POWER QUALITY Power quality is becoming an increasingly important to consumers as sensitive equipment and non-linear loads are more

common. Power quality is also important for power system utilities as it may lead to loss of supply to customers (reducing revenue) and also harmonic currents can cause excess heat loss in equipment leading to accelerated aging or component failure. The main features defining loss in power quality are:

Voltage dips which are characterised by a system voltage of 0.1-0.9 pu lasting 10ms 1 minute. This can effect manufacturing processes, it can cause lighting to dim. Voltage swell which are characterised by a system voltage of 1.1-1.8 pu lasting 10ms 1 minute. This can affect manufacturing processes, it can cause light bulbs to blow. Transients which are impulses or short oscillations in the power system voltage and/or currents. This can trip equipment e.g reboot computers. Harmonics which are frequency components in the system voltage at multiples of the power frequency. Harmonics give rise to increased losses in equipment. The 3rd harmonic can over load earth wires at it is primarily a zero sequence harmonic. Distorted waveforms This accounts for other frequency components in the system voltage which are not precise multiples of the power frequency (comprises of inter harmonics). This also gives rise to increased losses and insulation stress in equipment. Flicker This is a sub power frequency oscillation (1-30 Hz). The main concern is a visual irritation due to flickering illumination. Voltage imbalance This indicates the presence of both zero and negative sequence components. This gives rise to increased losses and can overload earth wires. Frequency deviation. This affects synchronous machines and stresses generator rigs. Transient interruption This is loss of supply or supply voltage <0.1 pu lasting < 1 minute. This can trip less sensitive equipment An outage This is loss of supply lasting more than a minute. This can lead to major disruption to both consumers and the power network.

Voltage (pu)

Time

Voltage swell

Voltage Dip

Figure 1. Examples of voltage swell and dip

Voltage (pu)

Time

Figure 2. Example of voltage transients leading to flicker and distorted waveforms

V (pu)

0.05

5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.511 11.512 12.513 13.514 14.515 Harmonic No.

Figure 3. Frequency content of the voltage waveform given in Fig. 2. showing inter-harmonics

Voltage (pu)

Time

Figure 4. Typical voltage waveform with harmonics due to non-linear loads

n 0 2

12

V (pu)

0.05

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Harmonic No.

Figure 5. Harmonic content of the waveform given in Fig. 4.

Sources of power quality problems Most power quality problems are experiences as voltage disturbances by the users. The system impedance therefore plays an important part in dictating the degree of severity of the disturbance. For example is we take the general situation as shown in Figure 6. Nonlinea r loads Zsystem Vs idisturbance Vusers Other users Large machines

Switching event

Figure 6 Example system showing the relationship of the voltages to the current disturbance Then the user voltage Vusers will be given by

where idisturbance is the current disturbance caused by one of the sources of power quality problems. Figure 7 shows the effect on power quality as the degree of penetration of wind generation increases. This is due to averaging effects and the effects on the system impedance.

Typical sources of power quality problems can be summarised as follows Power Electronic devices These devices tend to present non-linear loads which create or are a source of harmonics. They tend to be susceptible to voltage dips. Variable speed drives are particularly susceptible to voltage dips and can give rise to loss of synchronisation IT and office equipment This equipment often incorporates switch mode power supplies which generate significant 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonics. The 3rd harmonic can overload the neutral conductor, as it is a zero sequence harmonic. Arcing devices Electric arc furnaces, arc welding equipment and discharge are highly nonlinear with a large current demand. Large motors starting A large motor starting can last several seconds drawing a large current and potentially causing a voltage dip in the supply. Storm and environmental related damage Ligtning-causes insulation failure and affects sensitive loads High winds- disrupts transmission lines Snow and ice- disrupts transmission lines Sea mist- causes insulation failure due to surface tracking Wild life- birds and trees cause electrical breakdown or earth faults

Figure 7 Illustration of the power smoothing effect when increasing the number of wind turbines. Based on simulations by Pedro Rosas, 2003, Dynamic Influences of Wind Power on the Power System (PLD thesis, rsted Institute and Technical University of Denmark).

Amelioration (cure) for Power Quality Problems Good earthing practice Good earthing practice reduces the fault impedance and the effects of 3rd harmonics Standby Universal Power source (UPS) For local loads, flywheels and batteries can store enough energy to enable a ride through of an outage for possibly one or two minutes. Longer periods or power levels have to be covered by emergency power supplies or pumped storage. Online UPS An online universal power source can completely isolate a load from supply fluctuations but is an expensive option and has operating losses Local or embedded generation Combined heat and power plants or local windfarms lowers the system impedance and hence reduces the effects from problem loads (non-linear, arcs, large machines etc.). They also allow a rid through of voltage dips and swells. SVC and Active filters Power electronic static compensators and active filters provide good voltage control and reduced harmonics. Passive filters Passive filters are effective for higher harmonics but they have losses and their performance affected by variations in the system impedance. Ferro resonant transformers Ferro resonant transformers are 1:1 transformers that operate close to saturation to stop over voltages. These are very lossy nonlinear devices which tend to introduce harmonics

Recommended guidelines or standards for power quality Two typical standards are from the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation (CENELEC) and the US based Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) The voltage characteristic of the electricity supply by public distributions systems is specified by EN 50160 from CENELEC Voltage Frequency Voltage Unbalance Harmonic voltage Distortion The voltage must be between 1.1 and 0.9 pu The frequency must remain with 1% of 50Hz The negative sequence voltage must not exceed 0.02 pu THD 3rd Harmonic 5th Harmonic 7th Harmonic < 0.08 pu < 0.05 pu <0.06 pu <0.05 pu

Note all pu values with respect to nominal voltage

The ITIC permitted zone curve for information technology equipment is given in Figure 8.

Figure 8. The ITIC (CBEME) curve