LEXICOLOGY

Lexicology and its object

Linguistics = a social science which studies language in all its

aspects (speech, writing, the nature of language, its units and structure, its modifications). It also offers a comparative study of languages.

lexicology -from Greek (lexikon lexic< lexis word + logos science) it refers to that branch of linguistics which studies the vocabulary of a given language,
dealing with: sources of the vocabulary, word-formation, words and meanings, changes of meaning, semantic relations between words, lexical strata, lexicography. lexicography.

Lexicology examines words from both a synchronic and a

diachronic point of view the synchronic perspective: analysis of a particular stage in the development of words

the diachronic perspective: the study of the phonological

Word Study

peculiarities of the respective language, the spelling in various periods, tendencies in word-building, borrowings during various stages of development, evolutions in the meaning of words, as well as morphological and syntactical traits and their modifications

A word is (according to different dictionaries) 1. a sound or combination of sounds (or the written symbols)

forming a unit expressing an object, action, idea, etc. in a

language; 2. a unit of language as spoken, written, or printed.

3. according to the Dicionarul limbii romne, a word is defined

as an element of human speech, to which a meaning is attached, which is liable to grammatical usage and which can be understood by a human group in a historical community.

4. Dicionarul de termeni lingvistici defines it as a lexical unity

made up of a sonorous complex and a sense (or a complex of senses) liable to a grammatical usage; basic lexical unit of the vocabulary of a language.

Words can be simple (cannot be decomposed into parts of speech) such as: train, man, moon, star, in , big compound (made up of two or more words: snowdrop, merry-goround, flitter-mouse; forget-me-not; lily-of-the-valley
Words can be: nouns (denoting notions : pencil, radio, love, freedom, glass); adjectives (denoting qualities: ugly, boring, interesting, right); verbs (denoting actions or states: to work, to run, to sit, to look, to stand). prepositions, conjunctions, etc., - they denote relations of specific types; they merely determine other words.

Words can be: concrete (man, room, window) abstract (idea, liberty, peace). Each word has

 a form a meaning

Meaning a bipolar relation between the two independent sides of the linguistic sign: - the signifiant and the signifi (Ferdinand de Saussure), - expression and content (The Copenhagen Linguistic Circle who had Hjelmslev as its
main representative).

the symbol (the material aspect phonic or graphic), the thought / reference (the mental content which accompanies

the occurrence of the symbol in the minds of the speaker and the listener) the object /referent designated by the symbol
Words can have: direct meaning (lexical meaning the sense that words have as they are listed in a dictionary) grammatical meaning (the added sense that words acquire when they are put together in a sentence); Example: a) Go and wash your hands(hand = a part of the human body); b) I`ve got much Example: to do, can you give me a hand? (hand = help)

According to their number of meanings, words are monosemantic (having only one meaning) Expl: octopus (any of various sea molluskus with eight long arms furnished with two rows of suckers for seizing and holding prey) polysemantic (having two or more meanings): new 1) not old; recent; modern 2) different from the former; 3) recently

discovered, recognized or learned about; 4) unfamiliar; 5) not accustomed; 6) beginning as a repetition of a previous act or thing; 7) being in the position or place for the first time; 8) original; 9) fresh.

The total meaning of a word must take into view its two aspects: denotation connotation(s)
denotation : the objective, impersonal and intellective meaning of a word the nucleus of a word the meaning which has been fixed in the language of the whole people the reality this word designates in a direct way the cognitive, or communicative aspect of meaning

rose stands for a flower; grammatically, it is a noun beautiful designates a quality; grammatically, it is an adjective to run stands for an action; grammatically, it is a verb.

Connotation (s) the subjective, personal and emotive <extra- meaning> of a word what the word suggests or implies the field of associations, suggestions, implications which surrounds the word (the fact that the word stands for feelings, which as a result of social and personal experience, have been attached to it) the emotional overtones the speaker usually associates with each individual use of words

rose may connote beauty delicacy love.

Connotations never remain set change in time and space their power grows or diminishes in their years of use have special force among the people belonging to a certain class, race, religion or having the same political or professional interests there are connotations which are considered to be general or

universal (can be recognized and understood by most people in the same way): autumn, sun, sea there are connotations with a private character (they are attached to certain words due each person`s unique interpretation of the things/facts around ) A word may be defined from different points of view. Phonetically, it is expressed by one or more phonemes (being made up of one speech sound or a series of speech sounds which do not have a meaning of their own; they have a semiotic function, pointing out that a certain word has a different meaning from another word).
The change of a phoneme in a word brings a change in its

meaning.

bed consists of the phonemes [bed] bad consists of the phonemes [bd].

Lexically (semantically), the word is expressed by one or more lexemes (a lexeme is the ultimate, irreducible element of meaning; it is the meaningful speech form that is an item of the vocabulary[1]).
[1] Hulban, H. (2001): Syntheses in English Lexicology and Semantics, Ed. SPANDA, Iasi, p.21 Semantics,

Grammatically, the word is expressed by one or more morphemes (a morpheme = the minimal grammatically significant element; it is the smallest unit of form that has a meaning and certain functional relations in a given linguistic system). The analysis can look like this: a) phonetically the word in has two phonemes [in] the word train has five phonemes [trein]

b) lexically/semantically the word train is expressed by one lexeme (the notion of train)

c) grammatically the word train has only one morpheme; the word trains has two morphemes: train + s (s is the ending characteristic either of the plural form, or of the third person singular present tense of the verb to train)

Word Structure

A word may be analysed in connection with such categories as roots stems affixes (prefixes and suffixes).
root = the ultimate constituent element (morpheme) from which a word is derived;

 it is the element which remains as such after the removal of all endings and formatives it is that element which is common to all cognate words (associationgroups/families of words) it bears the meaning of the respective word. the root in the association group: careful, carefulness, careless,

carelessness, carefully = care.

stem = the word (or one of its forms) which acts as a kernel, helping the formation of another word, which is more complex in its structure it remains unchanged throughout a given inflection and helps the process of word-building is derived from the root, with the help of a suffix (a formative suffix), but sometimes it may be identical with the root. the root of the word hopefulness is hope (it is the basic element for the words belonging to the same association-group: hopeful, hopeless, hopelessness) the stem of the word hopefulness is hopeful; in the word hopeful, the root coincides with the stem: hope the stem of carefulness is careful; the stem of careless is care and it coincides with the root Affixes = lexical-grammatical elements that may be added to a

WORD GROUPS

root or stem in order to form a new word. they are called prefixes suffixes they are elements of two important processes: prefixation and suffixation.

 Collocations = combinations of words; (the verb to collocate

means to combine in a way characteristic of language; put together; arrange Collocations fall into two categories: set expressions and free combinations. The two types of constructions are based on a similar pattern.
a free combination - the meaning is easily understood by the

Complex verbs

reader/speaker, as it is the sum of the meanings of the component elements set expressions - a succession of words that must be learned as if they represented a single word
a) a verb belonging to the basic word stock (usually of Germanic origin)such as: to bring, to carry, to do, to drive, to get, to give, to hold, to keep to set, to turn, etc. b) an adverbial particle: about, across, after, back, down, in , off, out; under, up or, an adverbial particle and a preposition: off, on, out, over, after, about, down, up. a) to put down as a free combination, it means to put somebody/something onto a surface, especially on the floor: Once at home, she put down the bags and entered the kitchen. as a set expression, it means to criticize: I was upset as she put me down in front of all those present in the room. to get up as a set expression, it means to organize, to prepare, to arrange:

His friends are getting up a surprise party.; as a free combination the meaning is to wake up; to rise to one`s feet: When the door-bell rang, she got up and headed to the door.

 Collocations sharp - sharp decline/drop/fall or sharp rise/increase (a very sudden and big change), sharp slope (abrupt), sharp tongue (a tendency to criticize people or speak to them in a cruel or angry way), sharp mind (intelligent and quick), sharp rise/increase (sudden and very big), sharp cheese (with a strong and bitter flavour), sharp pain (a sudden and strong feeling), sharp wind (very cold), sharp cry (sudden and loud) high high wall/mountain (going or reaching far up), high

Types of collocations

temperature/speed/mark/waves (above the usual/normal amount, level or intensity), high voice/sound (loud), high aims/ideals (noble, virtuous), high meat/fish aims/ideals virtuous), (smelling/tasting a little bad), high grade (superior), high land (mountainous regions), high life (fashionable and luxurious style of living), high priest (chief priest), high priest season (the most popular period), high society (the upper classes), high street (the main street), high way (main public road), high position/status/rank

Phrases and Idioms.

a) fixed/unique/frozen collocations (when the lexeme has only one collocate): auburn hair b) restricted collocations (a lexeme has only a few collocates): to need badly/ desperately/ sorely c) unrestricted/multiple collocations (when a lexeme has a great number of collocates) such as: close/curious/strange/disapproving/meaningful/bleeding/grim, preceding the noun look. The term phrase designates a word combination that has the following characteristics: it contains one or more words that have a full lexical value (noun/noun equivalent; adverb; adjective); it stands for a part of speech and takes its grammatical function; (from a lexical point of view), it is a word combination which is not a compound and which expresses a sense unit.

Classification of phrases

a) the type of elements they are made up of : phrases with variable elements vs. phrases with invariable elements (unstable/stable phrases )

The classification of phrases takes into consideration

 Phrases with variable elements: cannot stand the sight of = cannot bear the sight of; as black as coal = as black as ink/pitch Phrases with invariable elements: bread and butter, heart and soul, flesh and blood, safe and sound, bag and baggage, null and void or sick and tired

b) the type of meaning: phrases with a direct (literal) meaning vs. phrases with a figurative meaning Literal meaning: to have a rest, at a distance, no sign of, a one-way street, out of meaning:
curiosity

Figurative meaning: to break the silence, to make money, to kill time, to take one meaning:

life into one`s hands, to live in a small way, to put on airs, to break the news, to live one` in the clouds, to drink in somebody`s words, to eat one`s words, to eat out of one`s hand, to have lost one`s tongue, to hatch a plot

as brave as a lion, as good as gold, as large as life, as mute as a fish, as timid as a life,
hare, as deaf as a post, as flat as a pancake

c) the number of meanings: phrases with one meaning vs. phrases with several meanings Phrases with one meaning: on the contrary, to have a good time Phrases with more meanings: to lose ones hair , to have a

heart , to have a monkey on ones back , to have a long arm, to quit the scene, to smell a rat

From a functional point a view:

a) noun phrases: bread and butter, part and parcel, a slip of the tongue; b) adjective phrases: safe and sound, as black as pitch, as deaf as a post, null and void, high and mighty; c) verb phrases: to have/ take a bath/ swim, to live from hand to mouth, to put in a nutshell, to make up ones mind, to roar with laughter; d) adverb phrases: all day long, side by side, from time to time, fits and starts, now or never, off and on, once for all, by heart

From a semantic point of view:

a) phrases connected with time: now and then, a long time ago, to take time, from time to time, in the nick of time, on the minute, behind the times, in no time, for the time being, minute, times up, time flies, having the time of ones life, in no time, in good time, time after time, time and again, to be behind the times, to be dead on time, in good time, in no long time, in the fullness of time, to kill the time, it`s about time, to make time, now and again, to save time, some little time, to the end of time, around the clock, in the short run, up to the present, to the very moment, all the time, at no time, at all times, to be out of time, in time, just in time, to pass the time, most of the time, time out, to cheat the time, to give somebody a gruelling time .

b) phrases connected with parts of the body: arm: arm in am, to keep someone at arms length, with open arms, to arm oneself arm: (with something) against, to have a long arm, to be up in arms, to chance one`s arm; back: behind someones back, put someones back up, to put ones back into back: something, to have one`s back to the wall; belly: to make a god of ones belly; belly: blood: to get someones blood up, to be in someones blood, to have one`s blood up, blood: to make on`es blood freeze/run cold;

bone: to feel something in one`sbone, to have a bone in ones throat, to have a bone bone:
in ones arm/leg, to be a bag of bones;

breast: to make a clean breast of something; breast: cheek: to have the cheek for something cheek: chest: to get a problem off one`s chest; chest: chin: keep your chin up! chin: ear: all ears, up to my ears, to turn a deaf ear to it, to play by ear, to have itching ears, ear: to have long ears, to be up to one`s ears in, to have/hold/lead somebody by ears; elbow: to elbow ones way; elbow:

face: face to face, lets face it, to lose face, to flash across one`s face, to laugh into face: one`s face; finger: to keep ones fingers crossed, to put ones finger on something, all fingers and finger: thumbs, to have a finger in the pie, to give somebody the finger; fist: to make money hand over fist; fist: foot/feet: to fall on ones feet, to put ones foot in it, to put ones foot down/up, to foot foot/feet: the bill, to get off on the wrong foot; hair: to make somebody`s hair stand on end hair:

hand: at hand, off hand, hands off, to give someone a hand, to force someones hand, hand:
hand in hand, to live from hand to mouth, to get out of hand, to have a heavy hand, to have an open hand, to be made by hand, to bear a hand to, to change hands ; head: above ones head, to make head or tail of something, to have a good head for head: figures, to risk ones head/ neck, to have a level head, to have a long head, to head for disaster, to laugh one`s head off, to be off one`s head;

heart: to have no heart, to take heart, to lose heart, to break ones

heart, to take it to heart, to learn by heart, at heart, to eat one`s heart out, to harden one`s heart, to lay one`s heart bare, to make somebody`s heart leap into his mouth;

heels: to be head over heels in love with somebody, to bring somebody to heel, to cool one`s heels; leg: not to have a leg to stand on;
lips: to rush to one`s lips; lips: mind: to flash into somebodys mind, to cross ones mind, to set one`s mind at rest; mind: mouse: to have a foul mouth, to put words into somebody`s mouth; mouse: neck: to stick one`s neck out, to have a neck; neck: nose: to pay through the nose, to lead someone by the nose, to turn ones nose up at nose:

something, to follow one`s nose, to have a bad/good nose, to make somebody`s nose one` smell, to poke one`s nose into every corner;

palm: to palm something off; ribs to give somebody a dig in the ribs; shoulder: shoulder to shoulder, to rub shoulders with someone, to give someone the cold shoulder; skin: drenched to the skin, to go under someones skin, by the skin of one`s teeth; soul: be a good soul! stomach: to have a weak stomach, to have no stomach for
throat: to jump down somebody`s throat, to clear one`s throat; throat: thumbs: to be all thumbs, to be thumbs up thumbs: toe: to toe the line, to be on ones toes, to tread on someones toes; toe: tongue: to hold ones tongue, to bite ones tongue off, to have something on the tip of tongue: the tongue, to have a flippant tongue, to have a long tongue, to have a soft tongue, to give tongue to something, to keep a clean tongue, on the tip of one`s tongue;

tooth/teeth: to have got a sweet tooth, to fight tooth and nail, in the teeth of the evidence; eye: to keep an eye on someone/something, to rub ones eyes, an eye for an eye, to be all eyes, to get the glad eye, a sight for sore eyes, to hit somebody in the eye, to turn a blind eye to something; eyelid: not to bat an eyelid c) phrases connected with natural phenomena: to rain cats and dogs, rain or shine, snow year, a rich year (proverb), as white as snow, to be in a fog, between wind and water, to gain the wind of, like a thunder clap, like a weathercock in the wind, to get wind, to lose wind;

c) phrases connected with natural phenomena: to rain cats and dogs, rain or shine, snow year, a rich year (proverb), as white as snow, to be in a fog, between wind and water, to gain the wind of, like a thunder clap, like a weathercock in the wind, to get wind, to lose wind;

d) phrases connected with life: to shape one`s life, to bring somebody back to health/life, to come into the world, to hoover between life and death, to live to a green old age, to live like a fighting cock, to live in world, to make one`s way in life, to run one`s race, to spring into existence, to set one`s life on a throw of dice, to be the life and soul of the pary, to lead a double life, a matter of life and death; e) phrases connected with death: to die hard, to die in one`s bed, to die in one`s boots/ shoes, to die for something; to die of something, to pass away,to die on one`s feet, to do oneself in, to go home feet first, to take one`s last sleep, to turn one`s toes up, to slip one`s breath, to beat death`s door, to cheat death, to be sick to death, to be stone dead, to scare somebody to death, to sign one`s own death warrant;

f) phrases connected with health or illness: to be in good health, to run a temperature, to throw off an illness
g) phrases connected with animals: as agile as a monkey, as cool as a cucumber, as graceful as a swan, as meek as a lamb, to be a lame duck, to chase the wild goose, to find fault with a fat goose, to follow the beeline, to play the bear, to play the monkey, to play the fox, to rain cats and dogs, to ride the high horse, to run the wrong hare, to sleep a dog sleep, to smell a rat, to do the donkey work, to be the black sheep, to get news from the horse`s mouth;

h) phrases connected with plants: at the top of the tree, to beat about the bush, to be in blossom/flower, to be in bud, between grass and hay, to do the flowers, to give somebody beans, to hand somebody a lemon, in the dry tree, to paint the lily, to push up daisies, to spill the beans, to send forth leaves, to take roots, to lose ones roses, under the rose; i) phrases connected with food: to every man`s meat, to be sandwich in-betweens, to bring home the bacon, to butter ones bread on both

sides, to cry over the spilt milk, to doctor the wine, to find the bean in the cake, to know how many beans make five;
j) phrases connected with sports: to keep the ball rolling, to hit below the belt. Idiomatic phrases 1) feelings and attitudes: to think the world of someone , to be head over heels in love with, to have a crush on somebody, to get on somebodys nerves, to take a fancy to somebody, to be thrilled to the bits, to be sick and tired of, to fly off the handle, to take no notice of, to put ones foot in it, to call a spade a spade, to make a mountain out of a molehill, to live and let live, to have your cake and eat it;

2) comparisons: to go like clockwork, to be like a red rag to a bull, to be like a cat on hot clockwork, bull, bricks, to be like looking for a needle in a haystack, to be like getting blood out of a bricks, haystack, stone, to smoke like a chimney, to spend money like water, to drink like a fish, like a stone, water, bull in a china shop, like herrings in a barrel, to laugh like a hiena, to land like a cat, like a bull at a gate, like a drowned rat, like a hen with one chicken, to live like pigs in clover, to swell like a turkey-cock, to swim like a fish/duck

3) animals: to let the cat out of the bag, to take the bull by the horns, to flog a dead, to smell a rat, a cock and bull story, to hit the bird in the eye, to bill a coo, to change horses in midstream, to get something stright from the horse`s mouth, to agree like cats and dogs; 4) colours: - black: black market, to be in ones black books, in black and white, to be the black: market, books, white,

black sheep, to beat somebody black and blue, to black out, to give somebody a blue, out, black look, to paint somebody black; look, black; - blue: to come from the blue, to feel blue, to go blue, once in a blue moon, a true blue: blue person, to be in the blues; - brown: to be browned off, in a brown study; brown: off,

- green: to give the green light, to be green with envy, to have green fingers), to get green with envy, in the green, to look through green glasses, in one`s green days, in the green tree;

 - grey: to be lacking in grey, to go grey, grey-matter, in the grey of the morning; - pink: to be tickled pink, to be in the pink, to go pink, to see pink elephants; - purple: born to the purple, to be in purple, to go purple with; red: to be a red-letter day; to go bright red, to be red to a bull , to roll out the red carpet, to catch somebody red-handed, to draw a red herring across the path, to get into the red, to paint something red, to see red, to see the red light; - white: to tell a white lie, to be as white as sheet, to buy a white horse, to put down in black and white, to fly the white feather; - yellow: to be a yellow-bellied person;

Idiomatic pairs

5)tools: - axe: to have an axe to grind; - cart: to do the cart before the horse; - hatchet: to bury the hatchet.

- pairs of nouns: bag and baggage, body and soul, facts and figures, fame and fortune, fire nouns: and water, fits and starts, fun and games, hammer and tongs, heart and soul, ifs and buts, ins and out, likes and dislikes, part and parcel, stuff and nonsense, odds and ends, whys and wherefores, rack and ruin, all sugar and honey, fret and fume, head and shoulders, fingers and thumbs, life and soul, flesh and blood, pros and cons ;

pairs of adjectives: alive and kicking, cut and dried, far and wide, fair and adjectives: square, good and hard, hale and hearty, hard and fast, high and mighty, high and low, more or less, long and short, rough and ready, rough and tough, safe and sound, sick and tired, short and sweet, slow but sure, ups and downs, young and foolish; pairs of adverbs: above and beyond, here and there, now and again, on and off, adverbs: out and about, over and over;

SOURCES OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY

I. BORROWINGS

pairs of verbs: forgive and forget, give and take, pick and choose, touch and go, toss and turn , hide and seek, wait and see;

 The foreign borrowings fall into several groups: aliens (imported) (borrowed words from a language, without any change in respect of the foreign sound and spelling; one immediately recognizes them as being foreign): rsum, chauffeur, table d`hte, vis--vis, dossier, parquet, prestige, raison, fianc, macabre, savoir faire (all from French); allegretto, fiasco, spaghetti, pizzicato (from Italian), troika, tundra, vodka (from Russian) denizens (borrowed words that are not felt as aliens; they are associated with already existing words in the language; the foreign sounds were substituted by English ones; they took the English accent ): fellow, skirt, skin, sky (all Scandinavian words);
translation-loans (help us easily feel the influence of one language upon the other): by heart (English) par coeur (French); fall ill (English) tomber malade (French); mother tongue (English) lingua maternal (Latin); a slip of the tongue (English) lapsus lingue (Latin).

The Latin influence terms denoting articles of consumption: cheese, butter, pear, pepper, mustard, plum, mint; terms connected with military life: battle, javelin, road, camp; terms connected with trade: coin, inch, pound, bargain; terms connected with domestic life: kettle, curtain, stool, pillow, stool, table, cup, dish, wine, cheese; geographical names (ending in chester): Manchester, Gloucester.

During the 6th and 7th century, when the people in Britain were converted to Christianity, many other Latin words were introduced, especially connected with religion or the services of the church: altar, bishop, candle, fest, cross, creed, mass, angel, abbot, monk, nun, pope, priest; objects of common use : chest, silk; plants and vegetables: lily, rose; names of materials: copper, chalk, linen; words belonging to linguistics: language, suffix, voice, noun, tense, adjective

The French element Borrowings from French can be noticed in:

terms associated with feudal administration: state, reign, rule, power, government, baron, court, servant,noble, prince; terms associated with religion: saint,religion, sermon, pray, preach, mercy, charity, devotion, pity, purity,

legal terms/ vocabulary of law: accuse, penalty, court, plead, jury, judge, perjury, justice, prison, bill, act, tax, custom, fraud, blame, heir, heritage, defence, bataille; military terms: assault, company, enemy, troops, challenge, danger,

escape, lieutenant, navy, sergeant, battle, arms, armour, fortress, tower;

terms connected with family relationship: uncle, aunt, cousin, niece, nephew; terms related to national government: chancellor, govern, mayor, prince, county, royal, rent, minister; terms associated with art: colour, design, beauty, ornament; terms connected with nature: flower, mountain, lake, river; other words: master, servant, bottle, dinner, supper, banquet.

The Greek element

terms associated with arts: drama, comedy, tragedy, scene, theatre, melodrama, climax, dialog, epilogue, prolong; terms associated with natural science: botany, zoology, physics, bacteriology, philology, philosophy; ecclesiastical terms: pope, priest, monk, abbot; scientific terms: photography, telephone, cinematograph; medical terms: gastritis, appendicitis, rheumatism, sclerosis, terms associated with linguistics: antonym, synonym, semantics, metaphor, polysemy, homograph, grammar, etymology, hyperbole, synecdoche, archaism, idiom.

Danish words typical nouns: skirt, sky, fellow, gate, window, kettle, skin, root, knife verbs: call, cast, die, get, scream, take, want adjectives: happy, wrong, ill, low, odd, rotten, loose, flat, ugly

Italian words

music and literature: soprano, bass, concert, aria, opera, prima donna, fresco, graffito, studio, staccato, alto, tempo, viola, violoncello, tenor, vibrato; the army: colonel, alarm, campaign; architecture: balcony, mezzanine, parapet; corridor; food: pizza, lasagne; different other fields: lagoon, volcano, corridor, influence

Spanish words cargo, cigar, guerrilla, matador, mosquito, vanilla, gazette, tirade, chocolate German words mineralogy and geology especially: Wolfram, quarts, zinc, bismuth, kindergarten,

rucksack, nickel;

scientific terms: teleology, homeopathy.

Minor influences

Dutch: brandy, landscape, toy, wagon, yacht, reef, deck, ; Portuguese: albatross, cocoa, veranda, banana, marmalade; Arabic: harem, sofa, alcohol, elixir, algebra, sugar, syrup, zero, emir, giraffe, sheik, sultan; Hungarian: tokay, coach; Russian: vodka, steppe, tsar, astrakhan, state farm, troika, balalaika, duma, nihilist, self-criticism, collective farm, taiga, steppe, troika, rouble, balalaika, samovar; Turkish: caftan, coffee, agha, kiosk, odalisque

International words

Hebrew: Satan, sapphire, camel, shekel, rabbi; Polish: polka, mazurka; Chinese: tea, china, mandarin, serge; Japanese: kimono, hara-kiri, geisha, samurai, haiku, kamikaze, seppuku; Indian: bungalow, calico, indigo, curry, jungle, orange, sugar, candy, shampoo, moccasin, wigwam; Australian: dingo, kangaroo.

science: biology, chemistry, lexicology, linguistics, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, physics; medical terms: angina, tuberculosis, furuncle, bacteria; politics: democracy, policy, politics, progress, revolution; arts: artist, comedy, drama, music, theatre, tragedy; technology: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television; sports: baseball, cricket, football, golf, hockey, rugby, tennis; social-economic and political vocabulary: Communism, proletariat, constitution, republic, Socialism, Capitalism, class, dictatorship foodstuffs: banana, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, grapefrut

false friends/ false cognates : abstract actual actuality actually camera

 character comfort

Barbarisms: exempli gratia (for example), ibidem (in the same place), sine qua non (an example), indispensable condition), la mode (in fashion), bel sprit (a man of wit), mal de mer condition), (sea sickness), dolce farniente (pleasant idleness), zeitgeist (the spirit of the time), exit , sickness) idleness), (goes out), persona nongrata (an unacceptable person), versus (against), votre sant (to your health), coup de thtre (a theatrical effect), de facto, in memoriam, ipso facto, modus operandi (way a thing operates), modus vivendi, nolens volens (willy-nilly), quod (willy-nilly), erat demonstrandum

Etymological Doublets

a) borrowings from different languages that descend from the same root: senior (Lat.) - sir (Fr.) canal (Lat.) - channel (Fr.) abbreviate (Lat.) abridge (Fr.) captain (Lat.) chieftain (Fr.) b) borrowings from the same language (French), in different periods: corpse - corps chief - chef travel - travail cavalry - chivalry gaol - jail

c) one doublet is a shortened (clipped) form of the other: courtesy curtsy defence fence fantasy fancy fanatic fan history story

amiable = lovable, friendly and pleasant (used only when referring to people) amicable = friendly (refers to arrangements, settlements, attitudes)

beside = by the side of; at the side of somebody or something and close to them besides = in addition to someone or something; moreover; otherwise economic = pertaining to economics or reasonably profitable, offering an adequate return economical = avoiding waste or extravagance, thrifty

historic = well-known or important in history historical = concerned with or relating to history human = relating to people; characteristic of a man humane = caring about the quality of peoples or animals lives and trying to be kind to them; showing the best qualities of human nature

Word-Building

I. Affixation/ Derivation According to origin: a) Latin: ab-; ad-; bi-; co-;de-; dis-; em-; ex-;inter-; non-; pre-; pro-;re-; sub-; super-; transb) Germanic: by-; for-; in-; mis; on-; out-; over-; under-; un-; upc) Greek: anti-; arch-; hyper-; macro-; micro-; psycho-; tele-

un - : unfair, unexpected; in -: insane, incorrect, indirect, indigestible; il -: illogical, ill-prepared, ill-timed; im- : impolite, imperfection, imperishable; ir- : irrelevant, irreducible, irregular; non -: non-smoker, non-standard, non-transferable ; dis -: dislike, discontinued, discomfort, discordant; a-/an : amoral, asymmetry.

negative prefixes (the meaning is opposite of , not or lacking in/of ):

reversative/privative prefixes (the meaning is to reverse the action, to deprive of,

un -: to unbutton, to untie, to unsubscribe de- : to defrost, deconstruction;

to get rid of):

mis- : miscalculate, misinform, miscarry, mislead, misprint, misfortune, mispronounce, misread, misunderstand, mistrust, mispell; mal - : malfunction, malnutrition, malfeasance ; pseudo - : pseudoexpert, pseudoscientific, pseudoaristocratic, pseudoclassic, pseudocultivated;

pejorative prefixes (the meaning is wrongly, badly, false, imitation):

prefixes of degree/size (the ideas expressed: supreme, above, more than, better,
arch- : archbishop, archdeacon, archduke; super - : supersensitive, supercomputer, superhuman, supernatural;

highest, or, on the contrary, less than, under, lower than):

out - : outbid, outclass, outdated; sub- : subdivision, subculture, subatomic, subeditor; over- : overflow, overeat, overestimate macro- : macrocosm, macromolecular, macroscopic, macrostructure;

mega-: megabit, megabyte, megahertz, megaphone, megastore; micro- : microbiology, microcrystal, microgravity, microsurgery, microelectronics, micrometer, microphone; milli- : milligram, milliliter, millimeter, millisecond maxi- : maxi-shirt, maxi-skirt; multi- ; multicolor, multicultural, multifaceted, multinational, multimillionaire; nano- : nanoanalysis, nanobacteria, nanocomputer, nanocosm

against): co -: to cooperate, cooperation; pro -: proactive, pro- Communism; counter -: to counteract, counterculture, countermeasures; anti -: antisocial, anti-aircraft, anticlerical, anticoagulant.

prefixes of attitude (express the idea of with, accompanying, for, on the side of, or

locative prefixes (indicate the place): sub -: subcommittee, submarine, submerge; inter -: intercontinental, interdepartmental, international; trans -: transoceanic, transcontinental, transatlantic; mid- : midday, midweek, midwinter, midnight, midstream prefixes of time and order (the meaning is before or after, again or back):

ante -: antecedent, antediluvian, antechamber; fore -: forehead, forearm, foresee; pre- : pre-war, pre-Raphaelite, pre-historic; post -: postnatal, postgraduate, postindustrial; ex- : ex-colleague, ex-husband- ex-friend; re- : to recreate, to retell, to rebuild

According to origin: a) Germanic: -dom; -ed; en-; -er; -hood; -ish; -ing; -ling;- ly; -ness; -ship; - some;- wise; -y b)Romance: -al; -ation; -ee; -ess; -fy; - ic; -ism;- ize; -ment c) Greek: -ist; -phobia

Suffixes

a)Noun-Forming Suffixes (nominalizers)

ee ( denotes agency: one who; diminutive): absentee, employee, refugee, addressee, bootee, goatee; goatee; en (diminutive suffix): kitten, chicken; ent (denotes agency): resident, president; er (denotes the agent, especially a person): teacher, baby-sitter, singer; baby-sitter, ess (the feminine of certain nouns): actress, poetess, lioness; ese (denotes nationality): Chinese, Vietnamese, Portuguese; ette ( diminutive): kitchenette, statuette, waggonette, layette, novelette;

ing (denotes act, fact): reading, sailing, meeting; ism (denotes doctrine, action, act, or fact of doing, manner of action, state, condition): materialism, realism, alcoholism, hooliganism; ist (denotes the agent; one person who adheres to a certain doctrine; one who makes a practice): typist, dramatist, modernist, realist, communist, socialist; ite (one who is adherent of): Pre-Raphaelite, Luddite; let (diminution): floweret, armlet, rivulet, booklet, eaglet, islet, leaflet, droplet, piglet; ling (diminuation; depreciation): nestling, gosling, duckling, catling, princeling, weakling or (denotes the agent or doer of the action): doctor, sculptor, sailor, tailor; ster (denotes the agent): brewster, gangster, booster, spinster; tion (denotes act, state, result): solution, humiliation, locution

Abstract nouns: dom (denotes state/condition/fact of being; realm): freedom, kingdom; hood (denotes state/condition, quality, character; a collectivity having the given character or state): adulthood, brotherhood, priesthood, manhood, falsehood; ism (denotes action; doctrine; a characteristic or peculiarity): Communism, Romanticism, classicism, realism, materialism, colloquialism, materialism; ing (denotes act, fact or art of doing): walking, driving, making; ment (denotes action, state, quality): movement, development, amazement; ness (denotes state, condition, quality or degree): kindness ,darkness, manliness; ry/ery (denotes state or quality): rivalry, pedantry; ship ( denotes state, condition, quality): kinship, worship, lordship, fellowship, authorship, membership, partnership, dictatorship, dictatorship, leadership, companionship, friendship; th (denotes action; state/quality): health, width, depth;

Adjective-Forming Suffixes (adjectivizers) able (denotes the quality): eatable, breakable, understandable, movable; ible terrible, visible; ic - classic, poetic; al (denotes the quality; having the character of): economical, hypocritical, theoretical, practical, fundamental, autumnal; an (belonging to): continental, Canadian, Romanian;

ed (denotes the quality: endowed with): dark-haired, long-legged, broad-shouldered; en (quality; made of): earthen, wooden, silken, golden, woollen; ern (denotes the quality): northern, eastern; fold threefold, tenfold, twofold; ful (denotes quality): careful, useful, beautiful, powerful, hopeful, grateful; ic (denotes the quality): poetic, eccentric, classic;

ish (denotes nationality; quality): girlish, boyish, foolish, Turkish; ing amusing, interesting, boring; less (denotes quality): useless, careless, fearless

ly (denotes quality): manly, friendly, daily, yearly, weekly; ous (quality in a high degree): gracious, poisonous; some ( a cerain degree of the thing) troublesome, fearsome, handsome; ward (quality /denoting direction): backward, forward; y (pertaining to, abounding in): rainy, sunny, starry, noisy;

Verb-Forming Suffixes (verbalizers) en (names an action): to whiten, to lengthen, to fasten; ize;-ise (denotes an action): to criticize, to organize, to satirize; fy;-ify (names an action): to satisfy, to clarify, to magnify, to signify, to purify; le (names an action): to sparkle.

Adverb-Forming Suffixes (adverbalizers)

long (manner of action): sidelong, headlong; ly (manner of action): greatly, clearly, beautifully, heartily, partly; wards (manner of action): backwards, forwards

Conversion

Conversion = the process by which a part of speech changes into another part of

speech (a grammatical category changes into another); it affects both the morphological and the syntactic status of the word. The new word has a meaning that differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily

associated with it.

R.W.Zandvoort distinguishes between complete conversion and partial conversion

Verbs converted into nouns

to to to to to to try try (Lets have a try!) ring ring (Give me a ring tonight.) bathe bathe (Lets have a bathe in this river!) say say (I guess they have no say in this problem.) walk walk (Yesterday we had a pleasant walk in the park.) turn turn (Take the first turn to the right and there you are!)

2) a)

Nouns converted into verbs: human beings, family relationships: to father (to become the father of; to act as a father) to mother (to treat someone with care and kindness, as though they were a small child; to give birth; to be the mother of) to baby (to treat someone like a young child)

b) professions: to nurse (take care of a sick person; to take charge of a baby) to doctor (to treat as a doctor) to engineer (to design things such as roads, railways, bridges, or machines
* metaphorically to nurse = to promote the growth or development to doctor = to sophisticate to engineer = to contrive a plan

c)

parts of the body:

to back (to give support to a person) to face (to be turned to; to deal with problems; to accept) to elbow (to push or hit someone with your elbows, in order to force one`s way) to head (to go in a particular direction; to be the head of/in control of a group) to knee (to hit someone with your knee) to hand (to give/pass something to someone, with the hand) to mouth (to form words with your mouth but not make any sound) to eye ( to observe/look at someone or something carefully) to finger (to touch/feel something with your finger) to nose (to move forward slowly and carefully) to toe (to touch/reach with the toe) to thumb (to turn over pages with the thumb)

d) animals: to wolf (to eat greedily) to pig (to live in a manner which is characteristic to a pig) to fox (to hunt foxes) to dog (to track like a dog; to follow someone very closely, in a way that causes annoyance; to cause troubles for someone over a long period of time)

f) tools, weapons:

to to to to to to to

saw (to cut with a saw) comb (to make your hair tidy with a comb) hammer (to hit with a hammer; to criticise someone) knife (to injure or kill someone with a knife) pencil (to write or draw something with a pencil) nail (to fix one thing to another with a nail or nails) brush (to make something clean or tidy using a brush)

e) plants to flower (to produce flowers) to bud ( to produce buds)

f) different objects to knife (to injure or kill someone with a knife) to iron (to push a heated iron across cloth or clothes to make them smooth) to bottle (to put a liquid into bottles) to table (to suggest formally in a meeting something that you would like everyone to
discuss) to bed (to put something firmly into a base or into the ground) to paper (to cover the walls of a room with wallpaper)

g) musical instruments to drum (to make a continuous sound by hitting a surface) to whistle (to make a tune or musical notes by forcing air through your mouth) h) experience/feeling: to panic , to pity . i) natural phenomena: to rain, to snow, to drizzle . j) the idea of adding/filling with the object denoted by the noun[1]: to butter, to salt, to water [1] Hulban, H. (2001): Syntheses in English Lexicology and Semantics, Ed. SPANDA, Iai, p. 115

3 )Adjectives converted into nouns: abstract notions: the best, the absurd, the good, the impossible, the present

languages: English, French (She spoke English ) nouns with a collective meaning: the old, the poor, the rich, the healthy, the needy, the
unknown, the wise, the young, the sick, the famous, the happy, the innocent, the needy, the mighty, the helpless

 colours (sometimes in the plural): reds and whites nations: the Polish, the Dutch

4) Nouns converted into adjectives: in geographical names: Paris citizens, The Danube Delta

materials: a gold watch, a silver wedding

5) Adjectives converted into verbs:

to cool (to become cooler or make something cooler) to grey (to become grey in colour) to yellow (to become less white and more yellow): Her teeth yellowed over time to narrow to warm to best (Our team bested the Americans 1-0)

6) Participles converted into nouns: the unemplyed, the deceased, the accused, the condemned, the unknown, the wounded. 7) Adverbs converted into adjectives: up train, down train adverbs and conjunctions are capable of conversion, as in the whys and the therefores and but me no buts.

Composition

Composition - result of a semantic-grammatical combination of two or more words (or roots /stems) The new word is a compound; it expresses one single idea.

A compound may be used in any grammatical function: noun: exercise-book, drawback, editor-in-chief; adjective: evergreen, blue-eyed, light-yellow; adverb: beforehand, throughout; verb: to broadcast, to whitewash, to typewrite; pronoun: whoever, everybody; preposition: alongside

Characteristics of compounds: a) a compound has usually one high stress, as any other simple word (bluebell/blue bell; blackbird/ black bird) b) there are three ways of spelling compounds - as a single word: snowball, blackboard, footprint, newspaper, oneself, offshoot, shorthand, wildfire, nobleman, upkeep, outbreak, underclothes newspaperwoman, workmanlike (done/made in a professional way

using a hyphen: he-bear, man-servant, good-for-nothing, forget-me-not, by-way, easy-chair, penny-in-the-slot-machine, dead-letter, RomanCatholic, up-to-date, happy-go-lucky, jack-o-lantern, mother-to-be, off-therecord spelled as separate words: breakfast room, dining room, zebra crossing, sponge cake, sleeping pill, common sense, public schoolboy, ne`er do well (a lazy person who does not want to work
c) compounds are indivisible; they cannot be interrupted, their pattern being inseparable by other elements. Toothache is a compound; the ache of the tooth is a phrase d) the root of a compound cannot be modified We can modify only the compound as a whole: a (large) dining room, a (small) bluebell, a (fast) night train. e) the plural refers to the compound as a whole, and not to one of its elements: blackboards, workmen, courtyards. .

f) a compound has an idiomatic character This characteristic is given by the fact that the meaning is not equal to the sum of the meanings of the constituent elements: hit-or-miss (answer), no-go (impossible; not working well; not allowed), knockoff (a bad/cheap copy of something), know-how (knowledge needed to do something, usually something very practical), breakneck (dangerous).

The basic semantic relations between compounds can be of two types: restrictive and relational. The restrictive type is represented by compounds showing material of which something is made: leather jacket, chinaware, paper bag; sex: he-bear/she-bear; boy-friend/girl-friend, man-servant/woman-servant, bull elephant/cow elephant;

The relational type is represented by compounds showing:

purpose: wine glass, looking-glass, dwelling-place, drinking water; comparison: good-for-nothing, larger-than-life; cause: seasick, snow-blind;

Other compounds express place: dance hall, amusement park, birth-place, reception desk, tea-room, battle-field, Law court; time: night-club, rush hours, bedtime, pay-day, afternoon tea, night worker, Sunday school resemblance: crocodile tears, gold-fish, Zebra-fish;

According to the number of elements - we classify compounds into: 1. compounds with two elements: everlasting, chain-smoker, housekeeper, self-denying,
good-looking, well-meaning housewife, clothes pin, watermelon, ink blot, dining car, snowdrop, Milky Way

2. compounds with three elements: out-of-work, ne`er do-well, son-in-law, will o` the wisp, across-the-border, bric-a-brac, bride-to-be, black-and-white (photography /film/television), cash-and-carry, down-to-earth (practical and sensible), father-in-law, on-the-spot, wellthought-out, out-of-work (unemployed), pick-me-up (something such as a drink that makes someone feel more lively);

3. compounds with four elements: hole-in-the-wall (a small restaurant or shop), jack-of-alltrades, jack-in-the-box, lily-of-the-valley; 4. compounds with five elements: five elements: penny-in-the-slot-machine. The first element of a compound can be: - a noun: fox-hunter, screw- driver, watch-maker - an adjective: mad-man, sweet-heart, quick-silver; - a verb: make-believe, pick-pocket, cut-throat, turn-on, bring up, sit down;

- an adverb: up-start, off-spring, off-set, over-hear, over-estimate

According to the part of speech they form, compounds can be classified into: 1) Compound Nouns - noun + noun: handwriting, housekeeper, fishing-rod, drawing-room, motor-car, Mao flu (some may have a plural form for the second element: a lazy-bones, a light-skirts) noun + verb : sunshine, sunset, nightfall, pan-fry; - noun +verb + - er: engine-driver, watch-maker, fox-hunter

- noun + verbal noun : shoe-making, engine-driving, blood-shedding; - noun + adverb (derived from verb-adverb): looker-on; passer-by, runner-up, goings-on - adjective + noun : pale-face, madman, highway, hothouse, easy-chair, public-house, greybeard, public school, sweetheart; - adjective + past participle : high-born, - pronoun + noun : he-goat, she-goat, he-wolf, she-wolf; - adverb + noun : through-train, up-train, overcoat, on lookers, afterthought, outbreak, upkeep - adverb + verb : welfare, upkeep, welcome, upset, downcast, upstart, income, outfit; - adverb + past.part .: by-gones ( cei dui, raposai), well-known; - verb+noun : daredevil, playground, pick-pocket, wash-stand, grindstone; - verbal noun+ noun : drawing-room, sailing-boat, mocking-bird, knitting-needle, parking place, looking-glass;
- verb + verb: make-believe (prefacere, prefctorie); - verb + adverb : drawback (neajuns), breakdown, set-back (eec), farewell; - preposition + noun : undergraduate, afternoon

- past part. + noun : inverted comma, frozen food, Promised Land, broken heart; - classifying genitive + noun : childs play, ladys mind, birds nest; - letter + noun : X-ray, F-word

2) Compound Adjectives - adjective + adjective : red-hot, light-blue, dark-brown, bitter-sweet, Franco-German, dead-alive, red-hot; - adjective + noun : open-air, barefoot, solid-state, red-brick;

- adjective + noun + ed: long-legged, long-tailed, bare-footed black-haired, kind-hearted, broad-shouldered - noun + past part : air-borne, shoulder-borne, crest-fallen (abtut), sunburnt, frost-bitten, man-made, moth-eaten, tongue-tied, safety-tested; - noun + indef.part : freedom-loving, breath-taking, eye-catching, hair-raising, selfsacrificing, life-giving; - noun + adjective : colour-blind, lifelong, carefree, heart-sick, trustworthy, blameworthy, world-wide, water-proof, snow-blind, crystal-clear, snow-white, sky blue, self-sufficient

adverb + adjective : over- anxious, over-ripe, under-ripe, allimportant, evergreen; adverb + indefinite part .: well-meaning, easy-going, everlasting, hard-working, high-flying; adverb + past part. : ill-timed, far-fetched, hard-bitten, well-read, wellbehaved, plain-spoken, quick-frozen, widespread, ill-judged, ready-made; participle + adverb : worn-out, washed-up
3) Compound Pronouns - reflexive and emphatic pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves; - the indefinite pronouns: somebody, anybody, nobody; someone anyone, none; something, anything, nothing; everybody, everyone, everything; - the relative pronouns: whoever, whichever, whatever

4) Compound Verbs - noun + verb : to waylay, to carbon-date, to sky-dive; - adverb + verb : to broadcast, to backslide, to overcome, to, underestimate, to, overtake, to outdo, to outlive, to overestimate; - adjective + verb : to whitewash, to short-cut, to fine-tune; - verb + verb : to typewrite, to freeze-dry, to test-market; - verb + adverb: to bring up, to sit down

5) Compound Adverbs wherefrom (de unde), thereby (prin aceasta, n felul acesta), beforehand (dinainte, n prealabil), henceforward (de aici nainte), throughout (peste tot), thereabout (prin preajma).

6) Compound prepositions In Lexicologia limbii engleze, Leon Levichi offers some examples of compound prepositions. Among them, he enumerates within and into. Knud Schinsbye mentions and discusses some others: alongside (with the value of near), underneath (somehow synonym with below or under), inside (with the meaning of in).

Compounds Containing Particles - nominal compounds: after-effect, after-life, counter-attack, counter-proposal, cross-road, forehead, forearm, in-road; - adjectival compounds: above-mentioned, downcast, inbuilt, outdated; - verbal compounds: countersign, counteract, update, upgrade, uproot; - adverbial and attributive compounds: on-line, outdoors, overnight, upstairs, in-service;

Contraction/ Clipping

Contraction/ clipping = the partial reduction of a word (this is why it is also called shortening ). The process is of a qualitative nature, the result of which is a contracted word .

1) Aphaeresis (fore clipping)

= the reduction of the initial part of the word : bus (<omnibus), change (<exchange), phone (<telephone), plane (<airplane), car (<motor-car), pen (<fountain-pen), sample (<example), fence (<defence), spite (<despite), still (<distillery), lone (<alone), copter (<helicopter), gent (<gentleman), specs (<spectacles), circs (<circumstances), cert (<certainty), burger (<hamburger), scope (<telescope), gator (<alligator), quake (<earthquake). The examples also include the grammatical forms in informal English, such as: `m (<am), `ll (<will, shall), `d (<had, should, would), `ve (<have), `re (<are), `s (<is, has, us), `til (<until).

2) Syncope (medial clipping)

 = the reduction of the middle part of the word Examples of this type may include: specs (<spectacles), Miss (<mistress), captain

(<capitaine), fancy (<fantasy), curtsy (<courtesy), ne`er (<never), n`t (<not), hasn`t (<has not), haven`t (<have not), shan`t (<shall not), needn`t (<need not), doesn`t (<does not), mustn`t (<must not).

3) Apocope (back clipping)

= the reduction of the last part of the word. It can be identified in words such as: exam (<examination), doc (<doctor), prep (<preparatory), max (<maximum), lab (<laboratory), trig (<trigonometry), bike (<bicycle), cinema (<cinematograph), gym (<gymnastics), gas (<gasoline), prob (<problem), pharm (<pharmacy, pharmacist), photo (<photography), math (<mathematics), ed (<editor; education), ad (<advertisement), disco (<discotheque), dorm (<dormitory), gram (<grammatical), curio (<curiosity), fan (<fanatic), limo (<limousine), memo (<memornadum), polio (<poliomyelitis), prof (<professor), auto (<automobile), sub (<submarine), trig (<trigonometry), chimp (<chimpanzee), hippo (<hippopotamus), fab (<fabulous), vet (<veteran )

Abbreviation

Abbreviation = the process of shortening words or group of words, thus reducing them to their initial letters.

* We can identify certain groups of abbreviated words

AD (after the birth of Jesus Christ), U.K. (United Kingdom), S.O.S. (Save Our Soul), T.V. (television), M.D (Doctor of Medicine), M. A. (Master of Arts), M.P. (Member of Parliament), P.S. (Post Scriptum), U.S.A., B.B.C. (British Broadcasting Corporation), B.C. (before Christ), F.B.I. (Federal Bureau of Investigation), P.S. (Post Scriptum), NY (New York), R.P. (Received Pronunciation), P.C. (Personal Computer), w.w.w. (world wide web), VIP (very important person), ISBN (International Standard Book Number), ISO (International Standard Organization)

Abbreviations read as the letters of the alphabet :

b)

The group of initials is read like a word :

U.N.E.S.C.O. (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Education), UNO (United Nations Organization), AMVETS (American Veterans of World War II), NATO (North Atlantic Organisation), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), BASIC (Beginner`s All-Purpose Symbolic Introduction Code), OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), UEFA (the Union of European Football Associations)

c) the pronuncitaion is like that of the initial word :

assoc. (Association), mtg (meeting), Mr. (Mister), Dr (doctor), Prof. (professor), St. (street), Col. (colonel), cm (centimetre), Km (kilometre), Ave. (avenue), co. (company), fig. (figure), ed. (editor), Jnr (junior), Kt (knight)

Ellipsis

Ellipsis = a special type of clipping. The process consists of the omission of a word that usually appears in a phrase, omission that is accompanied by a back clipping
To be noticed in:

zoo (zoological garden), final(s) (final examination), prep (preparatory school), pop (pop music, popular concert), med (medical student), prelim(s) (preliminary examination), grad (graduate student), department (department store), soap (soap opera), weekend (weekend party).

The change of the Morphological Stress

The process is based on the shifting of the accent from one syllable to another: from the first syllable in nouns, to the final one in the corresponding verb or adjective

Nouns `contrast `conduct

Verbs to co`ntrast to co`nduct

`import `object `permit `present `progress `rebel `transport

to im`port to ob`ject to per`mit to pre`sent to pro`gress to re`bel to trans`port

Nouns `accident `autumn `agriculture `colony `courage `energy `Italy

Adjectives acci`dental au`tumnal agri`cultural co`lonial cou`rageous ener`getic I`talian

`industry `influence `melody `metal

in`dustrious influ`ential me`lodious me`tallic

Deflection

Deflection = the process of derivation based on a vowel, a consonant, or a vowel and consonant change in the root of a word (this is why it is also called root derivation )
Examples: Song - to sing; Sing sang - sung; Full - to fill; Blood - to bleed, Hot - heat; Food - to feed;

Foot - feet;

High - height; belief to believe; Advice - to advise; Practice - to practise; Proof - to prove; Loss - to lose.

Back- Formation/reversion

Back-formation (also called back-derivation ) = the process of forming new words due to a misinterpretation of the structure of already existing ones. A part of a word is misinterpreted; it is taken for a derivative suffix or for a prefix. to edit from editor; to burgle - from burglar; to typewrite from typewriter, to beg from beggar

Folk-Etymology

Folk-etymology = a word-building process, by means of which new words are obtained, because of the fact that certain words or groups of words have been mispronounced or misinterpreted due to their similitude with other simpler words in the language

It is the case of such a word as buttery (cmar), misinterpreted as coming from the word butter. In fact, it comes from the Latin botaria (a place where drinks were kept, from bota = cask); walnut, wrongly associated with wall; in fact, it comes from Welsh (= foreign);
greyhound, in which grey was interpreted as a colour, though it comes from the greyhound,

Scandinavian grey (= dog/ bitch); salt-cellar actually comes from salt + saler (saler = a vessel to hold salt); female has nothing to do with male, as it comes from the Old French femelle (= little male, woman);

Blending/ Telescoping

A blend or portmanteau word combines parts of two words into one word, preserving and blending the meaning of both original words. There are several types of blending

1. one or two syllables of an initial word + a complete second word : Euromarket (<Europe + market) 2. a complete initial word + a part of the second word : cablegram (<cable + telegram) 3. the initial part of a first word + the final part of a second word : motel (<motorist + hotel)

advertainment < advertisement + entertainment affluenza < affluence + influenza airtel <air + telephone avionics < aviation + electronics bionic < biology + electronic bit < binary +digit brunch < breakfast + lunch camcorder < camera + recorder

chunnel < channel + tunnel cineplex < cinema + complex cinemactress < cinema + actress cityscape < city + landscape crossandwich < croissant + sandwich cybrarian < cyber + librarian diabesity < diabetis + obesity docudrama < documentary + drama

Words Derived from Proper Names

macadam small broken stones, usually in a sticky black substance, used for making a hard surface on a road (after John Mac Adam - 1756- 1836 a Scottish engineer who invented the process); lynch to kill someone by hanging them by the neck, even though they have not been proved guilty of any crime (from Charles Lynch , Virginia, US, who first resorted to it in the 18th century);

 bobby a male police officer; British policeman (the pet form of the name of Sir Robert
Peel who made certain reforms in the London police system); savarin - (a cake created by B, Savarin); mansard (a roof with two slopes on one face from the name of the French architect Mansard

Echoic Words

words imitating a sound made by creatures or objects (they differ

from language to language): meow; moo-moo; gobble-gobble; cock-a-doodle-doo; quack-quack; bow-wow

That`s because

bears growl bees hum bulls bellow cats mew (a short high sound); purr (a continuous low sound) cocks crow cows moo

crows caw dogs bark ducks - quack frogs croak geese cackle hens cluck horses neigh

Objects make the following sounds: bells tinkle; peal breeze - whisper brakes grind chains jangle; rattle

clocks tick coins clink; jingle corks pop dishes rattle; clatter doors slam; bang

b) symbolic words (illustrate the meaning; to the speaker it seems as if the sounds were especially suited to the meaning): bump, flick

CHANGES OF MEANING AND TRANSFER OF MEANING

words are subject to changes during their history: they preserve their form and the
grammatical function, but change their meaning

meanings change once people attach a new significance to a word; the word reflects the evolution of the notion, phenomena, etc. which it expresses, an
evolution that is in close connection with the development of the human mind and society.

the development of science and technique operated in two directions: the creation of new terms a change of meaning in the already existing ones

The causes that determine changes of meanings are of two types: Extra-linguistic
a) determined by modifications in the material culture and the appearance of new notions:

Example:

 in Middle English torch meant a piece of wood treated with oil, used as a flaming
light;

in Modern English, it means electric hand-light in a case, contacting a battery hand-

b) determined by the evolution of culture Example: physics[1] the initial meaning was natural science in general; physics[1] the meaning has been restricted to science that deals with heat, light and other forms of energy and how they affect objects

[1] see also Hulban, H. (2001): Syntheses in English Lexicology and Semantics, Ed. Spanda, Iai, p. 122 Semantics, Ia

c) determined by social causes need of expressiveness Example:

baby means a very young person; in slang, it means a girl, a sweetheart [1]
[1] Hulban, H. (1975): English Lexicology, Univ. Al. I. Cuza Iai Lexicology, Ia

d) determined by social causes need of specialisation

Example: matter 1) something that you are discussing or dealing with; 2) a particular type of substance (organic matter); 3) (science) the physical substance that everything in the world is made of; 4) (medicine) the yellow substance that a part of your body produces when it is infected

2) Linguistic

a) extension/ enlargement of meaning the sense of the word is enlarged or enriched;

 the meaning of the new word covers a larger field than the original one; words undergo changes from concrete to abstract, from specific to general. Example: head originally, the word meant : the front or upper part of the body containing the brain, the
chief sense organs, and the mouth. Its meaning has been extended, so that it also refers to: mind natural aptitude the obverse of a coin an upper or higher end

director, leader a leading element (as of a procession) a projecting part the striking part of a weapon the place of leadership or honour

Other examples: 1. picture a painted representation of something seen a drawing, painting or photograph 2. pen feather an object that you use for writing or drawing with ink 3. journal daily record of events any periodical publication
4. chest coffin a large heavy box used for moving or storing things

b) Narrowing/ restriction of meaning this process is opposed to that of extension: a word of extensive usage becomes specialized.

1. meat any kind of food the flesh of an animal or bird eaten as food 2. disease disease any kind of discomfort, lack of ease an illness that affects people or animals, especially one that is caused by infection

3. wife

4. garage any safe place a building for keeping a car in

woman the woman that a man is married to

There exist two other changes of meaning which are strictly connected with the attitude
of the speaker towards the meaning of the words.

These changes are called elevation/amelioration of meaning

b) degradation/degeneration of meaning.

a) Elevation of meaning is the process that implies the acquisition of a higher status in the meaning of a word (Words often rise from humble beginnings to positions of greater importance) [1].

[1] Rayevskaya, N. (1957): English Lexicology, Kiev State University Publishing House, p.87 Lexicology,

1. minister

 servant an official in charge of a government department in the UK and other countries 2. marshal horse servant an officer of very high rank in an army or air force 3. steward sty-guardian a man whose job is to look after the passengers on a plane/train
4. nice

foolish attractive, enjoyable, or pleasant

b) Degradation of meaning
is the process whereby, for one reason or another, a word falls into disrepute [1] a neutral word becomes deprecating; the connotations of the word are those corresponding to contempt and disapproval
[1] Rayevskaya, N. (1957): op.cit., p. 88 op.cit.,

1. quarrel complaint a violent altercation between persons 2. silly happy, innocent not intelligent

1. insane not well very stupid or crazy 2. vulgar common, ordinary rude or offensive

. Transfer of Meaning
is based on two processes: resemblance/similarity and contiguity (contact/proximity)

 the first process leads to metaphors, while the second leads to metonymy

as agile as a monkey (care se mic repede) as alike as two peas (asemntor; care seamn foarte bine) as awkward as a bull in a china shop (stngaci; nendemnatec) as brown as a berry (ciocolatiu) as big as an elephant (foarte mare) as black as coal/pitch/raven`s wing/hell/ink/midnight/night/sin/soot/crow (negru tciune; foarte negru)

as blind as a bat/mole (orb de-a binelea; orb ca un liliac/crti)

as as blue as the sky (albastru intens) as bold as brass (foarte curajos neruinat la culme) as brave as a lion (foarte curajos; curajos ca un leu) as bright as a button (curat; lucitor) as brown as a berry (foarte bronzat) as busy as a bee/an ant (foarte ocupat; foarte harnic; harnic ca o albin)

as busy as a ticking clock/a child at play (foarte ocupat) as changeable as weather (schimbtor ca vremea) as clean as a new pin (nou-nou; foarte curat) as clear as a bell (uor de auzit; cu o voce cristalin) as clear as crystal (limpede ca lumina zilei) as clear as day (uor de vzut/neles) as clear as mud (dificil/greu de neles) as cool as a cucumber (sloi de ghea) as cunning as a fox (foarte iret; iret ca o vulpe)

as meek as a lamb/mouse (blnd ca un mieluel) as merry as a cricket (vessel ca un cintezoi) as miserable as sin (foarte nefericit) as mute as a fish (tcut ca un pete) as obstinate as a mule/a pig (ncpinat ca un catr)

 as old as hills/Methuselah/time (foarte btrn) as pale as death/linen (foarte palid) as pale as ashes (palid ca un mort)

Metaphor

(Gr. meta = over; pherein = to carry) compares two or more dissimilar objects, but in an implicit way (it treats the one as if it were the other) involves an exchange/transference of meaning between the two words (a transfer based on similarity)

is an implied simile is often used for the sake of ornament that gives expressiveness to speech creates a total identification between the two things being compared (thats why such
words as like or as are not used)

Ullmann offers a detailed classification of metaphors:

human body and its parts, to inanimate objects: the mouth of a river; the foot of a hill/mountain, the lungs of a town, the heart of a matter, the nose of a ship, the brow of a hill, the leg of a chair/table,

a) anthropomorphic metaphors based on the transfer of meaning from the

the eye of a needle, the face of the earth, the lip of a cup, the teeth of a saw/comb, the hand of a watch, the tongue of a shoe, the head of the table, the face of the earth, the bowels of the ship

b) animal metaphors nouns that denote animals are used in order to characterize
human beings; thus, a human being may be styled: a cat (a spiteful woman) a bookworm (molie de bibliotec; oarece de bibliotec) a chicken (young woman) a lion (important person)

monkey (naughty child) copy cat (a person who copies at tests) a chicken boy (a coward) an ass (a stupid person) a bear (a clumsy person)

c) synaesthetic metaphors based upon the transposition from one sense to another:
a cold voice, loud colours, piercing sounds, heated debate, warm reception, icy stare, velvet voice, painful lesson;

d) metaphors that translate abstract experience into concrete terms :

to throw light,; to make money, to break the ice, to enlighten the masses

The list may be completed with metaphors connected with other areas/fields/lexical
fields:

weather : foggy memory, wind of change, the dawn of civilization, misty memories,
autumn years

cooking: to boil mad, half-baked idea, a recipe for disaster, to have a raw talent for,
food for thought, to dish out criticism, to serve suggestions, appetite for learning;

farming: crop of students, to harvest investments, to plant ideas,

to sow the seeds of discontent, fertile imagination, to market oneself;

brilliant /bright idea, dim view, dark thoughts

sensations: dark secret, colourful remark,

Metonymy

( from the Greek meta = change + onyma = name) the transfer of meaning is based on contiguity; this means that the two elements are in a certain contact by means of metonymy, an object is replaced by one of the significant attributes it displays, or by some function that it discharges

There are several groups of metonymies: 1. the name of an object expressed by one of its attributes (the symbol for the thing symbolized). He became famous by his pen from the cradle to the grave The Cross (= Christianity) head (= intelligence) home (= family) 2. the holder for the content (the thing held): the gallery (= the spectators in the gallery) bottle/cup/glass (= the content inside: wine, coffee, beer) country/ town/village/city/world (= their inhabitants) 3 . the use of the material an object is made of for the object itself: glass (= mirror) copper (= copper money) canvas (= a painting on this material)

4. the makers name used for the product: Ive read Eminescu He has bought a Picasso A Beethoven (= music composed by Beethoven)

sandwich (after the Earl of Sandwich who invented it) savarin (after B. Savarin, who made it first) mansard (after the French architect Mansart who created it) watt ohm

5. the name of a place used instead of a thing/product coming from it:

china (things made of porcelain from China, the place where it was discovered) champagne (from a French region, Champagne) holland (linen fabric its origins are in Holland) virginia (mild tobacco cultivated in Virginia, U.S)

6. the abstract used for the concrete, and the concrete used for the abstract : the bar (= the Tribunal) blood (= family relationships) the flesh (= pleasure) Synecdoche (Greek: syn = together; ekdechomai to receive) is a special type of metonymy If in metonymy we take a name for another one, in synecdoche we take that which is
more for that which is less or the other way round [1]
[1] Du Marsais (1981): Despre tropi, Editura Univers, Bucureti, p. 70 tropi, Bucure

the part for the whole :

face (= person), roof (= the house), bread (= the food), heart (= emotions)

2. the whole for the part : army (= the soldier)

Hyperbole (Greek: hyper = beyond; ballein = to throw) is used for the sake of emphasis/exaggeration; it gives force of contrast to plain speech (springs from dissatisfaction with the plain
speech), to create an effect

the most common examples are to be noticed in adjectives or adverbs that can indicate
approval or disapproval:

grand, super, gorgeous, magnificent, perfect, unique , horrible, dreadful, outrageous,

horrid, frightful, awful

It is also present in expressions such as a thousand thanks, millions of reasons; floods of tears; dead asleep, dead tired, wet to
the bone, damn fool, a thousand pardons, heaps of time.

These have become clichs, used in everyday language. Other examples of such clichs may include:

a damn fool, dead asleep/tired deadly silence, deadly secret, deadly earnest/serious/boring

There also exist hyperbolical similes: as brave as a lion, as old as hills, as large as life, as clear as crystal, as good as gold Sometimes, hyperbole can be noticed in some pleonastic expressions of the type:

bag and baggage, far and away, well and good, round and round, part and parcel, each
and every, lock and key

 The opposite of hyperbole is called understatement it states less than it is: deed (an act of murder) friend (lover).

Litotes

(from the Greek litos = smooth, small is an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of its opposite:

She is not a bad girl (= she is a good girl) I do not hate you (= I love you).

Euphemism

(Greek: eu = well; phemi =voice) represents a form of understatement is based on the avoidance of the direct word, considered harsh, indelicate, or taboo such word is replaced by a pleasant or neutral substitute, that is, by an agreeable phrase or expression

death is replaced by end/passing/departure; the dead is replaced by the lost, the deceased, the departed, the defunct the poor becomes the underprivileged;

sick insane servant help garbage-man sanitary engineer toilet the girls room to sweat to perspire to spit to expectorate an old woman an elderly woman

 corpse remains to die to pass away, breathe ones last, to succumb, to expire, to go to a better
world, to go the way of all flesh, to join the majority, to go west to kill to finish, to put away to lie to distort the facts/truth

old woman elderly lady mad insane deaf- hard of hearing drunk intoxicated , elevated, flustered to lie to distort the facts/the truth

SEMANTIC RELATIONS AND LEXICAL CLASSES

There exist several types of relations that establish between /among word meanings and linguistic symbols: synonymy, antonymy and homonymy are the most frequent and easily observed ones.

Synonymy
Eric Partridge (lexicographer)[1]: a synonym is a word having the same sense as another (in the same language)or more words having the same general sense, but each of them possessing meanings which are not shared by the others, or having different shades of meanings or implications appropriate to different contexts: serpent - snake, ship vessel, to kill to slay to slaughter;
[1] Partrige, E. (1963): Usage and Abusage, Hamilton, London, p. 213 Abusage,

Bollinger [1] synonyms are words with overlapping

ranges; the term synonym may not be used unless the overlap is so extensive as to make the ranges almost identical.

[1] Bollinger, D. (1968): Aspects of Language, Beace&World, p. 124. Language,

 John Lyons [1] - the relation of synonymy may be defined as the relation of two/more words/items which are synonymous if the sentences which result from the substitution of one or the other have the same meaning
[1] Lyons, J. (1971): Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics, Cambridge, p. 167 Linguistics,

Synonyms are two or more lexical or grammatical units comparable their content, but reflecting in various degrees and in various senses (semantic, grammatical, stylistic) the essential notes of the notion they denote says Leon Levichi.[1]
[1] Levichi, L. (1970): op. cit,p. 85. Levi cit,p.

not only words are synonymous; word-groups, phrases, and even sentences can be treated as having this characteristic we can, in fact, talk about the existence of synonymic series many terms are treated by speakers as being synonymous, due to a metaphorical transfer of meaning or to the context in which they appear.

So, in the series: voyage, journey, tour, trip, excursion, travel journey is the general term; it implies a passage from one place to another, with no specific implications of length or of the mode of transportation (mostly by land); voyage is a journey by sea and usually to a distant place; tour refers to a journey in which we make a short stop at a number of places and return to the place from which we started; trip is a short journey, usually for pleasure, business, journey taken as holiday; excursion is a short trip, especially one taken for recreation; preferred for a round trip to any point of interest; travel is the act of travelling; a tour abroad; journey to a distant place

According to Leon Levichi [1] a classification of synonyms, based on some general divisions which have partly become traditional, can be: A) absolute synonyms B) relative (proper) synonyms

[1] Levichi, L. (1970): op.cit, pp. 86-88 Levi op.cit,

Absolute/Perfect/ Total synonyms very rare have the same semantic and stylistic value: oak-nut, oak-pear, oak-plum, oak-apple (nuc galic) father-land - mother country [1]

[1] Rayevskaya, N. (1957): English Lexicology, Kiev State University, p. 54. Lexicology,

B) Relative synonyms can be subdivided into lexical and grammatical. In their

turn, they can be: - lexical ideographic lexical stylistic

grammatical ideographic grammatical stylistic Ideographic lexical synonyms - convey the same concept but are different in shades of meaning
to shine - to blaze to glare - to glimmer - glisten - to sparkle - to glitter:

to shine (about the moon, stars, lights and other things that produce light) refers to a steady emission of light to blaze to shine very brightly to glare to shine with a very strong light to glimmer to shine with soft weak light that is not steady to glisten to shine as a consequence of being wet or covered with oil to glitter makes reference to unsteady emission of light (to shine with quick flashes of light); the transparent or bright bodies that help the emission to sparkle - to shine with small point of reflected light

Stylistic lexical synonyms - express the same meaning; they differ only in their belonging to different functional styles. good-bye, adieu, ta-ta, bye-bye, so long good-bye is neutral from a stylistic point of view;

 adieu is formally elevated; ta-ta and bye-bye are very familiar; so long is colloquial
girl girlie lass bird, skirt maiden damsel girl is neutral from a stylistic point of view; girlie is colloquial; lass is dialectal; bird; skirt can be heard in slang; maiden is poetic; damsel is archaism; Ideographic grammatical synonyms - are characterized by semanticgrammatical differences; they differ in duration, aspect, number, time, anaphoric, epiphoric or generic elements. He plays tennis = He is playing tennis (differing in aspect); book - a book the book (differing in the anaphoric and epiphoric elements); I have read this book = I have been reading this book (differing in duration). Stylistic grammatical synonyms - differ in form, function and

their belonging to different functional styles, or in the connotations of the communication (attitudes of hesitation, sympathy, hatred). At that moment, here comes the army, ready for the fight.
Sources of synonymy

The interference between native and borrowed words

Native words answer body buy calf feeling ghost help ox

French words reply corpse purchase veal sentiment spirit aid beef

swine

pork

Native words hearty heavenly friendly motherly feminine worldly Native kingly ask rise fire time

Latin words cordial celestial amicable maternal womanly mundane

French Latin royal regal question interrogate mount ascend flame conflagration age epoch

2) Anglo-American parallelism
British English flat pub taxi ring tin sweets cupboard maize

closet

American English apartment bar cab call can candy corn

3) Neologisms Earlier words guerilla newspaper man

Neologisms commando reporter

4) Standard word/slang
Standard words friend tobacco girls policeman funk

Slang chap chicks cop/fuzz

tense/nervous sunglasses

uptight shades

5) The need of expressing degrees of formality Formal words Informal words accomodation rooms bear carry cease stop commence begin complete finish conceal hide purchase buy donate give locate find proceed go transmit send

6) Euphemisms Standard words nesty smell enough toilet soiled linen deaf tits illiterate poor sterile drunk

Euphemisms unpleasant odour sufficient lady`s room dirty clothes hard of hearing breast uneducated underpriviledged unfruitful elevated

7) Words belonging to different styles Standard word Poetic word evening eve girl maid silent mute valley vale live reside live dwell building edifice foresee envisage

Antonymy Antonyms are lexical or grammatical units whose meanings are in relation of opposition.[1] They belong to the same grammatical category, usually identical in distribution and style. The relations of antonymy do not establish between words but between

meanings. .

[1]Levichi, L.(1970): Limba englez contemporan. Lexicologie, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, p. 101 [1]Levi englez contemporan Lexicologie, Didactic Pedagogic Bucure

Classification According to Leon Levichi, a traditional classification makes the distinction between absolute antonyms relative antonyms

Absolute antonyms - are based on a relation of utter opposition between their meanings: good bad; white black; light dark; life death; north south. - they are independent from context and have a certain identity of semantic and grammatical association: a long street a short street; the street is long the street is short; the street is extremely long the street is extremely short.
Absolute antonyms are divided into lexical absolute antonyms grammatical absolute antonyms

Absolute lexical antonyms - show the opposition between word meanings: to ask to answer; to admit to deny; to accept to refuse; to build
to demolish; to come to go word meanings and phrases: to live to pass away; to begin- to put an end between phrases: to make much of to make little of

b) Absolute grammatical antonyms - include grammatical forms: better worse; she tells she is told.

B) Relative antonyms - express partial opposition between lexical or grammatical units

 the opposition is not direct, but mediated such antonyms are usually contextual: to find to keep; to swinge to pat.
Antonyms differ as far as their form is concerned. Some of them are a) root antonyms b) derivational antonyms

a) root antonyms this that here there now then from to before after high low to forget to remember hebear she-bear man woman

certain subclasses can be mentioned: 1) contradictory terms (they exclude each other and admit no possibility between them): like dislike, compatible incompatible, agree - disagree;
2) contrary terms (they are diametrical opposites): night day, young old, good bad;

3) relative terms (one term immediately suggests the other): master slave, husband wife, son daughter

b) Derivational antonyms - words in which the opposition is established by help of negative affixes (prefixes or suffixes). Most common prefixes are dis- and un- : belief disbelief appear disappear engage disengage

 satisfaction dissatisfaction regard disregard like- dislike

employed unemployed load unload lucky unlucky burden unburden important unimportant

Prefixes such as im-; il-; ir- or in-; non- can also be used to form antonyms: polite- impolite probable improbable mature immature logical illogical legitimate illegitimate rational irrational relevant irrelevant

active inactive distinct indistinct accessible inaccessible efficient inefficient ethical non-ethical dramatic - non-dramatic

Homonyny
Homonyms - two or more words which have a different meaning but which may be
identical in sound and spelling, only in sound or in only in spelling.

a) absolute (perfect) homonyms b) relative homonyms

The traditional classification of homonyms distinguishes between

a) Absolute homonyms - words that are spelt and pronounced alike, but are different in meaning: fair (adj.) attractive in appearance; just; conforming with the rules; light in colouring fair - (noun) a gathering of buyers and sellers at a stated time and place for trade

light (noun) that makes vision possible light (adj.) not heavy pen (n) an object used for writing or drawing with ink pen (n) a small area with a fence around it, used for keeping animals in

B) Relative homonyms can be grouped into 1. homographs 2. homophones

Homographs - words different in pronunciation but equivalent in spelling: row [ru] = a series of people or things arranged in a straight line row [rau] = a noisy argument, behaviour or activity

sow [su] = to plant seeds in the ground sow [sau] = an adult female pig wind [wind] = vnt; wind [waind] = serpentin, meandr; wound (noun) [wu:nd] = ran; wound (verb) [waund] = (past tense) a rsuci; a erpui, a face meandre

Homophones (most of which are monosyllabic) are different in spelling but similar in

their pronunciation: air - heir ball bawl

allowed aloud bare bear

 beach beech beat beet

bean been berth birth

Hyponymy /inclusion. It is that type of semantic relation that is established between genus and species.

The relation of hyponymy involves the existence of a number of co-hyponyms that are
covered by a super-ordinate term : tomato, potato, cauliflower are co-hyponyms of vegetable (= super-ordinate term).

In their turn, super-ordinate terms may be co-hyponyms in relation to a more general

super-ordinate term. vegetable can be a co-hyponym of food. In the same way, words such as: rose, snowdrop, carnation, daisy, are co-hyponyms of flower, which is in its turn, a co-hyponym of plant.

Paronymy

Paronyms - those words that are similar in sound but different in spelling and meaning. They are derived from the same root or from a different one. Sometimes, when one is used instead of the other, some comic effects are produced

Among the paronyms with a different etymon, there could be mentioned [1]: accept = to take, receive or agree to except = to leave out or to exclude adapt = to change or make suitable for a purpose adopt = to take and use as ones own
[1] see also The Hamlyn Guide to English Usage

adverse = antagonistic, hostile, contrary averse = disinclined, opposed or reluctant affect = to produce a change in or have an influence upon

 effect = to bring about or accomplish