Basic Mechanical Engineering Module1

THERMODYNAMICS 1.1 Introduction

The word thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (force). All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter. Thermodynamics is the study of motive power of heat, the capacity of hot bodies to produce work, dealing with energy and with relationships among the properties of matter. Thermodynamics has a major role in the design of the systems shown . 1.2 Systems

An important step in any engineering analysis is to describe precisely what is being studied. The term system is used to identify the subject of the analysis. The shape or volume of the system being analyzed is not necessarily constant, as when a gas in a cylinder is compressed by a piston or a balloon is inflated.

Everything external to the system is considered to be part of the systems surroundings. The system is distinguished from its surroundings by a specified boundary, which may be at rest or in motion.

.2.1

Types of Systems

Systems may be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. A closed system refers to a fixed quantity of matter, whereas a control volume is a region of space through which mass may flow. A closed system is defined when a particular quantity of matter is under study. A closed system always contains the same matter. There can be no transfer of mass across its boundary. Figure 4 shows a gas in a piston-cylinder assembly. When the valves are closed, we can consider the gas to be a closed system. The boundary lies just inside the piston and cylinder walls, as shown by the dashed lines on the figure. The portion of the boundary between the gas and the piston moves with the piston. No mass would cross this or any other part of the boundary. A special type of closed system that does not interact in any way with its surroundings is called an isolated system. Figure 3 Closed system

An open system or a control volume is a region selected within the device such as a compressor, turbine or nozzle. Mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.

The dashed line defines a control volume that surrounds the engine shown in Figure 4. Observe that air, fuel, and exhaust gases cross the boundary. The term control mass is sometimes used in place of closed system, and the term open system is used interchangeably with control volume. When the terms control mass and control volume are used, the system boundary is often referred to as a control surface. In general, the choice of system boundary is governed by two considerations: (1) What is known about a

possible system, particularly at its boundaries, and (2) the objective of the analysis. For Figure 5 the control volume can be fixed in size and shape, as in a nozzle or may be a moving boundary as in an IC engine.

1.3

DESCRIBING SYSTEMS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR

Engineers are interested in studying systems and how they interact with their surroundings. Several terms and concepts used to describe systems and how they behave are enumerated.

1.3.1

Macroscopic and Microscopic views of Thermodynamics

The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics is concerned with the gross or overall behaviour. This is sometimes called classical thermodynamics. It allows important aspects of system behaviour to be evaluated from observations of the overall system. The macroscopic viewpoint is the one adopted in this book.

The microscopic approach to thermodynamics, known as statistical thermodynamics, is concerned directly with the structure of matter. The objective of statistical thermodynamics is to characterize by statistical means the average behaviour of the particles making up a system of interest and relate this information to the observed macroscopic behaviour of the system. When it serves to promote understanding,

however, concepts are interpreted from the microscopic point of view.

1.3.2

Property, State and Process

To describe a system and predict its behaviour requires knowledge of its properties and how those properties are related. A Property is a macroscopic characteristic of a system such as mass, volume, energy, pressure and temperature to which a numerical value can be assigned at a given time without knowledge of the history of the system. Some properties are dependent on others such as density, defined as mass per unit volume. Thermodynamics also deals with quantities that are not properties, such as mass flow rates and energy transfers by work and heat. Properties of a system are either dependent or independent of its size and hence they are considered to be extensive or intensive.

E x t e n s i v e a n d I n t e n s i v e P r o p e r t i e s Extensive properties depend on the size or extent of a system. A property is called extensive if its value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the parts into which the system is divided. Mass, volume, energy etc. are extensive. The extensive properties of a system can change with time, and many thermodynamic analyses consist mainly of carefully accounting for changes in extensive properties such as mass and energy as a system interacts with its surroundings. Intensive properties are independent of the size or extent of a system. Specific volume, pressure and temperature are important intensive properties. A way to determine

whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts as shown in Figure 6. Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the original system, but half the value of the extensive

properties. The mass of the whole is the sum of the masses of the parts, and the overall volume is the sum of the volumes of the parts.

Figure 6 Criteria to differentiate Intensive and Extensive Properties However, the temperature, pressure and density of the whole is not the sum of their parts; it is the same for the each part. Mass and volume are extensive, but temperature, pressure and density are intensive. Properties of a Substance Ttemperature If two systems which are in separate thermodynamic equilibrium are brought into contact with each other have no change in their thermodynamic co-ordinates then the two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium. Both the systems have thus a common and equal thermodynamic property. This property is termed as temperature. Thus the temperature of a system is an intensive property that determines whether or not a system is in thermal equilibrium with another system. Temperature scales A quantitative measure of the temperature of a system requires some reference conditions and a suitable temperature unit to measure temperature above and below the reference conditions. Centigrade scale is commonly used for temperature measurements.

Comparison of Temperature Scales is shown in Figure and the relationships are as follows The Fahrenheit scale is related by the T(0C)=

5 0 T( F) 32 9

Relationship between Centigrade and Kelvin scales T (K) = T(0C) + 273.15 between Rankine and Farenheit scales T (R) = T(0F) + 459.6 Figure 1.7 Comparison of Temperature Scales

Zeroth law of thermodynamics Zeroth law of thermodynamics gives the basis for measuring temperature. Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that:- If two systems are both in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Pressure Absolute pressure is the pressure exerted by a system on its boundaries. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. Gauge pressure is the pressure measured by gauges. It is the difference between the absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure.

Gauges measuring pressure greater than atmospheric pressure are called pressure

gauges and gauges measuring pressure less than atmospheric pressure are called vacuum gauges. The relationship between absolute, gauge and atmosphere Figure 1.8 Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum pressure pressure is shown in Figure 1.8.

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + pressure gauge reading Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure vacuum gauge reading. Unit of pressure is Pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2). 1 Standard atmospheric Pressure = 760 mm of Hg =1.01325 * 105 Pa (N / m2) =1.01325 bar Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) Under standard atmospheric condition the temperature is taken an 150C (288 K) and pressure 760 mm of Hg. Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP) Normal temperature and pressure refer to the condition corresponding to atmospheric pressure of 760 mm of Hg and temperature of 00C (273 K).

1.4

Equilibrium and State

The word state refers to the condition of a system as described by its properties. All the properties of a system have fixed value at a given state. If the value of one property changes, the state will change to a different one as shown in Figure 7.

Equilibrium

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states, which implies a state of balance. A system in equilibrium experiences no change in its state when it is isolated from its surroundings. In mechanics, equilibrium means a condition of balance maintained by an equality of opposing forces. In thermodynamics equilibrium includes not only a balance of forces but also a balance of mechanical, thermal (no variation in Temperature), and chemical equilibrium. Figure 7 A system at two different states

1.5

Process

When any of the properties of a system change the state changes and the system is said to have undergone a process. transformation from one A process is a state to another.

However, if a system exhibits the same values of its properties at two different times, it is in the same state at these times. A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the same state. At the conclusion of a cycle all properties have the same values they had at the beginning. When a thermodynamic system changes from one state to another it is said to have undergone a process. Figure 7 Process between two states and Process path

The state of a system can be represented by a point located on a diagram using two properties as co-ordinates. When a system changes its state in such a way that at any instant during the process the state point can be located on the diagram, the process is said to be reversible. Thus a reversible process between two states can be shown by a continuous line on any diagram of properties. In a real process the intermediate state points cannot be located on the property diagrams. Such a real process is called irreversible process. When a system undergoes a reversible process both the system and its surrounding can always be restored to their original state by reversing the process.

1.5.1

Cycle

When a thermodynamic system changes from one state to another, it is said to have undergone a process. At the end of the last process if the system returns to its original state, it is said to have completed one thermodynamic cycle. Consequently, over the cycle the system experiences no net change of state. Cycles that are repeated periodically play prominent roles in many areas of application. For example, steam circulating through an electrical power plant executes a cycle.

1.5.2

Quasi Static process

Quasi static process or quasi equilibrium process is an ideal process in which the departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamic equilibrium state will be infinitesimally small. Every state passed through by the system during the change of state can be considered as equilibrium state.

A quasi static process should be a sufficiently slow process which allows the system to adjust itself internally so that the process may be considered as a series of equilibrium states and its path can be represented graphically by a continuous line on a state diagram. The complete path of a non quasi-static process is indeterminate and cannot be represented on a state diagram. It is only possible to indicate the general direction of change of state by locating the terminal equilibrium states.

1.6

Path

If a thermodynamic system passes through a series of states, it is said to describe a path. If the value of a thermodynamic variable depends upon the path followed in going from one state to another, then the variable is a path function. Consider the change of state of a system from state 1 defined by pressure p1, volume V1 and temperature T1 to state 2 defined by pressure p2 volume V2 and temperature T2. It is possible to go from state 1 to state 2 along different paths such as 1-A-2 or 1-B-2 as shown in fig. 1.4. At state 2 the value of pressure volume and temperature will be the same whether the state 2 is arrived along the path 1 A 2 or 1 B 2 i.e., the value of pressure, volume and temperature at state 2 is independent of the path followed and depends only on the state 2. Figure 1.6 Properties are point functions Hence these quantities are state functions or point functions. A state function or point function is a property of the system whereas Heat and Work are path functions

If M is a property of a system, then

dM = M2 M1 i.e., the change in the value of a

property during a process depends only on the end states and is independent of the path followed. A variable, whose value depends on the path followed during a change of state, is a path function. If M is a variable whose change in the value during a process

depends on the path followed, then

dM M2 M1. The value of

dM can be

determined only if the path followed is known. A path function is not a property of the system. Work and heat interactions during a process are examples of path functions.

1.7

Equation of State

State of a system can be described by specifying its properties. These properties are not independent. Relationship exists between the various properties of a system. Equations connecting various thermodynamic properties of a system are called equation of state. A perfect or an ideal gas is the gas which strictly obeys all the gas laws under all conditions of pressure and temperature. In fact no actual or real gas, which exists in nature, is perfect. In engineering applications gases such as air, nitrogen, hydrogen etc, are considered as perfect gases. Boyles law and Charles law govern the behavior of a perfect gas. Boyles law: Robert Boyle in 1662, on the basis of his experimental results, stated that, the absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies inversely as its volume, when the temperature remains constant.

i.e, p

1 , if T is constant V

pV = Constant, if T is constant For different states 1,2,3 etc, of a gas at the same temperature, p1V1 = p2V2 = p3V3 = pV = Constant Charles law: A.C Charles in 1787 stated that, the volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its absolute temperature, if the pressure remains constant. VT, if p is constant V = Constant, if p is constant. T` For different states 1,2,3..of a gas at the same pressure, V1 V2 V3 V = = = = Constant T1 ` T2 T3 T Equation of state of a perfect gas (Characteristic gas equation) A relationship between the three variables, pressure, volume and temperature of a perfect gas is obtained by combining Boyles law and Charles laws. V T , when T and P both vary p T p

i.e., V = Constant *

This constant depends upon the mass of gas, properties of gas and temperature scale. V = mRT where R is a constant, the value of which depends upon the properties of gas p

and the temperature scale. This constant R is called characteristic gas constant.

The equation pV = mRT is called characteristic gas equation or equation of state of a perfect gas. For different states 1,2,3 etc of a given mass of gas, p 1V1 = mRT1, p2V2=mRT2 and p3V3 = mRT3. i.e., p2V2 p3V3 p1V1 = = = constant. T13 T13 T1 pV R = u kJ / (Kg K) mT M where Ru = Universal Gas Constant M = Molecular Weight Ru, Universal Gas Constant is the same for all substances. Ru = 8314 J kmol K

R=

Energy Transfer Energy exists in various forms. Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system in two distinct forms: heat and work. For open systems (or control volumes), energy can also be transferred by mass. Energy transfer by Heat and work is discussed.

1.5.

Heat

In heat transfer, we are primarily interested in heat, which is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of temperature difference. The energy transfer across the boundary of a system on account of the temperature difference between the system and surroundings is called heat. It is denoted by Q.

Heat can be identified only when it crosses the boundary of a system and hence it is a form of energy in transit. A system does not contain heat because upon entering a system,

heat is converted into potential or kinetic energy of the molecules. When a system changes its state the amount of heat transferred depends upon the path followed. Hence heat is a path function and therefore it is not a property of the system. The integral of a differential change in heat, dQ can be written as

dQ = 1Q
1

or Q1-2.
2

It should be noted that dQ Q2 Q1

1

Q1-2 is the amount of heat transferred during a process 1-2. Heat transferred to a system is considered positive and heat transferred from a Figure 12 Properties are point functions. system is considered negative. The unit of Work and Heat are path functions heat is Joule (J) or kilo Joule (kJ).

The best way to quantify the definition of heat is to consider the relationship between the amount of heat added to or removed from a system and the change in the temperature of

the system. The heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in its temperature is called sensible heat. Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. There are two types of latent heat. The first is the latent heat of fusion. This is the amount of heat added or removed to change phase between solid and liquid. The second type of latent heat is the latent heat of vaporization. This is the amount of heat added or removed to change phase between liquid and vapour. The latent heat of vaporization is sometimes called the latent heat of condensation. Different

substances are affected to different magnitudes by the addition of heat. When a given amount of heat is added to different substances, their temperatures increase by different amounts.

The ratio of the heat (Q) added to or removed from a substance to the change in temperature (DT) produced is called the heat capacity (Cp) of the substance. The heat capacity of a substance per unit mass is called the specific heat (cp) of the substance. The subscript p indicates that the heat capacity and specific heat apply when the heat is added or removed at constant pressure.

1.6.

Specific heats of a gas

Specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance by unit degree. Since a gas can be heated under constant pressure and under constant volume, it has two specific heats, specific heat at constant pressure and specific heat at constant volume.

Specific heat at constant pressure Whenever a gas is heated at constant pressure, the temperature and volume of the gas increases. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through unit degree, when it is heated at constant pressure is the specific heat of that gas at constant pressure and is denoted by cp. Let Q be the amount of heat supplied to a gas at constant pressure in J, m, mass of the gas in kg, T1 and T2 the initial and final temperature of the gas in K, then, Specific heat, cp = Q J/kg.K m(T2 T1 )

Specific heat at constant volume Whenever a gas is heated at constant volume, the temperature and pressure of the gas increases. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas through unit degree, when it is heated at constant volume is the specific heat of that gas at constant volume and is denoted by cv. Let Q be the amount of heat supplied to the gas at constant volume in J, m, mass of a gas in kg, T1 and T2, the initial and final temperature of the gas in K, then, Specific heat, cv= Q J/kg.K m(T2 T1 )

For air cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K Cv = 0.718 kJkg.K

1.7.

Work

In mechanics work is defined as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of force. It is denoted by W and the unit of work is N-m.1 Nm=1 J In thermodynamics, the energy transfer across the boundary of a system on account of reasons other than temperature difference is called work. Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect external to the system can be reduced to the lifting of a weight.

Like heat, work is also energy in transit. A system does not contain work, upon entering the system it is converted into stored energy. Work is a path function and hence it is not a property of the system

dW W2 W . dW = 1W2
1

W2 is the amount of work transferred during a process 1-2.

Consider the expansion of a gas inside a cylinder fitted with a piston. Refer fig. 1.13. Let the pressure and volume of the gas at state 1 be p1 and V1 respectively. This gas is expanded to state 2. This expansion process is represented in the p-V diagram by the curve 1-2. Now consider a point A on the curve. Let the pressure of gas at state point A be p. This gas pressure acts on the piston and cases movement of the piston. At this instant the force on the piston is given by p*a, where a is the area of cross section of the piston. Let the piston moves through a small distance dx, the work done is p*a*dx. But a x dx is the change in volume of gas when the piston moves through the small distance dx. Hence work done is equal to p*dV, the shaded area in the p-V diagram. Therefore the

area under the curve 1-2,

p
1

dV will give the work done when the gas changes its

volume from V1 to V2 or when the gas expands from state 1 to state 2. 1W2 pdV
1 2

**diag**

Work is taken as positive when it is done by the system and negative when it is done on the system.

**diagram**

The unit of work is Joule (N m). The conditions under which the expression W = (i) (ii) The system is closed The process is quasistatic

p dV holds are:

Cases of W p dV Free expansion The expansion of a gas against a vacuum is called free expansion. Consider a container, which is divided into two portions by a membrane as shown in fig. 1.15. One portion contains gas at pressure P1, specific volume V1, and the other portion is evacuated. When the membrane is removed, the gas undergoes a free expansion and the gas fills the entire volume of the container. There is no transfer of work across the boundary of the system and hence the work done is zero. There is a change in volume of gas but work done is

zero. Therefore, W p dV. This is because the free expansion is an irreversible process and hence it is not a quasistatic process. Paddle work Consider a fluid contained in a rigid vessel. The fluid can be stirrered by a paddle wheel, which is connected to the pulley as shown in fig. 1.16. When the weight hung from the pulley moves downwards, the paddle wheel rotates and work in transferred to the system (fluid). The amount of work transferred to the system will be equal to the decrease in potential energy due to lowering of the weight. Since there is no change in the volume of fluid, dV = 0 and hence

p dV = 0. This is another case where W p dV.

Problem 1.4.

A gas undergoes a reversible non flow process according to the relation p=(-2V+20) bar =(-2V+20)*105 N/m2 V1 = 4 m3, V2 = 8 m3. To find:
V2 8

W
5

W=

V1

p.dV = ( 2V + 20) *10 dV

4 8

2 5 2V + 20V = 10 2 4

= 105 (82 42 ) + 20(8 4)

= 32*105 N m = 3200 kNm

1.8.

First law of thermodynamics

The study of thermodynamics is based on two general laws of nature, the first law of thermodynamics and the second law of thermodynamics. These laws are based on physical observations and hence cannot be proved mathematically. However no violation of these laws has ever been noticed. Moreover various experiments have proved the validity of these laws. The first law is a theorem of conservation of energy. It makes no distinction between the various modes of energy and declares that all forms of energy are equivalent. The second law states that all forms of energy are not equivalent in their ability to do work. It declares that certain processes are impossible to perform even though these processes do not violate the first law. The first law of thermodynamics can be stated as, For a system operating in a cycle, the net heat transfer is equal to the net work transfer. i.e.,

dQ = dW
0

(dQ dW ) =

Where

stands for the summation over the cyclic process or cyclic integral.

1.9.

Application of first law to closed system

There exists a property of a closed system such that change in its value is equal to the difference between the heat supplied and the work done during any process. This property is called energy and is denoted by E.

i.e., Change in energy during any process 1-2, (E2 - E1) = E = 1Q2 1W2

Where 1Q2, is the heat supplied during the process 1-2 and 1W2 is the work done during the process 1-2 Consider a system, which changes its state from 1 to 2, along a path A. Let the system returns to its original state 1 either along path B or along path C as shown in fig 1.17.

**diag**

Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the closed cycle 1-A-2-B-1,

(dQ dW ) =
1 A

(dQ dW ) +

2 B

(dQ dW ) =

0 .. (1)

For the closed cycle 1-A-2-C-1, (dQ dW) = 0

1 A

(dQ dW ) +

2 C

(dQ dW ) =

0 .. (2)

From the equation (1) and (2),

2 B

(dQ dW ) +

2 C

(dQ dW )

i.e., whether the process takes the path B or C, the quantity (dQ-dW) is the same. The value of (dQ-dW) depends only on the end states and hence it is a property of the system. This property is called energy.

Internal Energy Internal energy of a substance may be defined as the algebric sum of internal kinetic energy and internal potential energy of its molecules and is denoted by U. It is very difficult to determine the absolute value of internal energy possessed by a substance. In most thermodynamic applications we are mainly interested only in the changes in the internal energy of a system. The total energy of a system is the sum of potential energy, kinetic energy, internal energy and other energies due to electricity, magnetism etc. In engineering thermodynamics the concern is with the first three types of energies and electrical energy, magnetic energy etc. Can be neglected, E = PE + KE + U

Change in energy, E = PE + KE + U For a stationery closed system undergoing a process 1-2, PE = 0. KE = 0

E = U = 1 Q2 1 W2
1

Q2 = 1 W2 + U

When heat is supplied to a closed system, a portion of it is converted into work and the remaining portion is used to increase the internal energy of the system.

1.10.

Ratio of specific heats

The ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant volume of gas is denoted by greek letter gamma . When a gas is heated at constant pressure it expands. The heat supplied to it is used partly in raising its temperature and partly in doing work against the external pressure. When the gas is heated at constant volume, no work is done and the heat supplied is used only for raising the temperature. Hence the amount of heat required to be supplied to 1 kg of gas to raise its temperature by 10C at constant pressure will be more than that at constant volume. Therefore the specific heat at constant pressure cp is greater than the specific heat at constant volume cv. Hence the value of will be always greater than 1. For air the value of is 1.4. Relationship between the specific heats and the characteristic gas constant According to Joules law the change of internal energy is proportional to the change of temperature. Change in internal energy, U T U = mass * a constant * T Irrespective of the type of process, or manner of heating or cooling, the constant in the above expression is always equal to the specific heat at constant volume cv.

U = m * cv * T
Consider m kg fo a gas being heated at constant pressure from state 1 to 2. Applying first law of thermodynamics to this process. U = 1 Q2 s W2 Change in internal energy,

 U = mcv (T2 T1 )
Heat supplied,
1

Q2 = m.c p (T2 T1 )

Work done,
s

W2 = p(V2 V1 ) = p V2 p V1 =p2V2 p1V1 =mRT2 mRT1 =mR (T2 T1) (Since p = p2 = p1) (Since pV = mRT)

Substituting these values of U,Q and W in the expression, U = 1 Q2 s W2

mcv (T2 T1 ) = mc p (T T11 ) mR (T2 T1 )

cv = cp R cp cv =R From the results, cp-cv = R and cp cv =R c cp 1 v = R cp 1 cp 1 = R 1 cp = R cp cv = , the following useful results can be obtained.

cp =

R 1

cp cv =R cp cv 1 = R cv

cv [ 1] = R
cv = R 1

1.11.

Enthalpy

The sum of internal energy and pressure volume product (flow work) appears so frequently in thermodynamic calculations. It is very convenient to use a single letter to denote the sum of these two energies. Thus enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal energy and pressure volume product (flow work). It is denoted by H. H = U + pV Since U, p and V are properties of the system, H is also a property of the system. The change of enthalpy during a process 1-2 is given by

dH = dU + d(pV) H2-H1= (U2 + p2V2) (U1 + p1V1) = (U2 U1) + (p2V2 p1V1) = mcv (T2 T1) + (mRT2 mRT1) = mcv (T2 T1) + mR(T2 T1) = m(cv +R) (T2 T1)

H2-H1= mcp (T2-T1) H = mcp T

Problem 1.7 One kg of an ideal gas is heated from 200C to 1000C. Assuming R = 264 J/kg K. and = 1.18 for the gas, find out (i) Specific heats (ii) Change in internal energy (iii) Change in enthalpy.

Solution: Given: m = 1 kg T1 = 200C = 293 K T2 = 1000C = 373 K To find : We have, cp -cv = R Dividing both sides by cv cp cv 1= R cv R cv R ( 1) cp U, cv = 1.18 H R = 264 J/kg K.

1=

cv =

264 = 1466.66 J / kg.K (1.18 1)

cv = 1.467 kJ / kg .K
cp cv =

c p = cv = 1.18 *1.467

c p = 1.731kJ / kg .K

Change in internal energy, U = mcv (T2+T1) = 1*1.467 (373 -293) U = 117.36kJ Change in enthalpy, H = mcp (T2-T1) = 1*1.731 (373 -293) H = 138.48kJ

1.12.

Application of first law to open systems

In an open system, in addition to the transfer of energy at the system boundary in the form of heat and work, the mass of fluid enters and leaves the system. Work is required to move the mass of fluid into or out of an open system. This work is called flow work. Thus the flow work is the energy due to transfer of mass across the boundary of a system. When the fluid enters the system the flow work is performed on the system by the surroundings and when the fluid flows from the system, flow work is done by the system

on the surroundings. The expression for flow work is pV where p is the pressure and V is the volume of fluid entering or leaving the system.

Steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E) In a non-flow process the mass remains in a closed system and only the energy crosses the boundary in the form of heat and work. In a flow process, the mass enters and leaves the system. In a steady flow process, the mas flow is the same at the inlet and outlet and the properties of the fluid do not change with time at any point in the system. Consider a thermodynamic system as shown in fig. 1.18. The fluid enters the system at section 1-1 with velocity V 1 , Pressure p1 and specific volume V1, and internal energy u1. The corresponding values at the outlet section 2-2 are V 2 , p2, v2 and u2. During the fluid flow between the two sections heat and work may also cross the boundary of the system. Let m be the mass of the fluid entering and leaving the system. Z1 and Z2 are the height of inlet and outlet section above the datum. For the energy balance the following forms of energy should be taken into account. 1) Potential energy, mg Z 2) Kinetic energy, 1 mV 2 2

3) Internal energy, m u 4) Flow work, pV=m pv 5) Heat rejected or received, Q and 6) Work done, W Energy associated with the fluid flowing into the system is given by,

E1 = PE1 + KE1 + (Internal energy)1+(Flow work)1 mgZ1 + 1 2 mV 1 + m.u1 + mp1v1 2

E1 =

1 2 m gZ1 + V 1 + .u1 + p1v1 2

Energy associated with the fluid flowing out of the system, E2 = PE2 + KE2 + (Internal energy)2+(Flow work)2 = mgZ 2 + 1 2 mV 2 + m.u2 + mp 2v 2 2

E2 =

1 2 m gZ 2 + V 2 + .u2 + p 2v 2 2

From the first law of thermodynamics, Q W = E = E2 E1 1 2 1 2 Q W = m gZ 2 + V 2 + .u2 + p 2v 2 - m gZ1 + V 2 + .u2 + p 2v 2 2 2

2 1 2 = m g ( Z 2 Z1 ) + (V 2 V1 ) + (.u2 + p 2v 2) (u1 + p1v1 2

2 1 2 g ( Z 2 Z1 ) + 2 (V 2 V1 ) + (h2 h1 ) m

Q W = m(h2 h1 ) + m(

V 2 V1 ) + mg ( Z 2 Z1 ) 2

Q W = H + ( KE ) + ( P.E ) This equation is called steady flow energy equation. For unit mass, q w = (h2 h1 ) + ( V 2 V1 ) + g ( Z 2 Z1 ) 2
2 2

Problem 1.8. A compressor delivers air at a pressure of 5 bar and temperature 900C. The suction conditions are : pressure 1 bar, temperature 200C and quantity of air sucked 700 m3/hr. 30 kJ/ heat is rejected to the outside. Determine the shaftwork done in air. Neglect K.E & P.E. Determine also the mass handled. Assume R = 0.2868 kJ/kg K and c v = 0.7181 kJ/kg K.

Solution: Given:

p1 = 1bar = 105 N / m 2 , T1 = 200 C = 20 + 273 = 293K p2 = 5bar = 55 * 105 N / m 2 , T2 = 900 C = 363K

3 Volume of air sucked = 700m / hr =

700 3 m /s 3600

Heat rejected = 30 kJ/kg. PE = 0 KE = 0

R = 0.2868 kJ/kg K cv = 0.7181 kJ/kg K.

To find: W,m

q w = (h2 +

1 2 1 2 V 2 + gZ 2 ) (h + V 1 + gZ1 ) 2 2

q w = h2 h1

w = q ( h2 h1 )
w = q + h1 h2

h1 = c pT1 = 1.005 * 293 = 294.5kJ / kg

h2 = c pT2 = 1.005 * 363 = 364.8kJ / kg w = 30 + 294.5 364.8 = 100.3kJ / kg

1 1 *105 = = 1.19kg / m3 Density, 1 = RT 286.8 * 293

m= V = 1.19 * 700 = 0.23kg / s 3600

Problem 1.9 A steady flow of steam enters a condenser with an enthalpy of 2000 kJ/kg and a velocity of 350 m/s. The enthalpy and velocity of the condensate leaving the condenser are 200 kJ/kg and 10 m/s respectively. Determine the heat transferred to the cooling water. Solution: Given: h1 = 2000kJ / kg h2 = 200kJ / kg

V1 = 350m / s
To find: q

V2 = 10m / s

V2 V2 2 1 + g ( Z 2 Z1 ) q w = (h2 h1 ) + 2 In the case of condenser, W = 0 and Z2=Z1 V2 V2 2 1 q = (h2 h1 ) + 2 = [ 200 *10

3

10 2000 *10 ] +
3

3502 2

= -1800 * 103 61200

q = 1861.2 kJ/kg

1.13.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that if a system executes a closed cycle the net heat transfer is equal to the net work transfer. But it does not place any restriction on the direction of work and heat transfer. The second law of thermodynamics puts the

restriction that processes proceed in certain directions and not in opposite directions, even though the reversal of processes do not violate the first law. According to the second law, the whole of the heat transferred cannot be converted into work and a part of the heat transferred therefore must be rejected to the surroundings.

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in different ways, even though the statements are equivalent. The two classical statements of second law of thermodynamics are, 1. Kelvin-Planck statement It is impossible to construct an engine which ooperating in a cycle will produce no effect other than the exchange of heat from a single reservoir and produce an equal amount of work. In other words, no actual heat engine working on a cyclic process can convert the whole of the heat supplied to it into mechanical work. It means that a part of the heat supplied to the heat engine must be rejected to the surroundings and only the remaining part is converted into work. Hence, the work done by a heat engine will be equal to the difference between heat supplied and heat rejected. 2. Clausius statement

It is impossible for a self acting machine working in a cyclic process, to transfer heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature, without the aid of an external agency. In other words, heat cannot flow by itself from a cold body to a hot body without receiving external work. Like the first law, second law also cannot be proved mathematically. The only proof of the thermodynamics laws is that no phenomenon has been found to violate them.

1.14.

Reversibility and irreversibility

A process is said to be reversible if, when the process is carried out in the reverse direction, using the same amount of work and heat transferred during the forward process, the system passes through the same states as it does in the forward direction. In other words a process sis said to be reversible, if both the same surroundings can be restored to the original state after the process is completely reversed without leaving a change either in the system or surroundings is called irreversible process. All actual process is irreversible. The conception of reversibility is purely hypothetical and hence irreversibility is a natural tendency. Work done during an irreversible process will be less than the work done during the same process if the process is assumed to be reversible. i.e., Wirr. < Wrev. The difference between the work done during reversible process and irreversible process is called irreversibility and is denoted by 1. Irreversibility, 1= Wrev Wirr. Irreversibility is also known as lost work or degradation.

1.15.

Availability

According to second law of thermodynamics, complete conversion of heat work is not possible. Any heat engine must reject a portion of heat supplied to it to a low temperature reservoir. Only the remaining protion of heat can be converted into work. Heat converted into work will be more when the temperature of a reservoir corresponds to the temperature of atmosphere, which is not at absolute zero. Therefore the entire heat supplied to an engine is not available for conversion into work. The portion of heat, which is available for conversion into work, is called available energy and the portion of heat, which is rejected to the low temperature reservoir, is called unavailable energy. The potential energy of a system can be considered as completely available form of energy, because the elevation to calculate potential energy is measured from the zero potential energy, then a large part of potential energy of the system is unavailable. If a system which is in a state of equilibrium is in equilibrium with its surroundings. The n there can be no interaction between the system and surroundings. This is called the dead state of a system. The work done by a system during a reversible process will be maximum, if the process is continued until the system reaches the dead state. The availability of a system at a given state is defined as the maximum useful work that can be obtained during a process in which the system comes to equilibrium with its surroundings (dead state). Availability is thus a composite property depending on the state of both the system and surroundings.

1.16.

Entropy

The first law of thermodynamics is a theorem of conservation of energy. It makes no distinction between various forms of energy and declares that all forms of energy are equivalent. According to second law of thermodynamics all forms of energy are not equivalent. According to second law of thermodynamics all forms of energy are not equivalent. For example work can be completely converted into heat but, according to Kelvin-Planck statement, heat cannot be completely converted into work. Work is considered as a high-grade energy and heat as a low-grade energy. The complete conversion of a low-grade energy into high-grade energy is impossible. When mechanical work is converted into heat, the energy is degraded. Entropy is defined as a measure of the degradation which energy experiences as a result of energy conversion. It is also defined as the measure of irreversiblility associated with any process. The more the irreversiblility, the more will be the change in entropy. Entropy is a property, which cannot be measured directly, but the change of entropy during any process can be calculated. Small change in entropy, dS is defined as the ratio of small amount of heat transfer, dQ, to the absolute temperature, T, at which heat is transferred i.e., dS = dQ T

During a process, 1-2

dS =
1

dQ 1 T

( S2 S1 ) =

dQ 1 T

Entropy-A Property Consider a closed system, which undergoes a reversible cyclic process. The system changes from state 1 to state 2 along path A and return to state 1, either along path B or along path C as shown in figure 1.23. For the reversible cyclic 1-A-2-B-1,

dQ = 0 T dQ = 0 T

1.17.

Thermodynamic processes

When a system changes its state from one equilibrium condition to another it is said to have undergone a process. When a gas undergoes a thermodynamic process, the various properties of the gas such a spressure, volume, temperature, energy, entropy, etc. may change. The thermodynamic process may be performed in different ways. Some of them are: a. Constant volume (isochoric) process. b. Constant pressure (isobaric) process c. Constant temperature (isothermal) process d. Adiabatic process e. Polytropic process f. Free expansion g. Throttling process

Using the laws of thermodynamics some useful relations applicable to the above said processes can be developed.

1.18.

Air Standard Cycle

When any property of a system changes, there is a change of state and the system is said to have undergone a process. At the end of the last process if the system returns to its original state, it is said to have completed one cycle. When these processes are plotted on a p-V diagram they form a closed contour as shown in fig 1.40. Many of the power producing devices use gas as the working fluid. The working fluid in an internal combustion engine does not operate on a cycle. For the sake of simplification, the analysis of internal combustion engine is carried out in terms of an air standard cycle. An air standard cycle is an idealized cycle in which air is taken as the working fluid. The actual combustion process is replaced by a heat transfer process. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process. All the processes are assumed to be reversible. A part of heat transferred to the air is converted into useful work and the remainder is rejected. Therefore the work done by the air is equal to the difference between the heat supplied and heat rejected, if there is no mechanical loss. Work done during a cycle = Heat supplied Heat rejected. Thermal efficiency of a cycle may be defined as the ratio of the work done to the heat supplied during the cycle. The thermal efficiency obtained with air as the working fluid is known as air standard efficiency. Air standard efficiency Heat supplied = Work done

=Heat supplied Heat rejected

Heat supplied = 1 Heat rejected Heat supplied Mean effective pressure (mep) The variations of pressure versus volume insider the cylinder of a reciprocating engine is drawn using an engine indicator. The resulting closed contour is called indicator diagram. The area enclosed by the contour is a measure of the work done per cycle. Mean effective pressure (mep) is defined as the constant pressure acting on the piston which will produce the same amount of work as done by the actual varying pressure acting on the piston during a cycle. The height of rectangle 1-2-3-4 as shown in fig. 1.41 will be the mep provided the area of the rectangle 1-2-3-4 is equal to the area of the indicator diagram. Since the area of indicator diagram gives the work done during a cycle. Unit of mep is N/m2. Mean effective pressure is used as a parameter to compare the performance of reciprocating engines of the same size.

Air standard Carnot cycle It is a thermodynamic air cycle consisting of four processes. Heat is supplied and rejected isothermally, expansion and compression of air takes place adiabatically, Refer fig. 1.42 Consider a given mass of air in the cylinder, inside which a frictionless piston slides. Let the pressure, volume and temperature of air at state 1 be p1, V1 and T 1 respectively. Heat is supplied to this air isothermally from an external hot body. The air expands at constant temperature T1 till the state 2 is reached. This process is represented by curve 1-2 in the

p-V diagram and a horizontal line 1-2 in the T-s diagram. During this process heat is absorbed from the hot body and an equal amount of work is done by the air. At state 2, the source of heat is removed and the air is allowed to expand adiabatically till state 3. This represented by curve 2-3 in the p-V diagram and a vertical line 2-3 in the T-S diagram. Let the pressure, volume and temperature of the air at state 3 be p3 V3 and T3 respectively. During the process 2-3 work is done by the air utilising its internal energy. At state 3, an external cold body is brought in contact with the cylinder and heat is rejected isothermally to the cold body at constant temperature T3. This isothermal compression is represented by the curve 3-4 in the p-V diagram and a horizontal line 3-4 in the T-s diagram. During this process work is done on the air and an equal amount of heat is rejected to the cold body. At state 4, the cold body is removed and the air is compressed adiabatically to the initial state 1. In the p-v diagram this adiabatic compression process is represented by curve 4-1 and in the T-S diagram by a vertical line 4-1. During this process work is done on the air to bring it to the original state. Air Standard Otto cycle Otto cycle is the theoretical cycle of spark ignition engine. Air standard Otto cycle consists of four reversible processes. Heat is supplied and rejected at constant volume. Expansion and compression of air takes place adiabatically. Fig. 1.43 shows these processes on p-V and T-S diagrams. Consider a cylinder containing m kg of air. Let p1, V1 and T1 be the pressure, volume and temperature of air inside the cylinder, at state 1. This air is compressed adiabatically to state 2, doing work on the air. Curve 1-2 in the p-V diagram and the line 1-2 in the T-

S diagram represents this process. Now heat is supplied to this compressed air at constant volume from an external hot body till state 3 is reached.. This process is represented by a vertical line 2-3 in the p-V diagram and curve 2-3 in the T-S diagram. At state 3 hot doby is removed and the air is allowed to expand adiabatically to state 4, doing external work. This process is represented by curve 3-4 in the p-V diagram and a vertical line 3-4 in the T-S diagram. Heat is rejected at constant volume to an external cold body till state 1 is reached. This process is represented by vertical line 4-1 in the p-V diagram and curve 4-1 in the T-S diagram. Thus the air finally returns to its original state after completing a cycle