The figure shows a seven level hierarchy in which levels 13 are the supervisory levels and levels 47 are

the information levels. The top management system devises plant optimising control strategies and level 2 deals with the optimum strategies for efficient production. Level 3 looks after the overall supervision of a process. The field instruments, i.e., sensors and actuators (at level 7) send their information through a process bus and/or device bus (at level 6) and Local Area Network (at level 5) to the information network (at level 4). This information is passed on to levels 3, 2 and 1 for final control of the overall plant. In this chapter, levels 4-7 have been dealt with since the supervisory levels are dependent on the information levels for the efficient operation of the plant. 6.2 Evolution of Industrial Control Process Industrial process control has evolved through hteh developments of direct Digital Control (DDC), Distributed Control Systems (DCS) and Field Control Systems (FCS). In all of them, PLC is the main component for control system logic implementation. In every step of the evolution, the control of the process has moved closer to the sensors and actuators. Fig. 6.2 shows DDC.

Fig. 6.2 Evolution of Control Process DCS and FCS in which the following functions occur: (i) In a DDC system a Proportional Integral Differential (PID) function is executed I the primary computer, and analog signals are separately transmitted to the sensor and actuator (S & A) in the field. (ii) In a DCS, a digital signal bus is used through which digital signals are allowed to pass to a single PID controller in the field and then analog signals are sent to individual S & A. (iii) In an FCS, digital signals are passed to the field, where there is a digital signal bus, from where individual S & A are provided with PID controller through which digital signals can pass. The control function executors are thus moved nearer the sensors and actuators in the field. The control functions are in fact executed by PLCs. This movement of control process, reduces wiring, aids in troubleshooting and

decreases maintenance costs of an industrial network, thus enhancing the overall reliability of a process. In this control and automation process, signal communication and networking play the most vital role. This chapter deals with different generalized industrial communication and networking systems. Since in general, in a plant the host control station is at a long/medium distance from field devices, serial communication is preferred to parallel communication. Keeping this in view, serial communication techniques have been discussed rather more elaborately than parallel communication. 6.3 Types of Communication Interface Communication interfaces are categorized by their data handling capacity and their ability to handle single or multiple devices. Different types of communication interface are shown in Fig. 6.3

Fig. 6.3 Different Types of Communication Interface 6.4 Types of Networking Channels There are two basic types of networking channels, namely, physical channels and logical channels. (a) Physical channels: In this case, two nodes are physically connected by a channel. This channel may be a twisted pair of wires, coaxial cable, optical fibre etc. The general characteristics of physical channels are low speed and low cost hence, they are preferred for short distance communication. (b) Logical channels: If the nodes in a network are not connected physically, the channel is called a logical channel. A microwave link and a satellite link are examples of al logical channel. It is much faster and costlier than a physical channel and hence is mainly used for long distance communication. 6.5 Parallel Communication Interface

Parallel communication requires handshaking and transmits data one byte (8 bits) at a time. When data are transferred from the host processor to a peripheral device, the following steps take place: The host sets a bit on the bus, signaling to the peripheral that a byte of data has been sent. The peripheral receives data and sets a bit on the bus, signaling to the host that data have been received. Parallel bus structures include IEEE-488, IBM PC, VME, MULTIBUS, Q and STD. IEEE-488 is extensively used for instrument interfacing. 6.5.1 IEEE-488 Bus The IEEE-488 bus was developed to connect and control programmable instruments, and to provide a standard interface for communication between instruments from different sources. Originally developed by Hewlett-Packard, the interfacing technique gained popularity in industry. Afterwards the IEEE committee renamed it General Purpose Interface Bus, (GPIB). The IEEE-488 interface system consists of 16 signal lines and 8 ground lines. The 16 signal lines are divided into 3 groups, namely, 8 data lines, 3 handshake lines, and 5 interface management lines. Any instrument can be used with the IEEE-488 specification, because it says nothing about the function of the instrument itself, or about the form of the instruments data. Rather, the specification suggests that the instrument should be interfaced, to make it compatible with the bus. The structure of the IEEE-488 is shown in Fig. 6.4.

Fig. 6.4 Structure of IEEE-488 (GPIB) 6.5.2 Devices Useable with IEEE-488 There are basic three types of devices that can be sued with the IEEE488. These are shown in Fig. 6.5. Fig. 6.5 Classification of Devices Useable with the IEEE-488

As shown in the figure, there are three types of devices that can be connected to the IEEE-488 bus, namely, listeners, talkers and controllers. Some devices include more than one of these functions. The standard allows a maximum of 15 devices to be connected on the same bus. A minimum system consists of one controller and one talker or listener device. It is possible to have several controllers on the bus but only one may be active at any given time. The active controller may pass control to another controller, which in turn can pass it back to another controller. The system controller may optionally pass control to another controller, which then becomes the active controller. A talker transmits data on to the bus following an instruction. The controller can set up a talker and a number of listeners so that it is possible to send data between the devices. The data lines DIO-1 through DIO-8 are used to transfer addresses, control information and data, the formats for which are defined by the IEEE-488 standard. 6.5.3 Handshaking Process There are three handshake lines, as shown in Table 6.1, which control the transfer of message bytes among the devices and from the method for acknowledging the transfer on data. This handshaking process guarantees that the bytes on the data lines are sent and received without any transmission errors. Table 6.1 Details of Handshaking Lines Name Description Function NRFD Not Ready The NRFD handshake line is asserted by a listener to For Data indicate that it is not yet ready for the next data or control byte. It is to be noted that the controller will not see NRFD released (I.e., ready for data) until all devies NDAC Not Data Accepted have released it. The NDAC handshake line is asserted by a listener to indicate it has not yet accepted the data or control byte on the data lines. It is to be noted that the controller will not see NDAC released (i.e., data accepted) until all DAV Data Valid devices have released it. The DAV handshake line is asserted by the talker to indicate that a data or control byte has been placed on the data lines and has had the minimum specified

stabilizing time. The devices can now safely accept the byte. The handshake process is shown in fig.6.6 in the form of a flowchart. 6,5.4 Interface Management Lines There are five-interface management lines to manage the flow of control and data bytes across the interface. These are summarized in Table 6.2 Table 6.2 Details of Interface Management lines Name Description Function ATN Attention This signal is asserted by the controller to indicate that it is placing an address or control by the on the data bus. ATN is released to allow the assigned talker to place status or data on the date a bus. The controller regains control by reasserting ATN: this is normally done synchronously with the handshake to avoid control EOI End of Identify between control and data bytes. This signal has two uses. A talker may assert EOI simultaneously with the last byte of data to indicate endof-data. The controller may assert EOI along with ATN to initiate a parallel poll. Although many devices do not use parallel poll, devices should sue EOI to end IFC Interface Clear transfers. This signal is asserted only by the system controller in order to initialize all device interfaces to a known state. After releasing IFC, the system controller is the active REN Remote Enable controller. Only the system controller asserts this signal. Its assertion does not place devices into remote control mode: REN only enables a device to go into remote SRQ Service Request mode when addressed to listen, This is like an interrupt: it may be asserted by any device to request the controller ot take some action. The controller must determine which device is asserting SRQ by conducting a serial poll. The requesting device

releases SRQ when it is polled.

Fig. 6.6 flowchart showing the Handshaking process

6.6

Serial Communication Interface In serial transmission, one bit follows another and hence one

communication channel is required to establish communication between two devices. 6.6.1 Balanced and Unbalanced Systems A serial communication interface requires two conductors to transmit each signal. If the return wire is grounded and the information is sent by putting absolute voltage on the signal wire (+10V or 10V for instance) then the transmission is said to be unbalanced. It is not the fastest way of using the twowire channel. If the voltage put on the signal wire is only positive (or only negative) the signaling is implore. If both positive and negative are used it bipolar. The performance of a channel and the speed of communication can be significantly increased by two methods. The first way is to terminate the twowire path correctly to avoid earth-return. In the second method, signals can be driven on both wires, instead of using an earth-return path and driving only one wire I an unbalanced fashion. For example, the true signal might be +5V on one wire and 5V on the other. The false signal would be the reverse, -5V and +5V respectively. (This allows a shock wave to be generated that can be detected more rapidly and followed more closely by the next bit). The choice between unbalanced and balanced transmission lines is an important consideration when selecting a data communications system. The balanced transmission line permits a higher rate of data transfer over longer distances. The differential method of data transfer is preferable in industrial applications where noise can be a major problem. The disadvantage is that a balanced system requires two conductors for every signal. The successful transfer of voltage signals across two conductors in the presence of noise is based on the assumption that the conductors have similar

characteristics and will be affected equally by noise and voltage drops. It does not mean that noise does not exist in the balanced differential system. The voltages on both conductors should rise and fall together, and the differential voltage should remain the same. 6.7 Communication Mode In any communications link connecting two devices, data can either be sent in one of three communications modes: Simplex Half duplex Duplex

6.7.1 Simplex Mode The simplest of serial links is called simplex or channel connection. It provides a single path in one direction only and involves a driver circuit at one end (Tx) and a receiver circuit at the other (Rx) as shown in Fig. 6.7. Simplex mode is of limited interest in an industrial communications system since feedback from the instrument is essential to confirm whether the action requested has indeed occurred or not.

Fig. 6.7 Simplex Mode of Communication 6.7.2 Half Duplex Mode Half duplex communication occurs when data flows in both direction; but in only one direction at a time as shown in Fig. 6.8. Half duplex communication is provided by the RS-485 physical standard where only one station can transmit at a time.

Fig. 6.8 Half Duplex Mode of Communication 6.7.3 Full Duplex Mode

In a full duplex system, the data can flow in both directions simultaneously. Examples of hardware standards supporting full duplex are the physical standard EIA-232E, sometimes referred to as RS-232C. In duplex transmission shown in Fig. 6.9, a copy of any byte received is sent back to the sender to verify that it was sent and received correctly.

Fig. 6.9 Full Duplex Mode of Communication 6.8 Synchronisation and Timing in Communication A number of techniques exist to ensure that a receiving station reads data at the correct times. As far as binary signaling is concerned, there are four basic methods to synchronise reception with transmission. 1. 2. 3. 4. Synchronous transmission with an explicit clock Enchronous transmission with an embedded clock Isochronous transmission with two similar clocks Asynchronous transmission synchronizing without a clock

6.8.1 Synchronous Transmission This type of transmission uses a clock signal produced by the transmitter and sent along a separate channel in parallel with the data channels. Fig. 6.10 shows a changing data stream with the clock (option A) being true if the data is valid and false if it is changing.

Fig. 6.10 Synchronous Data Transfer This is a simple system, but the clock signal has to change twice as fast as the maximum rate of change of data. Option B uses a single edge to make a point where data are known to be valid. This is called transition clocking. Synchronous transmission is fast but channel efficiency is 50%. It is used in high speed local area networks (10 Mbps or higher). 6.8.2 Enchronous Transmission

The same total efficiency can be achieved by simply changing the timing and data information on a single channel. This embeds the clock into the data giving enchronous transmission. This is done by methods called phase encoding, modified frequency modulation etc. They employ clock edges at regular times between each data time but differ in the method used to determine whether the data is zero or one. The various methods used for this purpose are the state, change or absence of change, or direction of change. There is a maximum of two edges per data bit (minimum of one) and so the efficacy on the single channel is only 50%. The data is transferred at half the rate of that of synchronous transmission but only one channel is required and there is no skew problem. These techniques are common for magnetic tape and disc encoding as well as LAN. 6.8.3 Isochronous Transmission In isochronous data transmission, the receiver is assumed to have a local clock running with 10% accuracy of that of the transmitter. With this addition, the amount of synchronization carried in a channel can usually be cut down to 20%. Fig. 6.11 shows isochronous data transfer. Since both synchronous and enchronous methods have given up 50% of their available bandwidth in carrying synchronization, this method enhances its efficiency.

Fig. 6.11 Isochronous Data Transfer 6.8.4 Asynchronous Transmission An asynchronous point-to-point transfer control needs two channels in addition to the data channels as shown in Fig. 6.12. Fig. 6.12 Asynchronous Data Transfer The sequence of action starts with the transmitter waiting until the receiver indicates on its Receiver Ready (RR) channel that it is ready to receive as at (1) as in Fig. 6.12. The transmitter puts out new data and then asserts that they are valid on its Transmitter Data Valid (TDV) channel as at (2), in Fig. 6.12. The receiver may take whatever time it needs to take the data, and then indicates it has done so by lowering its RR channel signal as at (3). This also

indicates that the receiver is not ready to accept another data item as it still handling the data it has just taken. The transmitter then removes its data, asserting that it is not longer valid, by lowering the signals on its DV channel as at (4). The whole cycle then repeats at whatever rate the receiver will accept and the transmitter will run. The structure of valid data is shown in Fig. 6.13.

Fig. 6.13 Structure of Valid Data The different parts of data carry the following indications: Before Start Data Parity Stop Idle >> this is a period when no bit is being sent and the line is true >> a single bit >> bit (01001000) >> even parity >> one or two stop bits can be used >> a period of time when limit is true before the next byte The sending and receiving computers must know what these settings are in order to properly receive and decode the data. The transmission speed is the maximum number of bits that can be sent per second. The baud rate includes the start, parity and stop bit. For example, a 9600-baud transmission of data would transfer 9600/1+8+1+2 = 800 bytes per second. Lower baud rates are 120k, 300k, 1.2k, 2.4k and 9.6k. Higher speeds are 19.2k, 28.8k and 33.3k. 6.9 Comparison between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission Since synchronous and asynchronous transmission methods are commonly used, a comparative study of their performances is given in Table 6.3. Table 6.3 Comparison between Synchronous and Asychronous Transmission Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission Synchronization errors result in loss of Synchronization error results in loss of a complete block High speed in communication Block length is fixed Constant bit rate over a block only one character Low speed in communication Block length is unlimited Constant bit rate within a character

No idle time between characters Variable idle time between characters Characters are buffered into blocks for A character can be transmitted at transmission High transmission efficiency 6.10 Standard Interface In process control applications, communication between two or more devices is always required for which interfacing is the bridge. A good interface should have the following features: Completeness in respect of electrical, physical and logical definition Flexibility in respect of connecting a wide range of devices Simplicity in respect of definition, structure and use Symmetry in applications Transparency in data pattern Security of transmission mechanism Some interface mechanisms have been devised to comply with these features, and some additional ones also, which have been accepted internationally. They are called standard interfaces. Some commonly used standard serial interfaces applicable for industries are discussed in the subsequent sections. 6.11 Serial Interface RS 232C RS 232C stands for: RS for Recommended Standard and C for Third Version RS 232C is a standard interface approved by the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) for connecting serial devices. In 1987, the EIA released a new version of the standard and changed the name to EIA-232-D. In 1991, the EIA teamed up with the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and issued a new version of the standard called EIA/TIA-232-E. It should be emphasized that RS-232 and other related EIA standards, define the electrical and mechanical details of the interface and do not define a protocol. The RS-232 interface standard specifies the method of connecting two devices, the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the Data random Reduced transmission efficiency

Communications Equipment (DCE), also called Data Circuit-terminating Equipment in EIA/TIA-232E. The levels of voltage signals used in RS 232C are shown in Table 6.4. Table 6.4 Voltage Levels in RS 232C Transmitter +5V to +15V -5V to 15V Receiver +3V to +25V -3V to 25V Logic 0 Logic 1

Equipment that uses the RS-232 standard has the following features: Point-to-point communication Suitable for serial, binary and digital data communication Communication is generally asynchronous; meaning that there is fixed timing between data bits, but variable time between character frames Full duplex communications Unbalanced transmission and, therefore, susceptible to noise This type of interfacing is reliable up to a distance of about 16m (50ft), depending on the type of cable used and is capable of a speed of data rates of up to about 20 kbps according to the standard (but 115 kBaud in practice). RS-232 is the serial connection found on IBM-compatible PCs. It is used for many purposes, such as connecting a mouse, printer, or modern as well as industrial instrumentation. Due to improvements in line drivers and cables, application often increase the performance of RS-232 beyond the distance and speed listed in the standard. RS-232 is limited to point-to-point connections between pc SERIAL PORTS AND DEVICES. The EIA-232 standard defines 25 electrical connections. The electrical connections are divided into four groups, namely, (i) signal common, (ii) data lines (transmitted data, received data), (iii) control lines (request to send, clear to send, DCE ready, DTE ready) and (iv) timing signals. Fig. 6.14 shows a female DB-25 connector of RS 232c along with detail terminal identifications. Receiver Signal Timing (DCE Source)

Fig. 6.14 Female DB-25 Connector of RS 232C A male DB-25 connector of RS 232C is shown in Fig. 6.15 with all the terminal identifications. DTE Ready

Fig. 6.15 Male DB-25 Connector of RS 232C Figs. 6.16 and 6.17 show female and male DB-9 connectors along with their terminal identifications. Fig. 6.16 Female DB-9 Connector of RS 232C

Fig. 6.17 Male DB-9 Connector of RS 232C Fig. 6.18 shows the cable connection between DTE and DCE through RS 232C DB9 connector.

Fig. 6.18 Cable Connection between DTE and DCE through RS 232C DB9 Connection

6.12 Serial Interface RS 422 RS 422 (EIA RS 422-A Standard) is the serial connection used on Apple Macintosh computers. RS 422 uses a differential electrical signal, as opposed to the unbalanced signals referenced to ground with RS 232. Differential transmission, which uses two lines each for transmit and receive signals, results in greater noise immunity and longer distances as compared to RS

232. The greater noise immunity and longer distances are big advantages in industrial environments. 6.13 Serial Interface EIA 485 The EIA 485 standard is the most versatile of the EIA interface standards and is a true balanced or differential standard. EIA 485 permits a multidrop network connection on two wires and allows reliable serial data communication for (i) distances of up to 1200m, (ii) data rates of up to 10 Mbps, (iii) up to 32 line drivers on the same line and (iv) up to 32 line receivers on the same line. The major enhancement of EIA 485 is that a line driver can operate in three states called tri-state operation, namely: (i) logic 1, (ii) logic 0 and (iii) high-impendence. In the high impedance state the line driver draws virtually no current and appears not to be present on the line. This is known as the disabled state and can be initiated by a signal on a control pin on the line driver integrated circuit. Tri-state operation allows a multidrop network connection. Up to 32 transmitters can be connected on the same line, although only one can be active at any one time. Each terminal in a multidrop system must be allocated a unique address to avoid conflicting with other devices on the system. The EIA 485 interface standard is very useful for systems where several instruments or controllers are connected on the same line. Special care should be taken to choose coordinating software, which is used to decide which device will be active at what time. In most cases, a master terminal, such as a PC or a computer, controls which transmitter/receiver will be active at any one time. The two-wire data transmission line does not normally require special termination. On long lines, the leading and trailing edges of data pulses will be much sharper if terminating resistors approximately equal to the characteristic impendence (Zo) of the line are fitted at the extreme ends. For twisted pairs the characteristic impedance is typically between 100 to 120 ohms. An EIA 485 network can also be connected as a four-wire configuration. In this type of connection, it is necessary that one node be a master node and all others be slaves. The master node communicates to all the slaves, but a slave node can communicate only to the master. Since the slave nodes are not aware of another slaves response to the master, a slave node cannot reply

incorrectly to another slave node. This is an advantage in a mixed protocol environment.

6.14

Comparison of Different Recommended Standards A comparative study between the different recommended standards is presented in Table 6.5 Table 6.5 Comparisons of Different Standards Specification
Mode of operation

Rs 232
Single -ended Unbalanced One driver One receiver

Rs 423
Single -ended Balanced One driver Ten receivers

Rs 422
Differential Unbalanced One driver Ten receivers

Rs 485
Differential Balanced 32 Drivers 32 receivers

Total number of drivers and receivers on one line (one driver active at a time for Rs 485 networks) Maximum cable length Maximum data rate (13M-1300M for RS 422/RS 485) Maximum driver output voltage Driver output signal level (unloaded max) Driver output signal level Unloaded Loaded

16M (50ft) 20kbps +/25V +/5V to +/-15V

1300M (4000ft.) 100kbps +/-6V +/-3.6V

1300M (4000ft.) 10Mbps100kbps -0.25V to 6V +/-2.0V

1300M (4000ft.) 10Mbps100kbps -7V to+ 12V +/-1.5V

+/-25V 3k to 7k N/A +/-6mA and +/-2V 30V/S +/-15V +/-3V 32 to 7k

+/-6V 450 N/A +/-100 A Adjustable +/-12V +/-200mV 4k min.

+/-6V 100 N/A +/-100 A N/A -10V to 10V +/-200mV 4k min.

+/-6V 54 +/-100A +/-100A N/A -7V to +12V +/-200mV 12k

(Unloaded max) Driver load Impedance Maximum driver Power on current in high Z Power off state Slew rate (maximum) Receiver input voltage range Receiver input sensitivity Receiver input resistance (one standard load for RS 485)

6.15 Software Protocol Standard serial interfaces have their own specifications and characteristics as discussed in the previous sections, but they do not mention any specific software protocol to be used to communicate with devices. For use in an industrial environment, serial instrument manufacturers use several protocols,

the most common of which are, (i) ASCII Protocol, (ii) Highway Addressable Remote Transducer (HART) Protocol and (iii) Manufacturer Specific Protocol. 6.15.1 ASCII Protocol ASCII protocol has a set of ASCII strings that constitute commands to the device. This protocol is commonly implemented as asynchronous protocol, because the transmitter and receiver do not have any tightly coupled synchronisation mechanism. These networks are commonly master/slave, where one computer is the master and the field devices are slaves. Normally, all devices power up in receive mode, waiting to receive messages. When the master transmits a message, all devices receive the message. Each of the devices checks whether the message is addressed to it and then acts upon the message. 6.15.2 HART Protocol HART protocol finds wide usage across process control instrumentation. This is commonly used with standard PC serial ports using an electrical adapter for physical signal conversion. HART is a hybrid network that uses the 4-20rnA analog signal commonly found on process control instrumentation and adds to it a digital signal. The digital signal is added in such a way that it does not interfere with the standard 4-20mA functionality. In a control system where the HART protocol is understood, the digital signals can be read from the device to read and write data. 6.15.3 Manufacturer Specific Protocol There are many protocols that are used on standard serial interfaces, but use much more sophisticated data packaging schemes. These protocols use different mechanisms to ensure reliable, robust communication. Most manufacturers of serial devices invent their own ASCII protocol for their particular device. It is a relatively straightforward task to read and write these ASCII strings using the standard serial functions built into a language such as Visual Basic. OptoMux and ModBus ASCII are examples of serial protocols that use standard serial ports and have achieved broad acceptance across many devices and suppliers. Most such protocols are proprietary to a specific

supplier, requiring special software drivers and often - special interface hardware. Examples of these protocols are those used for communicating with PLCs, for example Data Highway+ from AIlen-Breadley or ModBus+ from Modicon. 6.16 Industrial Network A computer with a single network interface can communicate with many other computers. This economy and flexibility has made networks the interface of choice. Typical advantages of networks include resource sharing and ease of communication. Small networks are often called Local Area Networks (LANs). These may connect a few hundred computers within a distance of hundreds of meters. These networks are inexpensive. Data can be transmitted at rates of millions of bits per second. Many control systems are using this kind of network to communicate with other controllers and computers. Typical applications include: Taking quality readings with a PLC and sending the data to a database computer. Distributing recipes or special orders to batch processing equipment. Monitoring remote equipment. Wide Area Networks (WANs) are used by LANs to communicate overlong distances. These are not common in controls applications, but might be needed for a very large-scale process. An example might be an oil pipeline control system that is spread over hundreds of kilometers. 6.17 Network Topology Local Area Networks share information and resources. To enable all the nodes on the network to share information effectively, they must be connected through some transmission medium in some specific fashion. The method of connection is known as the network topology. The nodes need to share this transmission medium in such a way as to allow nodes access to the medium and minimize disruption of an established sender. A physical topology defines the wiring layout for a network. This specifies how the elements in the network are connected to each other electrically. This arrangement will determine what happens if a node on the network fails. There

are basic four types of network topology as shown in Fig. 6.19.

Fig. 6.19 Classification of Network Topology Bus and Ring topologies both share the same network wire. In a star configuration each computer has a single wire that connects it to a central hub. Combinations of these can be used to form hybrid topologies, which are used to overcome the drawbacks of each of the three component topologies. 6.17.1 Bus Topology A bus topology describes a network in which each node is connected to a common single communication channel or bus. This bus is sometimes called a backbone, as it provides a spine for the network. Every node can hear each message packet as it goes past. Each node checks the destination address that is included in the message packet to determine whether that packet is intended for the specific node. When the signal reaches the end of the bus, an electrical terminator absorbs the packet energy to keep it from reflecting back along the bus cable, possibly interfering with other messages already on the bus. Each end of a bus cable must be terminated, so that signals are removed from the bus when they reach the end. A network with a bus topology has been shown in Fig. 6.20

Fig. 6.20 Bus Topology of a Network In a bus topology, nodes should be far enough apart so that they do not interfere with each other. However, if the backbone bus cable is too long, it may be necessary to boost the signal strength using some form of amplification, or repeater. The maximum length of the bus is limited by the time interval that constitutes "simultaneous" packet reception. The advantages and disadvantages of bus topology are tabulated in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology Advantages A bus uses relatively small cable length compared to other topologies having the simplest wiring arrangement. Bus topology is simple and flexible. Since nodes are connected by high impedance tapings across a backbone cable, it is easy to add or remove nodes from a bus. This makes it easy to extend a bus topology. The broadcasting of messages is advantageous for one-to-many data transmissions. Disadvantages There can be a security problem, since every node may see every message, even if the message is not meant for it. Diagnosis and fault-isolation can be difficult, since the fault can be anywhere along the bus. The bus cable can be a bottleneck when network traffic gets heavy. This is because a considerable amount of time is taken by the nodes in trying to access the network. There is no automatic acknowledgement of messages, since messages get absorbed at the end of the bus and do not return to the sender. 6.17.2 Ring Topology A ring topology is both a logical and a physical topology. As a logical topology, a ring is distinguished by the fact that message packets are transmitted sequentially from node to node, in a predefined order, and as such, it is an example of a point-to-point system. Nodes are arranged in a closed loop, so that the initiating node is the last one to receive a packet. As a physical topology, a ring describes a network in which each node is connected to exactly two other nodes. Information traverses a one-way path, so that a node receives packets from only one node and transmits them only to one other node. A message packet travels around the ring until it returns to the node that originally sent it. In a ring topology, each node can act as a

repeater, boosting the signal before sending it on. Each node checks whether the message packet's destination node matches its address. When the packet reaches its destination, the destination node accepts the message and then sends it back to the sender, to acknowledge receipt. Fig. 6.21 shows a network in Ring topology, and its advantages and disadvantages are tabulated in Table 6.7.

Fig. 6.21 Ring Topology of a Network

Table 6.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology Advantages A physical ring topology has minimal cable requirements. No wiring centre or closet is needed. The message can be automatically acknowledged. Each node can regenerate the signal.

Disadvantages If any node goes down, the entire ring goes down. Diagnosis/troubleshooting is difficult because communication is only one-way. Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network. There will be a limit on the distance between nodes.

Since ring topologies use token passing to control access to the network, the token is returned to sender with the acknowledgement. The sender then releases the token to the next node on the network. If this node has nothing to say, the node passes the token on to the next node, and so on. When the token reaches a node with a packet to send, that node sends its packet. Physical ring networks are rare, because this topology has considerable disadvantages. 6.17.3 Star Topology A star topology, as shown in Fig. 6.22, is a physical topology in which

multiple nodes are connected to a central component, generally known as a hub. The hub of a star is usually a wiring centre; that is, a common termination point for the nodes, with a single connection continuing from the hub. In some cases, the hub may actually be a central computer that contains a centralised file and control system, with all its nodes attached directly to the server. As a wiring centre, a hub may in turn be connected to the file server or to another hub. All signals, instructions, and data going to and from each node must pass through the hub to which the node is connected. The telephone system is the best-known example of a star topology, with lines to individual customers coming from a central telephone exchange location. The advantages and disadvantages of star topology are shown in Table 6.8. Table 6.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology Advantages It is easy to add or remove nodes, and to modify the cable layout. Troubleshooting and fault isolation is easy. Failure of a single node does not isolate any other node. Each node can regenerate the signal. The inclusion of a central hub allows easier monitoring of traffic for Star topology is deterministic, which means that its performance can be predicted. Disadvantages A star topology requires large lengths of able. If the hub fails, the entire network fails. To cope up with this possibility in

management purposes.

a sensitive network, redundancy is enhanced by incorporating another hub in parallel.

Fig. 6.22 Star Topology of a Network 6.17.4 Tree Topology Fig. 6.23 shows a tree topology that is constructed out of smaller bus networks. Repeaters are used to boost the signal strength and make the

network larger. In this type of topology, the disadvantages of other types are partially overcome. The advantages of tree topology are given below. It is easy to tree since tree is into sub-units and it is easier to add new units. It is easy to disconnect a sub-unit and hence fault isolation is easier. The major disadvantage of this network is that it is dependent on the root device and if this fails to operate, the reliability of the entire network will be at stake. For a factory environment the bus topology is popular. The large member of wires required for a star configuration can be expensive and confusing. The loop of wire required for a ring topology is also difficult to connect. 6.18 Media Access Methods Once the topology of a particular network is chosen, a user faces the problem of accessing a particular node in a multi-LAN multi mode network. A common and important method of differentiating between different LAN types is to consider their media access methods. Since there must be some method of determining which node can send a message, this is a critical area that determines the efficiency of the LAN. The common methods used in current LANs are shown in Fig. 6.24.

Fig. 6.24 Different Media Access Methods 6.18.1 CSMA/CD (Collision Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) This method is a first-come-first-served media accesses method. It operates in a similar manner to polite human communication. A person listens before he speaks allowing anybody else who is already speaking to finish. If two persons start to speak at the same time, both stop a little later and after a lapse of time, one of them starts to speak. Thus in this method of conversation, one first ensures that the other person is not speaking before starting to speak.

In this media access method, which is in fact a contention based access method, the operation is similar. The first node to seek access when the network is idle will be able to transmit. Contention is at the heart of the Collision Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMN/ CD). In this method, if two nodes start talking and detect a collision they will stop, wait for a random time and then start again. The collision detection logic ensures that more than one message on the channel will simultaneously be detected, and transmission from both ends, eventually stopped. The system is a probabilistic system, since access to the channel cannot be ascertained in advance. 6.18.2 CSMA/BA (Collision Sense Multiple Access/Bitwise Arbitration) If two nodes start talking at the same time, they will stop and use their node addresses to determine which one goes first. 6.18.3 Master-Slave-One Device One in the network is the master and is the only one that may start communication. Slave devices will only respond to requests from the master. 6.18.4 Token Passing Token passing is a deterministic media-access method in which a token, or permission to talk, is passed from node to node, according to a predefined sequence. A token is a special packet, or frame, consisting of a signal sequence, which cannot be mistaken for a message. At any given time, the token can be available or in use. When an available token reaches a node, that node can access the network for a maximum predetermined time, before passing the token on. This deterministic access method guarantees that every node will get access to the network within a given length of time, usually in the order of a few milliseconds. This is in contrast to a probabilistic access method (such as CSMA/CD), in which nodes check for network activity when they want to access the network, and the first node to claim the idle network gets access to it. Because each node gets its turn within a fixed period, deterministic access

methods are more efficient on networks that have heavy traffic. With such networks, nodes using probabilistic access methods spend much of their time competing to gain access and relatively little time actually transmitting data over the network. Network architectures that support the token passing access method include Token Bus, ARC net, FDDl, and Token Ring. To transmit, the node first marks the token as "in use", and then transmits a data packet, with the token attached. In a ring topology network, the packet is passed from node to node, until the packet reaches its destination. The recipient acknowledges the packet by sending the message back to the sender, who then sends the token on to the next node in the network. In a bus topology network, the next recipient of a token is not necessarily the node that is closest to the current token passing node. Rather, the next node is determined "by some predefined rule. The actual message is broadcast on to the bus for all nodes to "hear". For example, in an ARC net or token bus network, the token is passed from one node to the node with the next lower network address. Networks that use token passing generally have some provision for setting the priority with which a node gets the token. Higher-level protocols can specify that a message is important and should receive higher priority. 6.19 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Network Model The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model was developed as a tool to describe the various hardware and software parts found in a network in a systems. It is most useful for explaining a successful network application. The model contains seven layers, with the hardware at the bottom, and the software at the top. A system has been shown in Fig. 6.25 in which computer # 1 is an originator computer and computer #2 is an application computer.

Fig. 6.25 A System Containing Two Computers

A message originating in an application programme in computer #1 is

sent to the application in computer #2. This message has to travel through those seven layers. The name of each layer and its basic action have been tabulated and explained in Table 6.9. Table 6.9 Names and Action of OSI Layers Name of Layer Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical and interconnecting medium Basic Action This is level software on the computer. Translates application requests into network operations. This deals with multiple interactions between computers. Breaks up and recombines data into small packets. Network address and routing added to make frame. The encryption for many bits, including error correction added to a frame. The voltage and timing for a single bit in a frame. The wires or transmission medium of the network.

6.19.1 Application Layer This is the layer where the user programme resides. On a computer, this might be a web browser, or a ladder logic programme on a PLC. 6.19.2 Presentation Layer This layer acts as an application interface so that syntax, formats and codes are consistent between the two-networked machines. This layer also provides subroutines that the user may call to access network functions, and perform functions such as encryption, compression and conversion of data from one form to another. 6.19.3 Session Layer This layer establishes the connection between applications. The session layer deals with issues that go beyond a single block of data. In particular, it deals with resuming transmission if it is interrupted or corrupted. It also enforces dialogue rules, which specify the order and speed of data transfer between a sender and a receiver. For example, the session layer would control the flow of data between an application and a printer with a fixed buffer, to avoid buffer overflows.

6.19.4 Transport Layer This layer is essentially an interface between the processor and the outside world. It generates addresses for session entities and ensures that packets of data have been sent or received. The transport layer will divide small amounts of data into smaller packets, or recombine them into one larger piece. This layer also checks for data integrity, often with a checksum. 6.19.5 Network Layer This layer performs accounting, addressing and routing functions on messages received from the transport layer. If the message is lengthy, this layer will break it up and sequence it over the network. This layer also uses a network routing table to find the next node on the way to the destination address. 6.19.6 Data link Layer This layer establishes and controls the physical path of communication from one node to the next, with error detection. This layer performs Media Access Control (MAC) to decide which node can use the media and when. The rules used to perform these functions also are known as protocols. 6.19.7 Physical Layer This layer is the electrical and mechanical definition of the system. It describes items such as voltage levels and timing for the transmission of single bits. This layer does not add anything to the message frame. It simply converts the digital message received from the data link layer into a string of ones and zeros represented by a signal on the media. One example is RS 485, where a binary 1 is represented by a mark or off state and a binary zero is represented as a space or on state. A mark is a negative voltage between the terminals on the generator while a space is a positive voltage. The interface or interconnecting media can be categorised by mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural aspects. Mechanical specification defines types of connectors and the number of pins. Electrical specifications define line voltages and waveforms as well as failtre modes and effects. Functional specifications include timing, data, control and signal grounds, and which pins the functions

are to use. The procedural interface specifies how signals are exchanged. Fig. 6.26 shows how the originator computer and the application device are interconnected through the OSI layers. In the world of instrumentation this OSI model as shown in Fig. 6.26 is often simplified to use only three layers as shown in Fig. 6.27 (i) (ii) (iii) Layer 1 Physical layer Layer 2 Data link layer Layer 3 Application layer This simplifies the operation of the overall system significantly. There is another layer mentioned in the three layer model entitled user layer. This is not part of the OSI model but is a critical part of the overall system.

Fig. 6.27 Structure of Simplified OSI Model Table 6.10 shows how these layers are applied in the standard interfaces. Table 6.10 Applications of OSI Layers Name of standard interface RS 232 and RS 485 Modbus protocol Ethernet HART smart instrumentation protocol Profibus and foundation bieldbus 6.20 Network Components In designing a network, hardware is needed. Table 6.11 gives a description of most of the hardware needed in the design of networks. Table 6.11 Network Components and their Uses
Name of component Computer Network interface hardware Media OSI layer Purpose Network enabled equipment Network interface may already be built into the computer/PLC/sensor/etc. The physical network connection between network nodes. 10baseT (twisted pair) is the most popular. It is a pair of twisted copper wires terminated with an

Example of a layer Physical layer Data link layer Physical and data link layers Physical, data link and application layers Physical, data link and application layers

Interconnecting media

RJ-45 connector. 10base2 (thin wire) is a thinshielded 10baseF Repeater Hub/Concentrator Physical layer Interconnecting media coaxial (fiber cable optic) with is BNC costly, connectors. but signal

transmission and noise properties are very good. These accept signals and retransmit them so that longer networks can be built. A central connection point that network wires will be connected to. It will pass network packets to local computers, or to remote networks if they are available. This will isolate different networks, but redirect traffic to other LANs. These are intelligent devices that can convent data on one type of network, to data on another type of network. They can also be used to isolate two networks. A gateway is a full computer that will direct traffic to different networks, and possibly screen packets. They are often used to create firewalls for security.

Router Bridges

Network layer Ata link layer

Gateway

Application layer

6.21 Control Network Issues A wide variety of networks are commercially available, and each has its own particular strengths and weaknesses. The differences arise from the basic designs. One simple issue is the use of the network to deliver power to the nodes. Some control networks will also supply enough power to drive some sensors and simple devices. This can eliminate separate power supplies, but it can reduce the data transmission rates on the network. The use of network taps or tees to connect to the network cable is also important. Some taps or tees are simple passive electrical connections, but others involve sophisticated active tees that are costlier, but allow longer networks. The transmission type determines the communication speed and noise immunity. The simplest transmission method is baseband, where voltages are switched off and on to signal bit states. This method is subject to noise, and must operate at lower speeds. RS 232 is an example of baseband transmission. Carrierband transmission uses Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), that will switch a signal between two frequencies to indicate a true or false bit. This technique is very similar to Frequency Modulation (FM) radio where the frequency of the audio wave is transmitted by changing the frequency of a

carrier frequency to about 100MHz. This method allows higher transmission speeds, with reduced noise. Broadband networks transmit data over more than one channel by using multiple carrier frequencies on the same wire. This is similar to sending many cable television channels over the same wire. These networks can achieve very large transmission speeds and they also guarantee real time network access. 6.22 Advantage of a Standardised Industrial Network The advantages of using standardised networks in an industrial environment are discussed in the subsequent sections. 6.22.1 Open Systems It is difficult and costly to integrate systems with instrumentation from several vendors because of the multitude of communication protocols. With standard protocols, devices from many suppliers can coexist on the same network and communicate with one another. 6.22.2 Cost Reduction in Wiring Many systems still use 4-20mA analog instrumentation, requiring extensive point-to-point wiring. Standard networking incurs lower installation costs. 6.22.3 Increased Information Need In the present day industrial environment, engineers are required to gather more information about their processes and the instrumentation connected to the processes. Traditional 4-20mA instrumentation provides only one value, the process value. On a digital network, instruments can provide maintenance and diagnostics information for better tracking of instrument performance. If these are standardised, efficient control of a process can be achieved. 6.22.4 Intelligent Devices Now-a-days instruments have been developed with more intelligence to satisfy consumers' demands for more functionality at lower costs. The

increased information available with a digital network is necessary for capitalising on the extra capabilities made possible by intelligence in the devices. Standardisation in information collection, transmission and control helps in optimising the efficiency of a process. On the basis of the points discussed above, it is clear that the use of a standard network enhances the reliability and efficiency operation of an industry. 6.23 Industrial Network In industry, there are many networks in use and under development today. Different types of networks exist because there is a wide range of industrial process and manufacturing applications that use digital communications. 6.24 Bus Network To accommodate efficient communication in a complicated process, different types of bus networks are devised. For overall enhancement of efficiency of an industrial process, these bus network configurations play an important role. Fig. 6.28 shows a block diagram of the total bus network of a complete process plant. Process I/O devices are connected to a process bus network and discrete I/O devices are connected to a device bus network, both of which are connected to a LAN through a PLC. Remote I/O devices send their information through PLCs to the same LAN, which is interfaced to the information network through supervisory PLCs. This information network is connected to the overall plant computing system. Fig. 6.29 lists some of these networks and their bus classification. 6.25 Device Bus Network vs. Process Bus Network Device bus networks that include discrete devices, as well as small analog devices, are called byte-wide bus networks. These networks can transfer between 1 and 50 or more bytes of data at a time. Device bus networks that only interface with discrete devices are called bit-wide bus networks. Bit-wide networks transfer less than 8 bits of data from simple discrete devices over relatively short distances. The size of the information packet has an inverse effect on the speed at which data travels through the network. Therefore, since device bus networks

transmit only small amounts of data

Fig. 6.28 Block Diagram of a Total Bus Network at a time, they can meet the high-speed requirements for discrete implementations. Conversely, process bus networks work slower because of the large size of their data packets, so they are more applicable for the control of analog I/O devices, which do not require fast response times. The transmission speeds for both types of I/O bus networks can be as high as 1 to 2.5 megabits per second.

Fig. 6.29 Different Types of Industrial Networks Since process bus networks can transmit several hundred bytes of data at a time, they are suitable for applications requiring complex data transmission. Two simple examples may be cited in support of the above discussions. In a conveyor belt of a batch process unit, proximity sensors are used which can be networked together to control the movement of products on the belt, as well as to provide simple diagnostic information. Since a proximity sensor only transmits an ON/OFF signal, it can be used to indicate the location of a product on the belt through a signal accommodated in a few bits of data. The same may also be used to indicate the condition of the belt by addition of a few bits. Another example is of an intelligent pressure transmitter fitted in the pipeline of a fluid. This transmitter, in addition to sending information about the pressure of the fluid, may also send information about temperature and flow rate of the fluid through the pipe. All this information requires a large data packet to be transmitted. This sensor interface, therefore, requires a process bus network. These simple examples justify the necessity of a wide variety of industrial communication networks. These networks demand sophisticated protocols rather than the simple command sets, which are commonly used with typical serial instruments for efficient operation of the communication system. Dedicated hardware and software drivers are required to provide robust

connections between computer platforms and each of these networks. Options for using these networks today include DOE servers and DLL function libraries for the Windows environment. Although anyone network may not satisfy all industrial networking requirements, these buses will bring a more standardised interconnection between computers and the devices used in industrial automation applications. 6.26 Controller Area Network (CAN) The Controller Area Network is a serial bus growing in popularity as a device level network. CAN was developed by Bosch to cope with the needs of in-vehicle automotive communications. It was further developed to provide a digital serial bus system to connect controllers. CAN has been standardised internationally (ISO DIS 11898 and ISO DIS 11519-2) and is already available in a number of silicon implementations. The CAN protocol can detect and correct transmission errors caused by electromagnetic interference. In addition the network itself is relatively easy to configure and can perform centralised diagnostics. There are now many examples of CAN being the basis for networks used in industrial manufacturing applications. CAN is particularly well suited to networking smart I/O devices, as well as sensors and actuators, either in a single machine or in a plant. Several industrial devicebus systems have been built upon CAN. Allen-Bradley developed DeviceNet, a CAN-based protocol now maintained by the Open DeviceNet Vendor's Association. Other such industrial networks include CANopen, developed by CAN in Automation (CiA) and the Smart Distributed System (SDS), developed by Honeywell Microswitch. CAN is a communications protocol specification that defines parts of the OSI physical and data link layers. CAN does not specify the entire physical layer or the medium upon which it resides, or the application layer protocol used to move data. 6.26.1 Characteristics of CAN Protocol The OSI seven layer communication model for CAN protocol is shown in Fig. 6.30, and the basic characteristics of CAN protocol are shown in Table 6.12.

Fig. 6.30 OSI 7-Layer Communications Model for CAN Table 6.12 Characteristics of CAN Protocol CAN communications are performed in a unit cal\ed a frame, which may have a length of up to 8 bytes. Access to the CAN network is carried out using a method called nondestructive bitwise arbitration. In this system, when a CAN node wants to send a frame, it waits for the bus to become idle, it then starts its frame with an arbitration identifier (10). Because of the underlying physical layer, a dominant bit always overrides any recessive bit. As a node is writing its bits to the bus, it also reads the bus to determine whether the bit on the bus is different from the bit written by the node. If the bits are different, the node stops its write because some other node has higher priority to the bus. Thus, the arbitration ID determines the priority of messages on the bus, with lower IDs having higher priority. CAN provides extensive error correction, including bit monitoring (comparing transmitted bits to be received), bit stuffing, CRC checksum, acknowledgement by all receivers, frame check (verify length), automatic retry, and fault confinement (defective devices automatically shut off). Typical data rate are 125kbps to 1 Mbps, depending upon the distance over which the network is operating. The allowable distance ranges from 40m at 1 Mbps to 500m at 125kbps. Industrial protocols built upon CAN add further specifications in the areas of wiring types, connectors, diagnostics indicators, configuration switches, and hot-swapping capability. CAN bus covers the first two layers of the OSI model. The network has a bus topology and uses bit wide resolution for collisions on the network i.e., the lower the network identifier, the higher the priority for sending. 6.26.2 CAN Data Frame and Communication In a CAN network, the transmitted messages are called frames. The CAN protocol works with two frame formats, the essential difference between two

formats is the length of the arbitration 10. In the standard frame format, the length of the ID is 11 bits, in the extended frame format, the length of the 10 is 29 bits. The four different frame types include: (1) data (2) error (3) remote and (4) overload. The data frame begins with a start bit. This is then followed with a message identifier. The ready to receive it bit will be set by the receiving machine. If the receiving machine does not set this bit the remainder of the message is aborted, and the message is resent later. While sending the first few bits, the sender monitors the bits to ensure that the bits that are sent are heard in the same way. If the bits do not agree, then another node on the network has tried to write a message at the same time - there was a collision. The two devices then wait for a time period based on their identifier and then start to resend. The second node will then detect the message, and wait until it is done. The next 6 bits indicate the number of bytes to be sent, from 0 to 8. This is followed by two sets of bits for a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) error checking, this is a checksum of earlier bits. The receiving node sets the next bit ACK slot if the data was received correctly. If there was a CRC error this bit would not be set, and the message would be resent. The remaining bits end the transmission. The end of frame bits is equivalent to stop bits. There must be a delay of at least 3 bits before the next message begins. 6.26.3 CAN Error Detection and Confinement One of the most important and useful features of CAN is its high reliability, even in extremely noisy environments. CAN provides a variety of mechanisms to detect errors in frames. A frame with an error is retransmitted until it is received successfully. CAN also provides an error-confinement mechanism that is used to remove a malfunctioning device from the CAN network when a high percentage of its frames result in errors. Error confinement prevents malfunctioning devices from disturbing the overall network traffic. 6.27 DeviceNet Originally developed by Allen Bradley, DeviceNet is managed by the Open DeviceNet Vendors Association (ODVA http://www.odva.org).an independent supplier organization. DeviceNet is a low-level network designed to connect industrial sensors and actuators to higher level devices like

controllers. DeviceNet focuses especially on the interchangeability of low-cost, simple devices often used in manufacturing applications - such as limit switches, photoelectric sensors, motor starters, bar code readers, variable frequency drives, and operator interfaces. One goal of DeviceNet was to achieve the same level' of interchangeability for 120/240V AC and 24V DC discrete devices using digital communications as is possible with hardwired I/O. This network is made noise resistant and robust. In this network, the PLC chassis can be eliminated and the network can be connected directly to the sensors and actuators. This will reduce the total amount of wiring by moving the I/O points closer to the application point. This can also simplify the connection of complex devices, such as HMls. 6.27.1 Physical Layer Features Table 6.14 shows the key parameters of data rates and wire lengths for the DeviceNet physical layer. Table 6.14 DeviceNet Data Rates and Wire Lengths Drop Length Data Rate 125kb/s 250kb/s 500kb/s Trunk Distance 500m (I 640ft) 250m (820ft) 100m (328ft) Maximum 6m (20ft) 6m (20ft) 6m (20ft) Cumulative 156m (512ft) 78m (256ft) 39m (I 28ft)

Key characteristics of the DeviceNet physical layer are as shown in Table 6.15. Table 6.15 Characteristics of DeviceNet Physical Layer Basic trunkline-dropline physical topology. Separate twisted-pair buses for both signal and power distribution with

signal and power carried in the same cable. Optional opto-isolated design so that externally powered devices can Hot insertion of devices without removing power from the network.

share the bus cable with bus-powered devices.

6.27.2 Communication Features DeviceNet builds on the CAN protocol. Using the OSI model, CAN

specifies only portions of the physical layer and data link layer (layers 1 and 2), while DeviceNet adds the remainder of these layers, plus the media layer and application layer (layers 0 and 7). Two way communications inputs and outputs allow diagnosis of network problems from the main controller. Fig. 6.31 shows the OSI model of DeviceNet and the relationship between the communications stack for DeviceNet and CAN.

Fig. 6.31 DeviceNet Communications Stack including Contribution of CAN Protocol As a general statement, CAN defines the form of data movement while the DeviceNet Application Layer defines the meaning of the data moved. Some specific characteristics of DeviceNet communications are shown in Table 6.16. Table 6.16 Specific Characteristics of DeviceNet Prioritised, peer-to-peer communication based on the nodestructive bitwise arbitration scheme of CAN protocol. Up to 64 node addresses on a single network. Lengths of 500m/250m/100m for speeds of 125kbps/250kbps/500kbps respectively. Addressing includes peer-to-peer, multicast, master/slave, polling or change of state. A single bus cable that delivers data and power. Producer-consumer model for data transfer. Data packet size of 0-8 bytes. Devices can be added/removed while power is on.

6.27.3 A DeviceNet Network The network cable is important for delivering power and data. The two basic types are thick and thin trunk line. The cables may come with a variety of connections to devices such as: bare wires, unsealed screw connector, usealed mini-connector, sealed micro-connector, vampire tapes. Each node on

the network will have its own address between 0 and 63. 6.28 ControlNet ControlNet is complimentary to DeviceNet. It is also supported by a consortium of companies, (http://www.controlnet.org), who also conduct some projects in cooperation with the DeviceNet group. The standard is designed for communication between controllers, and permits more complex messages than DeviceNet. It is not suitable for communication with individual sensors and actuators, or with devices off the factory floor. ControlNet is a more complicated method than DeviceNet. Some of the basic features of this network are given in Table 6.17. Table 6.17 Specific Characteristics of ControlNet Multiple controllers and I/O on one network. Deterministic. Data rates up to 5Mbps. Multiple topologies (bus, star, tree). Up to 99 nodes with addresses, up to 48 without a repeater. Multiple media (coax, fiber, etc.). Data packets up to 510 bytes. Unlimited I/O points. Maximum length may be: 1000m with coax at 5Mbps - 2 nodes; 250m

with coax at 5Mbps - 48 nodes; 500m with coax at 5Mbps with repeaters; 3000m with fiber at 5Mbps, 30Km with fiber at 5Mbps and repeaters. 5 repeaters in series, 48 segments in parallel. Devices can be removed while network is active. Devices powered individually (no network power). This control network is unique because it supports a real-time messaging scheme called Concurrent Time Domain Multiple Access (CTDMA). The network has a scheduled (high priority) and unscheduled (low priority) update. When collisions are detected, the system will wait for a time of at least 2ms, for unscheduled messages. But scheduled messages will be passed sooner, during a special time window.

6.29 Ethernet Ethernet was originally developed by Xerox, Digital, and Intel in the 1970s, but now it is under the IEEE Standard 802.3. It has become the least expensive, most popular high-speed LAN alternative in use. There are several common definitions, which help to describe the various types of Ethernet media as shown in Table 6.18. Table 6.18 Different Types of Ethernet Media Type Standard Ethernet (10Base5) Description It is a thick coaxial cable and is called Thick Ethernet. It can run for as much as 500m (1,640ft.), without using a repeater. Connection to this cable is carried out through a vampire clamp that has a 15-pin connector called an AUI port on Thin Ethernet (10Base2) Twisted-pair Ethernet (10BaseT) the other end. It uses a less expensive, thin coaxial cable and connects to nodes by way of a T type BNC connector. It uses telephone wiring and hence is very economical. Standard RI-45 connectors are used in the system. This type of Ethernet is wired in a star configuration and Fiber-optic Ethernet (10BaseF) requires a hub. It is used to extend Ethernet segments to distances of 1.2km.

Fast Ethernet is essentially the same as the original Ethernet except that the transfer rates at 100 Mbps., are 10 times faster Another difference is that Fast Ethernet includes a mechanism for auto-negotiation of the media speed. This means dual-speed Ethernet interfaces can be installed and run at either 10 or 100Mbps. There are three forms of Fast Ethernet as defined in the IEEE Standard 802.3. These are shown in Table 6.19. Table 6.19 Types of Fast Ethernet Type 100BaseT4 100BaseTX 100BaseFX 6.29.1 Protocol Description It uses four pairs of telephone-grade twisted-pair wire. It uses two pairs of data grade twisted-pair wire. It uses two stands of fiber-optic cable.

Ethernet defines only the physical layer and not the protocol. Ethernet defines the data link layer and functions at layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model as shown in Fig. 6.32. 6.30 Proprietory Network Allen Bradley has developed the Data Highway II (DH +) network for passing data and programmes between PLCs and to computers. This bus network allows up to 64 PLCs to be connected with a single twisted pair in a shielded cable. Token passing is used to control traffic on the network. Computers can also be connected to the DH+ network, with a network card to download programmes and monitor the PLC. The network will support data rates of 57.6Kbps and 230Kbps.

Fig.6.32 OSI Model and its Relation to Ethernet 6.31 Smart Distributed System The Smart Distributed System, developed by Honeywell's Micro Switch Division, is an advanced bus system for intelligent sensors and actuators. This CAN-based network is useable at both the control and device levels. This optimises machine applications. Combining the power of CAN technology, computer control and .intelligent I/O devices, the Smart Distributed System provides a truly integrated solution. A Smart Distributed System can interface up to 64 nodes, with a maximum of 126 addresses, over a single 4-wire cable. These intelligent sensor and actuator devices do more than just turn on and off. Smart Distributed System devices have advanced device-level functions, system and device diagnostics. The Smart Distributed System can interface with both PC controllers and PLCs. It is ideally suited for industrial applications replacing older, discretely wired sensors and actuator systems. 6.32 Interbus-S Interbus-S, introduced in 1984 by Phoenix Contact, is a ring-based, distributed device network for manufacturing and process control. An InterbusS system consists of a controller board installed into a PLC or computer (PC,

VME, etc.) that communicates to a variety of I/O devices. . 6.33 Seriplex Bit-wide Device Bus Network The Seriplex device bus network can connect up to 510 field devices to a PLC in either a master/slave or peer-to-peer configuration. The Seriplex network is based on the Application Specific Integrated Circuit, or ASIC chip, which must be present in all I/O field devices that connect to the network. I/O devices that do not have the ASIC chip embedded in their circuitry (i.e., off-theshelf devices) can connect to the network via a Seriplex I/O module interface that contains a slave ASIC chip. The ASIC I/O interface contains a 32 built-in Boolean logic function that is used to create the logic necessary for the communication, addressability, and intelligence to control the field devices connected to the network bus. Fig. 6.33 shows a Seriplex bus network with a controller. A Seriplex network can span distances of up to 1,515m (5,000ft.), in a star, loop, tree, or multidrop configuration. This bit-wide bus network can also operate without a host controller. Unlike the ASI network, the Seriplex device bus network can interface with analog I/O devices; however, the digitised analog signal is read or written one bit at a time in each scan cycle.

Fig. 6.33 Seriplex Bus Network with a Controller 6.34 AS-I Interface AS-I, the abbreviation of Actuator/Sensor Interface, is a connection system for the lowest process level in automation systems. This system uses a single electrical cable called AS-I cable. Using the AS-I cable and the AS-I master, the simplest binary sensors and actuators can be connected to the control devices at the field level via AS-I modules. AI-I is the SIMATIC product name for this AS-I technology, which has been proposed for international standardisation. Under the name AS-interface, Siemens produces master interface modules for industrial PCs and programmable controllers. The range of available master interface modules is being developed continuously. The main characteristics of the AS-interface are presented in Table 6.20. Table 6.20 Main Characteristics of AS Interface AS-interface is optimised for connecting binary sensors and actuators.

AS-I cable is used for data exchange between the sensors/actuators and a master and between power supply and sensors and actuators. Simple and cost-effective wiring having high flexibility, which can be

easily installed using the "penetration" technique. It has a fast reaction time, e.g., the AS-I master requires a maximum of Stations on the AS-I cable can either be sensors/actuators with an

5ms for cyclic data exchange with up to 31 stations. integrated AS-I connector or AS-I modules to which up to four conventional binary sensors/actuators can be connected. With AS-I modules, up to 124 actuators/sensors can be operated on the A simple 2-wire cable without shielding or twisting can be used to Tree structure network consists of a cable of length up to 100m. The AS interface allows any point on a cable section to be AS-I cable. transfer both the data and the power supply. "tree structure" of the

used as the start of a new branch. Loops are not permitted. The total length of all subsections can be up to 100m. AS-I uses constant message lengths. Complicated procedures for controlling transmission and identifying message lengths or data formats are not required. This makes it possible for a master to poll all connected slaves within a maximum distance of 5ms and to update the data, both on the master and slave. 6.34.1 AS-I-Open Standard for Network Systems at the Process Level Eleven companies active in the field of binary sensors and actuators compiled the electrical and mechanical specifications for AS-I. The specifications are available for companies who are interested in this field. This makes AS-I an open standard independent of the manufacturer. With the ASinterface, Siemens provides a system complying with the AS-I standard. The "Association for Promoting Interfaces with Bus Capability for Binary Actuators and Sensors" (AS-I Association) is responsible for promoting the application and dissemination of the AS-I system; in particular the specification, standardisation, certification and general user information.

6.34.2 AS-Interface/ AS-I System Operation The AS-interface/AS-I system operates in two steps, namely, (j) MasterSlave Access Technique and (ij) Electronic Address Setting. The AS-interface is a "single master system" having only one master per AS-I network, which controls the data exchange. It sends data to all slaves one after the other and waits for a reply. The address of the slave is its identifier, which can be set by using a special programming and diagnostic device. Once the address for a particular slave is set, it is stored permanently on the slave. When the data reaches a slave, it checks whether it is meant for it by decoding the address to which the master has sent, and then only decodes the actual data. 6.34.3 Operating Reliability and Flexibility The transmission technique used (current modulation) guarantees high operating reliability. The master monitors the voltage on the cable and the transferred data. It detects transmission errors and the failure of slaves and sends a message to the PLC. The user can then react to this message. Exchange or addition of slaves during normal operation does not impair communication with the other stations. 6.35 Foundation Fieldbus Foundation Fieldbus is a sophisticated industrial network specially meant for complex distributed control in process plants. The Fieldbus specifications were developed by the Fieldbus Foundation, a group representing over 80% of the world's suppliers of industrial automation systems, devices, and services. Foundation Fieldbus is based upon existing standards and is supported by the research and development results of the International Society for Measurement and Control (lSA), the International Electrotechnical Committee (lEC), Process Fieldbus (Profibus), a German national standard, Factory Instrumentation Protocol (FIP), a French national standard, and Highway Addressable Remote Transducer (HART), a widely-used process instrumentation protocol. The Foundation Fieldbus has two speeds, namely, (i) a low speed of 31.25kbaud, referred to as HI and (ii) a high speed of 1Mbaud or 2.5Mbaud (depending upon the ac current or dc voltage mode), called H2. A summary of the characteristics of H1 and H2 is given in Table 6.21.

Table 6.21 Characteristics of H1 and H2 Low speed bus (H1) 31.25 kbaud 3-32 devices that are not bus powered. 2-12 devices that are bus powered. 2-6 devices that are bus powered in an Intrinsically Safe (IS) area. High speed bus (H2) 1 mbaud 27 devices, ac current mode (16khz frequency) powered from a bus in an 1 mbaud Intrinsically Safe (IS) area. 127 devices, dc voltage mode, not powered from bus, and no Intrinsically 2.5 mbaud Safe (IS) area. 127 devices, dc voltage mode, not powered from a bus, and no Intrinsically Safe (IS) area. The Foundation Fieldbus communication protocols are based on the OSI seven layer communications model. It has optimised the OSI architecture for process control by removing the middle layers that are generally associated with non-time critical applications. A comparison of the Foundation Fieldbus model and the OSI 7-layer communication model is given Fig. 6.34.

Fig. 6.34 Foundation Fieldbus Model Compared to the OSI 7 Layer Communication Model As it is seen from the figure, the Foundation Fieldbus system consists of 0) the physical layer [Layer-l of OSI model], (ii) the communication "stack," [consisting of Layer 2 (data link layer)] and Layer 7 (application layer) of the OSI model] and (iii) user application. 6.35.1 Physical Layer (Layer 1) The physical layer is based upon standards created by ISA/IEC (ISA S50.02-1992, IEC 1158-2, which also specifies the capability for intrinsically safe operation. 6.35.2 Communication Stack (Layers 2 and 7)

The communication stack portion of the Fieldbus process bus network consists of layer 2 (the data link layer) and layer 7 (the application layer). The data link layer controls the transmission of messages onto the Fieldbus through the physical layer. The layers above the physical layer are together often referred to as the "stack" for the Fieldbus. There are certain specific characteristics of the data link layer as mentioned in Table 6.22, which are the key to distributed real-time control actions. Table 6.22 Characteristics of Data Link Layer Data link layer is based on a token passing protocol Link Active Scheduler (LAS) is a centralised device that acts as the arbitrator of the bus. LAS executes a schedule that makes deterministic communication possible. LAS distributes time to the network to permit all devices to share the same sense of time. The application layer contains the Fieldbus Messaging Specification (FMS) standard, which encodes and decodes commands from the user layer. The FMS is based on the Profibus process bus standard. Layer 7 also contains an object dictionary, which allows the Fieldbus network data to be retrieved either by a tag name or an index record. The Fieldbus process network uses two types of message transmissions: cyclic (scheduled) and acyclic (unscheduled). Cyclic message transmissions occur at regular, scheduled times. The master network device monitors how busy the network is and then grants the slave devices permission to send network transmissions at specified times. Other network devices can listen to and receive these messages if they are subscribers. Acyclic, or unscheduled, messages occur between cyclic, scheduled messages, when the master device sends an unscheduled informational message to a slave device. Typically, acyclic messages involve alarm acknowledgment signals or special retrieving commands designed to obtain diagnostic information from the field devices.

6.35.3 User Layer (Layer 8) The user layer implements the Fieldbus network's distributed control strategy. It contains three key elements, namely, function blocks, device description services, and system management. The user layer, a vital segment of the Fieldbus network, also defines the software model for user interaction with the network system. (a) Function Block The user layer defines "blocks" that represent the functions and data available in a device. Rather than interface to a device through a set of commands as commonly used with communication protocols, a Foundation Fieldbus user interacts with devices through a set of blocks that define device capabilities in a standardised way. Function blocks are the core components with which a user specifies the behavior of a control system. Foundation Fieldbus defines standard sets of function blocks. There is a set of 10 basic controls and I/O functions as shown in Table 6.23. Table 6.23 Control and I/O Functions of Foundation Fieldbus Function Block Name Analog Input Analog Output Bias Control Selector Discrete Input Discrete Output Manual Loader Proportional/Derivative Proportional/Integral/Derivative Ratio Symbol AI AO B CS DI DO ML PD PID RA The inputs and outputs of individual function blocks can be connected to specify communication of data on the bus. Even more importantly, the execution of a function block can be precisely scheduled. This is a key capability of Foundation Fieldbus because it allows execution of control loops directly over the network. The function blocks themselves reside in individual devices but the overall scheduling of execution is specified and executed

across the network. Fig. 6.35 shows a simple control loop with three function blocks AI, PID, AO.

Fig. 6.35 A Feedback Control Loop with AI, PID and AO Function Blocks The function blocks shown in Fig. 6.35 could be implemented on the fieldbus in several different ways. The Al, PID, and AO could reside in separate devices, such as a transmitter, loop controller and valve. Alternatively, the PID itself could reside in the control valve. In the second case, there is no explicit controller device. In either system, the user's view is the same - a series of connected function blocks and an execution schedule. The second system, however, shows the true potential of Foundation Fieldbus - distributed control, where the control function exists in the field rather than being concentrated in larger controllers.

(b) Device Description Service (DDS) The user layer of the Foundation Fieldbus has another important feature i.e. Device Description Service (DDS). A key objective for Foundation Fieldbus is the ability to build systems comprising devices from a variety of manufactures, and take full advantage of both the standard and unique capabilities of every device. Function blocks go a long way in ensuring a consistent model of a control system. From a system point-of-view, however, a mechanism is needed to document, in a standard way, the types of functions available in any given device. To achieve this end, Foundation Fieldbus defines the Device Description (DD). This is a standardised description of the functions available in a device. Using the DD, the host in a control system, for example a Windows NT-based Man Machine Interface (MMI) can obtain the information necessary to create the human interface for interacting with the device to configure parameters, perform calibration and diagnostics, and other functions. DD is a mechanism for describing the functions in a device. This is the key to field bus interoperability. This can be contrasted to a more simplistic and common approach to the problem of compatibility and interchangeability, namely by specifying that only a given set of functions can be used in a device

to ensure that a given system can always talk to a new device. This would severely restrict the ability of a device manufacturer to innovate by adding new device features, and there would be a never ending contention about the "right" set of functions upon which to standardise. With the DD, developers can add new features and be confident that host systems can learn about and take advantage of these features in standard way. (c) System Manager The system management portion of the user layer schedules the execution of function blocks at precisely defined intervals. It also controls the communication of all the Fieldbus network parameters used by the function blocks. Moreover, the system manager automatically assigns field device addresses. 6.36 Profibus Profibus is the leading' open fieldbus system in Europe (http://www.profibus.com). It is used worldwide in manufacturing, process control and automation. Profibus is standardised in the German standard DIN 19245 and European fieldbus standard EN 50170. The Profibus User Organization is engaged in continuous research and development on Profibus technology. Fig. 6.36 shows the hierarchy in a Profibus network. In the upper level the host computer controls the overall system. It is connected to the application range at cell level and field level through an information network TCP/IP gateway. At cell level, Profibus FMS is networked with sensors, application equipment and through PLCs to the field level bus e.g. Profibus DP, Profibus FMS and sometimes through segment couplers to Profibus PA also. At the field level, bus, sensors, actuators, transmitters, I/O etc. are connected. Fig. 6.36 Profibus Network Hierarchy The general features of Profibus are given in Table 6.24. Table 6.24 General Features of Profibus Straight bus topology. Maximum of 126 nodes.

A token passing between up to three masters. Length from 9600m/9.6Kbps with 7 repeaters to 500m/12Mbps with 4 repeaters. With fiber optic cables, the lengths can be over 80Km. Fig. 6.37 shows the protocol architecture of Profubs protocols using the

OSI 7-Layer model. This technology can be used for both high-speed timecritical data transmission between controllers and I/O, and complex communications between PLCs. The Profibus family consists of three compatible versions DP, FMS, and PA. These three protocols have been described briefly in the following sections.

Fig. 6.37 Protocol Architecture of Profibus 6.37 Profibus-DP Profibus-DP uses layers 1 and 2, and the user interface of the OSI model and layers 3 to 7 are not defined. The Direct Data Link Mapper (DDLM) allows access between the user interface and layer 2. The user interface specifies both application functions and device behavior. RS-485 and fiber-optic are available physical media for Profibus-DP. This is designed for high-speed, cost-effective communication between industrial controllers and distributed I/O. Parallel signal transmission with 24V or 0 to 20mA can be replaced. On such a network, central controllers, such as PLCs or PCs, communicate with distributed field devices (such as I/O, drives and valves) via a high-speed serial link. Most of the data communication with these distributed devices is done in a cyclic manner. 6.38 Profibus-FMS In Profibus-FMS, layers 1, 2, and 7 are defined. The application layer consists of Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS), and Lower Layer Interface (LLI). FMS contains the application protocol and provides the user with a wide selection of communication services. LLI implements communication relationship and provides FMS with device-independent access to layer 2. Layer 2 (FDL Fieldbus data link) implements bus access control and data security. Rs-485 and fiber-optic physical layers are available for Profibus-FMS.

In

general,

this

is

meant

for

communication

primarily

between

programmable controllers such as PLCs and PCs. However, its application layers provided with a user communication service make it possible to access variables, transmit programmes, and control programme execution, as well as transmission of events. Profibus-FMS defines a communication model in which distributed application processes can be unified into a common process by using communication relationships. 6.39 Profibus-PA Profibus-PA is specifically designed for process control and automation, using the international fieldbus standard physical layer, IEC 1158-2, for buspowered sensors and actuators to be operated in 'intrinsically safe areas. It uses the extended Profibus-DP protocol for data transmission. Profibus-PA devices can be integrated in Profibus-DP networks using segment couplers. The Profibus's medium access protocol is a hybrid communication method that includes a token-passing protocol for use between masters, and a masterslave protocol for communication between a master and a field device. Through this hybrid medium access protocol, a Profibus network can function as a master-slave system, a master-master system (token passing), or a combination of both systems as shown in Fig. 6.38.

Fig. 6.38 Master-slave and Master-master Profibus Communication 6.40 Application of Profibus for Real PLC Communication (a) Overcoming Language Barriers between Devices with FMS Data transmission via a configured FMS connection is suitable for the transmission of structured data between two Profibus nodes that support the FMS standard. The great advantage of this FMS protocol is that data structures can be transferred in a neutral format, in other words in a format that is not dictated by any particular end device. This data is then converted to the format required by the end device. This means that one can communicate with all devices that understand the FMS protocol. In the user programmes of the end devices, one can therefore use "Device Language", for example Statement List for SIMATIC

S7/SIMATIC M7 PLCs and C for the PC application. (b) FMS Interface and FMS Master System Data is transmitted on an FMS connection when triggered by the user programme. Special SIMATIC S7 Function Blocks (FBs) form the interface to the user program on the SIMATIC S7 programmable controller. Function blocks are available for the following tasks as shown in Table 6.25. Table 6.25 Function Blocks in 51MATIC 57 Programmable Controller Task Read variable Write variable Report variable Coordination General VFD services Function Block (FB) READ WRITE REPORT ACCESS IDENTIFY STATUS On the Profibus, devices are divided into masters and slaves. The right of access to the bus is known as tile token, and it is passed on from master to master. The slaves can only react when requested to by a master. In terms of the functionality of an FMS device, a further distinction is made between the following: FMS client: The FMS client requests a service; assuming that it is a master on the Profibus. FMS server: The FMS server provides the requested service; both a master on the Profibus as well as a slave on the Profibus can act in the role of a server. An FMS master system is formed by all the devices with FMS functionality on the Profibus Subnet. This means that several FMS masters can access the same slaves. In contrast to this system, with distributed peripheral I/Os (DP) there are additional assignment criteria with which all, or a subset of the DP slaves on the subnet can be assigned to a DP master. In other words, several DP master systems are possible.

(c) Virtual Field Device (VFD) A device operating on Profibus and complying with the FMS norm is generally known as a Virtual Field Device (a field device with an open communications interface).

Fig. 6.39 FMS Connection of an S7 VFD to any Device with an FMS Interface The FMS services implemented on the Profibus Communication Processor (CP) ensure that the data are converted from the PLC format to the neutral FMS data format and vice-versa. (d) Properties of the FMS Connection An FMS connection allows programme-controlled communication between two nodes on the Profibus with the following properties: Data transfer is bi-directional, in other words, it is possible to send Data is transferred using the FMS services complying with the

and receive simultaneously on the FMS connection. standard. The services are negotiated between the communication partners automatically when the connection is established. The user can specify the services required on the Profibus Communication Processor (CP) during configuration. The data are transmitted on the FMS connection in the FMS format Depending on the services used on the FMS connection, a VFD FMS client: The FMS client requests a service; this assumes that FMS server: The FMS server provides a requested service; both as specified in the standard. functions as the FMS client, as the FMS server or performs both roles. the device is a master on the Profibus. masters and slaves on the Profibus can act as servers. (e) Tasks of the Profibus CP The Profibus CP is responsible for the following tasks when handling the data transfer on an FMS connection: Receiving data from the Profibus, converting the data from the FMS

representation to the particular representation required by the device and passing on the data to the user data area on the CPU. Accepting data from the user data area of the CPU, converting the data to the FMS representation and sending the data on the Profibus. The Profibus CP must first be entered in the hardware configuration of the PLC and must be connected to the subnet. (f) The FMS Interface in the User Program When the user writes the user programme, the user must start with configuration of FMS connections. The FMS connections are established when the Profibus CP starts up; the user programme is not involved in the way that the connections are handled. The return parameters on the FMS interface (FBs) give information on the status of the FMS connection.

(g)

Principle Writing, Reading and Reporting Data with Function Blocks (FBs) The Function Blocks (FBs), given in Table 6.26, are available for

handling communication on FMS connections for Siemens S7-300/400 PLCs. Table 6.26 FBs in S7-300/400 PLCs FB WRITE Function/Method of Operations The user data referenced in the cell are converted to the FMS representation and transmitted. The conversion is made according to the variable description stored on the partner and read during connection establishment. The data transfer is confirmed by the FMS server. READ The data area referenced by the FMS client in the job is converted to the FMS representation in the FMS server and transferred to the FMS client as the response. The data is reconverted on the FMS client according to the variable description read from the FMS server during connection establishment. REPORT The user data referenced in the call are converted to the FMS

representation on the FMS server according to the configured variable description and transferred. The user program does not receive confirmation of the data transfer. The data are reconverted on the FMS client according to the variable description read from the FMS server during connection establishment. The schematic diagram in Fig. 6.40, illustrates how these function blocks work; the arrows indicate the direction of flow of the user data. The performance of control systems is no longer simply determined by the PLCs, but is influenced to a great extent by the environment in which the PLCs are located. Apart from plant visualization, operating and monitoring, this also means a high performance open communication standard, which can converse with the products of almost all vendors. In process automation, complex control tasks are subdivided into smaller tasks with different distributed systems. As a result, efficient communication between the subsystems is an absolute necessity. Such structures have some unique advantages, which are listed below. 1. 2. 3. 4. Independent and simultaneous startup of the individual sections of a plant. Parallel processing by distributed automation systems. Reduced load on individual processing units. Increased plant availability since the rest of the system can continue to operate if a subsystem fails.

Fig. 6.40 Service Request and Data Flow Between FMS Client and FMS Server This chapter gives a vivid picture of open communication standards for devices and processes. In the next chapter, Programmable Logic Controller based solutions of some industrial automation problems have been attempted.