the viscid, colorless liquid of the joint cavity
( synovial fluid ) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Blood
Hemopoieses the process of formation of blood cells Hemopoietictissue or organ sites where blood cell formation occur Bone marrow principal hemopoietic tissue in adults, produce the blood cells *Liver, spleen, lymp nodes sites of the blood cell formation during embryonic life. BONE MARROW located in the: - Medullary cavities of long bone - Spongiosa of verebral bodies, rib, sternum

- Flat bones of the pelvis

BLOOD CELLS: 1. Erythrocytes ( RBC ) Function: vehicle for the transport of hemoglobin which is vehicle of oxygen and carbon dioxide - Mature form has no nucleus, appears as a biconcave disc - Life span in 120 days then is degraded in the bone marrow - Normal count: Male 4.2 5.4 millions/ cu.mm. of blood Female 3.8-5.2 millions/cu.mm. of blood 2. Thrombocytes ( platelet ) - Detached portions or fragment of cytoplasm of mature megakaryocytes formed in the bone marrow - No nucleus, rounded of elongated bodies with granules - May appeare singly or in groups - Function: important in maintaining vascular integrity and in blood coagulation - Normal count: 150,000 400,000/cu.mm 3. White boold cell ( WBC ) or leukocytes - Normalcount: 4,500 11,000/ cu.mm a. Monocytes - Largest among the WBC - Kidney shaped nucleus with agranular bluish cytoplasm - Spend 1 to 3 days in the blood the move into the tissue where they transformed into macrophages - 2 to 10% of all WBC - Function> phagocytosis b. Lymphocytes - Round nucleus with bluish agranular cytoplasm - Function is programmed by the thymus gland - Spends a few days in blood then settles down in the tissues - Carries antibodies - 20 40% of WBC c. Neutrophil or polymorphonuclears or PMN or segmenters - One nucleus with 2-5 lobes - Pinkish, granular cytoplasm - Spends 1 day in blood then enters the tissue

- Functions > phagocytosis - 50-70% of all WBC

d. Eosinophil - Bilobed single nucleus withe large, bright red granules in the cytoplasm - Spends a few days in the blood enters the tissue - Function: phagocytosis, carries histamine - 1-4% to all WBC e. Basophil - Clover leaf shaped single nucleus w/ bluish granules but may not be seen becoz they are soluble in water - Carries histamine and heparin 0-1% to all WBC

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Muscular Tissue
*Function: For locomotion and for movements of various parts of the body with respect to one another. -the property of contractility is highly developed -the cells are elongated in the direction of contraction -the structural unit is called the MUSCLE FIBER. Two General categories: 1. Smooth muscle 2. Striated Muscle

a. b.

Skeletal M. Cardiac M.

1. SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER - Long spindle-shaped cells in varying lengths in the different organs w/ elongated single nucleus occupying the . thickest part of the fiber, midway along its length. - cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm w/ fine longitudinal striations called myofibrils.

SMOOTH MUSCLE FORMS: 1. Contractile portion of the wall of the digestive tract from the middle of the esophagus to the internal spincter of the anus. 2. Found in the walls of the ducts of glands associated w/ the digestive tract. 3. Found in the walls of the respiratory passages from the trachea to the alveolar ducts. 4. Found in the urinary and genital ducts. 5. Found in the walls of the arteries, veins and lymphatic vessels. 6. Forms the erector pili muscles responsible for elevation of hairs of the skin (goose pimples)

7. AREOLA of the mammary gland which participatesd in the erection of the nipple
8. Subcutaneous tissue of the scrotum. 9. Found in the eye, forms the musculature of the iris and ciliary body which is concerned w/ accomodation and w/ constriction and dilation of the pupil

HISTOGENESIS OF THE SMOOTH MUSCLE -smooth muscle cells arise from the mesenchyme. -mesenchymal cells become arranged at regular intervals, stretch out transversely and multiply by mitosis and produce myofilaments within the cytoplasm -myoblast then come in contact w/ one another laterally forming a continuous layer of Smooth Muscle. REGENERATION

In injured areas, smooth muscle regenaration is minimal, so healing is mostly by scar tissue formation (fibrolastic proliferation).

2. SKELETAL MUSCLE HISTOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION Muscle fiber single histologial unit of the skeletal muscle; its long, cylindrical w/ alternating dark and light bands; multinucleated cells, nuclei are found at the periphery/ near the sarcolemaa which is the limiting membrane of the muscle.

1 muscle fiber is made up of several myofibrils and each fiber is surrounded by a connective tissue layer called the ENDOMYSIUM. 1 myofibril will show the dark and light bands, the dark bands are composed of myosin filaments (A bands) and the light bands are composed of actin filaments (I bands) In the same myofibril, the portion which is bounded by a Z disc is what we call as the sarcomere which is the functional unit of the muscle because it contains the structures involved in the contractile mechanism. MUSCLE contains lipids, glycogen, the oxygen- binding protein called myoglobin which releases oxygen during muscle contraction. The diameter of the muscle fiber increases w/ age and may further increase in response to strenuous muscular activity --Hypertrophy of Use The opposite may happen (decrease in fiber diameter) if the muscle is immobilized for long period of time -Atrophy of Disuse A group of muscle fibers will form one FASCICLE which is surrounded by a CT layer called PERiMYSIUM Groups of fascicles will compose 1 particular muscle which is surrounded by a CT layer called EPIMYSIUM. PURPOSE OF CT LAYER:

1. Binds together the contractile units to integrate their action. 2. Allows a certain degree of freedom of motion between contractile units 3. Area where blood vessels pass through in order to supply the individual muscle cells. HISTOGENESIS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER a SYNCTIUM resulting from fusion of many separate cells - Myoblasts fuse to form multinucleate muscle fibers, then produce the myofibrils

- Then fibers increase in thickness and length and their number increases through transformatio of new myoblasts - After birth, growth of muscles will only depend on the continuous increase in size of the fibers already present because the nuclei dont synthesize DNA and never divide. - During intense activity skeletal muscles increase in volume by enlargement of existing fibers through an increase in the amount of sarcoplasm and not in the number of fibrils.

REGENERATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES - After destruction of skeletal muscle fibers, regeneration always starts from existing fibers. - This is succesful only if the nuclei and sarcoplasm are alive because these cells may become myoblast which will again proliferate to form new syncytial muscle fibers. - A large defect is replaced by a connective tissue scar - Connection w/ motor nerve fibers is needed for maintenance of normal skeletal muscle structure and a succesful regeneration. 3. CARDIAC MUSCLE 1. FIBERS are not syncytial but are made up of separate cellular units joined end to end by special surface specialization called INTERCALATED DISC. 2. Fibers are not simple cylindrical units but they bifurcate and connect w/ adjacent fibers to form a complex 3 dimentional network. 3. The elongated nuclei are located deep in the inerior of the fiber instead of emmediately beneath the sarcolemma 4. Spontaneuous nature of the beat of cardiac muscle w/ a definite rhythm. 5. Contraction is not under voluntary control CYTOLOGY: -SARCOLEMMA is similar to that of skeletal muscle but sarcoplasm is more abundant - cross striations are the same -nucleus is centrally located -intercalated disc are present for firm cohesion of cellular units and uniform transmission of tension along the fibers

HISTOGENESIS OF CARDIAC MUSCLE: -develops from embryonic myocardium which is actually an epithelium (endothelium) whose cells multiply by mitosis producing myofilaments REGENERATION: takes place by scar tissue formation SUMMARY: Smooth muscle composed of individual cellular units - Innervated by the autonomic nervous system - Contraction not subject to voluntary control (involuntary) Skeletal Muscle: -Exhibits regularly spaced transverse bands along the length of the fiber

- are syncytial - Innervated by the cerebrospinal system of verves. -contraction is under voluntary control -makes up the somatic musculature (muscles of the extremities and body wall), head and neck muscles, tongue and upper and middle third of the esophagus, diaphragmm Cardiac Muscle: -fibers are made up of separate cellular units -rhythmical contraction is involuntary -makes up the wall of heart NERVOUS TISSUE NERVOUS SYSTEM comprises the entire mass of nervous tissue in the body. FUNCTION: for communication-depends upon the signaling properties of the nerve cells and their long processes. - These properties in turn express 2 fundamental attributes if protoplasm 1. 2. Iritability - the capacity to react to various physical and chemical agents. Conductivity the ability to transmit the resulting excitation from one locality to another.

COMPOSITION OF THE NERVOUS TISSUE 1. Nerve cell/ neuron 2. Nerve fiber 3. Neuroglia ORIGIN: Embryonic ectoderm- 1. Neurons 2. Nerve fiber 3. Neuroglia (except for the microglia)

A. Nucleus - large,pale, ovoid and centrally placed w/ in the perikaryon w/ a single nucleolus and fine
chromatin particles Human female sex chromatin is prominantly located either near the nucleolus/ at the periphery of the nucleus.

B. Perikaryon 1. Neurofibrils protein threads.

2.Chromophilic substance nissl bodies basophilic masses whose main component is ribonucleoprotein. -represents sites of protein synthesis - absent in the axon hillock and the axis cylinder 3. inclusions- pigments like melanin and lipofuscin,lipid,glycogen. C. PROCESSES

1. DENDRITE: may be direct extensions of the perikaryon or remote arborizations - several are present in one neuron - contains Nissl bodies, mitochondria, microtubules, neurofilaments Functions: a. Since they synapse with axon terminals, they receive impulses from other functionally related neurons.

b. plays a crucial role in the ability of the neuron to integrate information received from its many inputs. 2.AXON(axis cylinder) arises from a small conical elevation on the perikaryon called the axon hillock, devoid of nissl bodies, contains other cellular organelles - has a sheath or covring called myelin which is not part of the neuron - may have axon collaterals Function: carries the response of the neuron in form of action potential. NERVE FIBER; Composition: 1. Axon 2. Sheaths- sheath of Schwann and myelin sheath

Sheath of Schwann/ neurilemmal sheath envelops the axon from its beginning to near its peripheral termination. - Made up of flattened cells which form a thin sleeve around the myelin. - Has golgi apparatrus and mitochondria *Myelin sheath found within the sheath of Schwann in larger axons. - Absent in the smallest axons - Made up of alternating layers of mixed lipids and proteins (neurokeratin) - Are actually succesive layers of the plasma membrane of the schwann cell. - Interrupted at each node called the NODE OF RANVIER. * nerve fiber > axon enveloped by the myelin sheath which is surrounded by the sheath of Schwann

The outermost covering is called ENDONEURIUM which is not a nervous tissue but a connective tissue proper.

NEUROGLIA (NERVE GLUE) Non neuraL supportive cells consisting of 1. Ependyma lines the ventricles of the brain and the spinal cord, epithelial in character. 2. Neuroglial cell and their processes found w/ the neurons in the CNS and retina * Schwann cells may be considered as peripheral neuroglia. NEUROGLIAL CELLS 1. Astrocytes 2. Oligodendrocytes 3. Microglia mesodermal in origin Astrocyte and oligodendrocyte are macroglias and are ectodermal in origin.

FUNCTIONS OF NEUROGLIA 1. For mechanical support 2. Mediate for the normal metabolism of neurons

3. Prevents contact between processes of nerve cells at sites other than the synapse (ites of transmissions of impulses) 4. Actively involved during pathological states (undergo active migration and phagocytosis) a. Actively involved in degeneration snd regeneration of nerve fibers. b. Active in vascular and infectious diseases c. Chief source of tumors in the central nervous system RESPONSE OF THE NEURON TO INJURY Injury to axon: there is a degeneration of the axon at its proximal and distal portions (called primary and secondary/ Wallerian degeneration, respectively) *At the proximal portion, new Axonal sprouts appear as a sign of regeneration *At the distal portion, there is axonal and myelin degeneration -surgical approximation of cut ends may be necessary to reverse the distal degeneration -at the cell body, there is retrograde chromatolysis w/ apparent disappearance of Nissl bodies, swelling of the perikaryon and shifting of the nucleus to a peripheral location - if the cell survives the injury, changes will revert back to normal. -if not, the cell dies.

RATE OF NERVE GROWTH 3-4 mm. Per day/ 2 cm. Per day