NDT FUNDAMENTALS

Ultrasonics
Part 10. Shear wave techniques
J C Drury

hear waves at various angles of refraction between 35 and 80 are used to locate defects whose orientation is not suitable for detection by compression wave techniques. Some defects, of course, have volume and their shape enables them to be detected by both compression and angled shear waves. In this chapter, however, we will be dealing with planar defects whose orientation is such that only angled shear waves can be used. Because the beam is travelling through the test-piece at a refracted angle other than perpendicular, we need to distinguish between the beam path length to a discontinuity and its depth below the test surface. When we encounter a signal, we can measure the beam path length (range) from the timebase, but we may want to calculate how far in front of the probe (horizontal distance) and how far below the surface the reflector is located. It is also important when using shear waves to know where along your probe the beam enters the specimen (beam index). Knowing the beam index position relative to some datum on the specimen, and the exact beam angle allows you to calculate the horizontal and vertical distances. There are standard terms for various distances when using shear waves and these are illustrated in Figure 10.1.

Example 1 Calculate the full skip distance for a 40 shear wave beam in a 20 mm thick steel plate. FSD = 2xtxTan FSD = 2x20xTan40 FSD = 2x20x0.8391 FSD = 33.564 mm

Establishing the true probe beam index

We need to nd the exact beam index for any shear wave probe before measuring the beam angle. This is because the beam index may not be the one marked on a new probe it may be a millimetre or so before or after the marked index. Manufacturers use a standard drawing to make probes, but the velocity of sound in Perspex varies from batch to batch, and with temperature. Also, the beam index and probe angle change as the probe wedge or shoe becomes worn with use. So, the establishing of beam index and angle will be routine checks throughout the life of the probe. Finding the beam index is a simple procedure carried out on the A2 or A4 calibration block. The probe is positioned close to the edge of the calibration block and beaming towards the 100 mm radius (A2 block) or the 25 mm or 50 mm radius (A4 block) as shown in Figure 10.2 (A2 block) and Figure 10.3 (A4 block). The probe is moved backwards and forwards about the centre mark of the radius with the probe kept parallel to the edge of the block. As the probe moves, the signal will rise to a maximum and then fall again, as shown in Figure 10.4. When the signal reaches the maximum amplitude, the beam centre is meeting the tangent to the radius at right angles. This happens when the beam centre is entering the block at the centre of the radius. The true beam index is now in line with the centre mark of the radius being scanned. If this does not coincide with the beam index marked on the probe, you would then either mark the true index on the probe body or, if the probe body has a millimetre scale, make a note of the true position in front or behind the marked index.

Figure 10.1

Full skip and half skip distances are measured along the top surface and beam path length (BPL), along the beam centre. To calculate these, knowing specimen thickness (t) and probe angle () use the following formulae: a) HALF SKIP DISTANCE = t x Tan b) FULL SKIP DISTANCE = 2 x t x Tan t c) HALF SKIP BPL = Cos d) FULL SKIP BPL =

2t Cos

Figure 10.2

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the centre of the hole and the beam is hitting the tangent to the hole at right angles. The true beam angle can be read against the true beam index from the graticule on the calibration block. The example shown in Figure 10.5 has the beam index opposite an angle of about 43 and the nominal angle is 45. With this probe, we would have to use 43o in our distance calculations and for defect sizing.

Figure 10.3 Figure 10.5

Calibration of timebase
The method of calibration of the timebase for shear waves depends on the purpose of the inspection. If the inspection were to be volumetric, looking for any discontinuities within the scanned volume of the test-piece, then we would calibrate for a suitable timebase range at shear wave velocity. On the other hand, if the purpose is to look for a specic discontinuity such as a fatigue crack, in a predicted location, we may well use a Skip method or a Reference Block method. The calibration for a known range will be dealt with rst, using the A2 block and then the A4 block.

Using the A2 block

q Place the probe on the A2 block as shown in Figure 10.6. q Obtain a maximum echo from the 100 mm radius. q Adjust the gain control to peak the signal at about 80% full screen height. q Use the delay control to position the 100 mm signal at zero on the timebase. q Use the depth controls to place the second reection from the 100 mm radius at ten on the timebase. q Check that the left hand edges of the two signals are exactly at zero and ten. q Lock the depth controls q Use delay to move the rst signal from zero to ten. q The timebase is now calibrated for 100 mm at shear wave velocity, and zero represents the top surface entry point below the beam index. Sometimes you may see part of the initial (transmission) pulse around the zero, this will depend on the pulse length and gain setting as shown in Figure 10.7. The slot that marks the 100 mm radius on the A2 block is about 4 mm deep, so that when the probe is aligned with the edge of the block, the slot makes a corner for the returning echo to reflect part of the energy back to the 100 mm radius. This is why it is possible to obtain repeat echoes from the radius. If the slot were not there, the reflected energy from the first returned signal would reflect to the rear of the probe. Figure 10.8 shows an exaggerated view of the beam path to illustrate the corner effect.

Figure 10.4

Measuring the true beam angle

Once the true beam index is known, the true beam angle can be measured on the A2 or A4 calibration block. The nominal probe angle is marked on the probe and is the refracted angle for steel unless identied for another material. A 45 shear wave probe made for aluminium would be marked 45AL and for copper 45CU. The actual angle for a new probe may be plus or minus two degrees from the nominal angle because of the batch velocity variations in Perspex, and will change with wear. Most of us have an inherent tendency to wear the probe in a particular way, just as we do for shoes. We may wear the heel of the probe down and so increase the actual angle, or wear the toe and decrease the actual angle. For this reason the beam angle measurement is also a routine probe check. If the probe is worn down towards one edge, the beam will be thrown off towards that side and the condition is called squint. Beam angle is measured on the A2 block by aiming the beam at the 45 mm-diameter hole and on the A4 block at the small hole. The probe is positioned on the block at a point near the nominal angle and the gain adjusted to give a signal amplitude of about 50% full screen height. As the probe is moved forward and back, the signal rises and falls just as it did when finding the beam index. When the signal reaches its maximum amplitude, the beam centre is aimed at

Using A4 block
To calibrate for 100 mm using the A4 block: q Place the probe on the A4 block as shown in Figure 10.9. q Obtain a maximum echo from the 25 mm radius.

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q Adjust the gain control to peak the signal at about 80% full screen height. q Use the delay control to position the 25 mm signal at 2.5 on the timebase. q Use the depth controls to place the second reection (from the 50 mm radius slot) at ten on the timebase. q Check that the left hand edges of the two signals are exactly at 2.5 and 10. q Lock the depth controls q The time base is now calibrated for 100 mm at shear wave velocity, and zero represents the top surface entry point below the beam index. The sound path in Figure 10.9 shows the first echo from the 25 mm radius and then the echo from the 50 mm radius after reflecting at the scanning surface down to the 25 mm radius and back. The total return path is: 25 mm + 50 mm + 25 mm = 100 mm. Facing the 25 mm radius on the A4 block, signals will arrive at 25, 100, 175, 250 mm and so on, incrementing by 75 mm each time. If the probe is turned around to face the 50 mm radius, signals will arrive at 50, 125, 200, 275 mm and so on, again incrementing by 75 mm.

Calibration using the skip method

If the purpose of the inspection is to detect surface-breaking aws at the bottom surface or top surface (typical of fatigue cracks), we know that the echoes will arrive at exactly the half skip or full skip beam path lengths. We could calibrate the timebase for an exact

Figure 10.6

Figure 10.7

Figure 10.8

Figure 10.9

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range using one of the methods described above and calculate the beam path lengths for half and full skip using the formulae. We would then know exactly where to look on the timebase for the two conditions. We do use this method to carry out the critical root scan in weld inspection. However, in many cases there is a quicker and simpler method. Using a piece of plate of the same wall thickness as the item to be inspected we can point the probe at the end surface (position 1) and scan back as shown in Figure 10.10 until we see the echo from the bottom corner (position 2).

anticipated corner because a shear wave meeting an interface at an oblique angle is easy to damp. If you put an oily finger on the expected reflecting corner, the signal will be seen to reduce in amplitude significantly. In Figure 10.10, if you damp the bottom corner when the beam is at the half skip position (2), the signal will fall and when the beam is at the full skip position (3) you can damp the signal at the top corner and at the reflecting point on the bottom surface.

Pipe walls
If you are going to scan a pipe wall in the longitudinal direction, then you can use any of the above calibration procedures. However, if you are scanning circumferentially the calculation of beam path length, and skip distances is more complicated. If you have a segment of pipe of the same outside diameter and wall thickness as a reference block, you can use the skip method for nding the critical half and full skip positions on the timebase. If you also need to look for discontinuities in the volume of the object, you calibrate the timebase on the A2 or A4 block for an exact range, and then put the probe on the reference pipe segment and note the half and full skip ranges. The wall thickness for any given outside diameter is important because the normal range of angled shear wave probes (45, 60 and 70), when used on thick-wall pipe may cut across to the outside surface again without touching the bore. An example is shown in Figure 10.12 where a 45 shear wave only reaches about half way through the wall. In other words, for this outside diameter, the thickest pipe wall we could test with a 45 probe is only half that shown in the diagram. It follows that, when you are presented with an unusually thick pipe wall for a particular outside diameter, you need to choose your probe angle carefully in order to inspect the bore properly. For a given angle, the maximum wall thickness that allows the centre of the beam to reach the bore of the pipe can be calculated from:

Figure 10.10

The signal will rise to a maximum as the centre of the beam moves into the corner. We can adjust the timebase and gain to make sure that we can see that maximum point. As the maximum is reached, we would adjust the timebase range to position the signal at some convenient part of the trace, usually about 4. We would then continue moving the probe backwards until the top corner reflection is seen (position 3). As this signal maximises, we note its position along the timebase. Figure 10.11 shows a trace with the half skip and full skip positions marked and, in this example, gates positioned over the two critical locations so that the operator can listen for the alarm rather than watch the display all the time. Another point to note from Figure 10.11 is that the position for full skip is at 9 on the timebase and not at 8 (twice 4). This means that timebase zero is not the top surface, and furthermore, we do not know the exact timebase range. However, for this inspection it does not matter because we are only interested to find out whether or not there is a bottom or top surface-breaking corner. If the plate to be inspected has accessible edges, you do not need a calibration plate because you can use the corners on the test-piece to set up the two positions on the timebase. However, you have to be sure that there are no laminations in the beam path because these might reflect the beam back to the top without reaching the bottom. It is easy to check whether the signal is coming from the

t=

dx (1 Sin ) 2

Where t = wall thickness d = pipe outside diameter = beam angle This formula can be turned round so that you can calculate the best angle given for a wall thickness, the formula becoming:

Sin = 1

2t d

Table 1 shows maximum wall thickness that can be tested for three standard angles and a range of pipe diameters. Once the correct angle for the pipe size and wall thickness has been chosen, you can establish the skip and half skip positions using a section of pipe with a drilled hole to produce the required corner reflectors as shown in Figure 10.13.

Figure 10.11

Figure 10.12

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Table 1
Pipe OD Maximum pipe wall thickness for probe angles (mm) 35 45 60 21 32 43 53 64 74 85 96 106 14 22 29 36 44 51 58 66 73 7 10 13 17 20 23 27 30 33

4" (100 mm) 6" (150 mm)

Figure 10.13

8" (200 mm) 10" (250 mm) 12" (300 mm) 14" (350 mm) 16" (400 mm) 18" (450 mm) 20" (500 mm)

Calibration of the gain

This is often called setting the sensitivity, and it means that we adjust the gain so that a signicant discontinuity will give a signal that is large enough to see, but small surface scratches will not. Very often, we use a reference block, similar in shape and material to the specimen, and containing either a drilled hole or an articial (machined) crack. The probe is aimed at this reference hole or crack, to obtain an echo, this is then maximised by probe movement, and then the gain is adjusted to give the required signal height known as the reference level and the gain is then said to be calibrated. This reference level may be 50% or 75% of full screen height, and is often used as the basis for getting acceptance standards for the inspection. Hence, you may nd that you are working to a specication that says that any signal equal to, or greater than the amplitude of the reference level is cause for rejection of the component, whereas any signal lower than the reference level may be ignored.

beam path length at which a top surface defect will appear in that case can be calculated from the formula: BPL = D cos Where D is the outside diameter and is the probe angle. In the sort of application illustrated in Figure 10.15, if there is no crack, the sound will carry on around the bar or pipe as shown in Figure 10.16. Provided there is enough sensitivity, you may only need to scan from position A to position B. The beam will sweep the entire circumference during the short scan and, as long as you have enough timebase and gain, echoes from any discontinuities breaking the surface will appear at predictable positions. Reference Ultrasonic Flaw Detection for Technicians - Third Edition, June 2004 by J C Drury.

Testing for outside diameter surface aws

Discontinuities that break the top surface, such as the crack shown in Figure 10.14, will cause a reection to occur at exactly the beam path distance for the full skip if a suitable angle that will reach the bore is used. However, as you can see from Figure 10.15, if you are testing a thick wall tube or a solid bar, the beam may reach the top surface without rst reecting from any other surface. The

Figure 10.14

Figure 10.15

Figure 10.16

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