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he popularity of fiber optics is increasing. The need to understand the basic principles of the cable itself and the testing parameters associated with it is
these quick termination connectors can be quite high. There are also many proprietary tools required, in contrast to the generic punchdown tools used with copper. The cost of the active components is also a negative factor. Laying dark fiber (leaving the cable unterminated), however, is an alternative that allows for a ready infrastructure when active components become more affordable.
essential. This article will examine the different types of fiber optic cables, physical characteristics of fiber and connectors, different styles of connectors and splices, testing and types of test equipment, including the specifics of power meter light source (PM/LS) testing and optical time domain reflectometers (OTDR).
(Figure 3). The ST is used in LANs primarily with multimode fiber. It is a BNC type push n twist connection. The SC is used in LANs with singlemode and multimode fiber with a dual strand push-in plug. The dual SC is
popular because it assures correct polarity between the Tx and Rx ports. The FC is used in telecommunications/CATV applications with singlemode fiber and has a screw-on termination. There have been developments with the connectors using factory polished ferrules and crimp-style terminations. The classic styles use epoxy or hotmelt glue to secure the fiber to the connector. Pre-polished connectors significantly reduce installation time but can cost several times as much as the epoxy styles.
Multimode
62.55
Physical Connectors
Singlemode Mechanical connections are referred to as PC (physical contact) or 8 m
Figure 2
APC (angled physical contact). (See Figure 4.) Physical contact connectors derive the more pronounced the dispersion. Graded-index fiber can reduce pulse speed and is preferred over stepindexed fiber. Figure 2 illustrates modal dispersion using a car race analogy. As applied to multimode fiber, there are numerous lanes and cars are free to move around the track. Even though they all start at the same time, they will finish in a different order. In the singlemode
End View
Uses laser transmission sources, therefore, costs more Overall, singlemode fiber optic cable can support much more bandwidth and span much greater distances. Because laser sources are required, overall network costs are generally higher.
their name from the fact that the faces of the connectors touch each other
ST
Simplex SC
FC
Modal Dispersion
Modal dispersion is the effect of a single pulse of light spreading out into multiple modes (colors) as it advances through the fiber. The result is that what went in as a tight monochromatic pulse exits as a broad spread of wavelengths. The longer the cable,
analogy, the track is only one lane wide and the cars exit in exactly the same order they went in. There is no room for one car to pass another.
Duplex SC
Connector Types
There are three commonly used conFigure 3
when mated, although there is always a small air gap involved. This air gap has a much different index of refraction than glass and causes a great amount of reflection. Using indexmatching gel in the connector can reduce this by sealing the air gap. Another alternative is to use APC connectors that are angled so that any reflected light is not sent back upstream causing interference, but instead, reflected out of the connector. The result is that there is only an attenuation component of the connection, not reflection.
ment for fiber optic cable: power meter and light source (PM/LS), optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) and visual fault locator (VFL).
inexpensive, accurate and easy to use. Another benefit is that the PM/LS can be added to nearly all copper certification tools (for contractors moving into fiber installation). This keeps the cost of the unit down and increases the available features since the OTS can use the processor, memory and display of the host device. S ETTING R EFERENCE (See (CALIBRATION). With an OTS, setting the reference value is critical. Figure 7.) This value represents how much power is injected at the source so the correct loss can be calculated.
In-line Splices/Connectors
There are two types of splices with fiber optic cable. The first is a mechanical splice. These splices are used for quick restoration of severed lines. The second is a fusion splice that is used during installation for long-term connections where attenuation and longevity is critical. (See Figure 5.) Splices, both mechanical and fusion, are used during initial installation to permanently join sections of fiber. Splices exhibit very little attenuation and usually no detectable reflection. The mechanical splice uses a tube filled with index-matching gel into which the cleaved fiber ends are inserted. The splice is compressed to physically hold the ends of the fibers into position. Fusion splices, on the other hand, use heat to melt the two strands of glass together into one piece. This is quite durable and adds almost no attenuation. Typically, values of .10 to .00 dB can be achieved.
Physical Connectors
PC Connector APC Connector
Mechanical Splice
Fusion Splice
Splice Device
Fiber (Glass)
Heat
Figure 5
Tx
850 1,300 OFF LED Source
Rx
Power Meter
calculation can be done to determine the approximate distance the unit can measure based on the specs of the fiber optic components (Figure 8).
-15.0 dBm
0.0 dBm
COMPLETE PM TESTING.
To be
certain of actual loss, each fiber strand should be tested in both directions (bidirectional testing). This is done to ensure the attenuation is similar in both directions. A large discrepancy can be an indicator that there is a
-30.0 dBm
15.0 dB ON OFf Set Ref Power Meter 15.0 dB
-15.0 dBm
poorly polished or fractured connector somewhere in the link, or the fiber core sizes are mismatched (Figure 9). The OTS cannot tell you where the problem is, only that there is a problem. the loss. two For certification purposes, measurements can be
ON OFf
Set Ref
Power Meter
Figure 7
Some upper model kits have sources that are calibrated to output exactly 0.0 dBm. This eliminates the need for reference calibration and makes long distance measurements easier. For example, two workers on opposite ends of a link can make a loss measurement without having to meet and calibrate the test equipment. H OW FAR C AN
THE
Tx Power = -15 dBm 850 1,300 OFF LED Source Dynamic Range = Rx Sens Tx Pwr = (-60) dBm (-15) dBm = 45 dB Distance = DR/Loss Coefficient = 45(dB)/3(dB/km) = 15 km
PM/LS not a
M EASURE ?
Distance
is
specification of an OTS. Instead, the correct question to ask is how much loss the OTS can measure (its dynamic range). If the dynamic range of the equipment is known, then the distance can be calculated based on the specifications of the installed components. The dynamic range of the test kit is the difference between the output of the source and the maximum sensitivity of the detector, and is a measure of the maximum attenuation the unit can detect. Once
Figure 9 Figure 8
OTDR
OTDRs provide much more information than the OTS but are quite expensive. Some models can be slaved to a laptop PC, but most are rugged, standalone field units. OTDRs will accurately provide the length of the entire run, the distance to each event, and the attenuation and reflection of each event. OTDRs send a pulse of light down the fiber and measure the reflected light to determine the loss or reflection at any given point. Units that have a real-time setting are excellent for troubleshooting. OTDRs are also commonly used for restoring a break when it can be quickly located and fixed. The demand for OTDR certification is growing rapidly as a means of checking how a link degrades over time by comparing installation plots vs. plots at a later date. Another benefit is that the OTDR only requires a connection to one side of the fiber; therefore, one person can make fast work of measuring high-count cables. OTDR S ETTINGS/PARAMETERS . The four standard settings on an OTDR are the wavelength, pulse width, range and acquisition time. Most models have an automatic
5 ns 0.5 m
10 ns 1m
100 ns 10 m
10 ms 1 km
20 ms 2 km
setting, and the OTDR will determine the correct pulse width and range depending on the length of the fiber. The correct setting for the pulse width is critical to get the most out of an OTDR, but in lieu of an automatic setting, generally the smaller the pulse width, the better. A small pulse width gives better resolution and decreases the effects of deadzones while limiting the dynamic OTDR Plot Connector Pair OTDR Fusion Splice
range; therefore the distance can be measured. Short pulse widths (Figure 10) give improved resolution and decreased deadzones. Long pulse widths (Figure 10) increase measurement distance and increase dynamic range, but reduce resolution and increase deadzones. Table 1 shows how the pulse width can affect the deadzone. With a 100 ns pulse, the OTDR will have a deadzone
Bulkhead Connector
Cable Bend
End of Fiber
P o w e r d B m
Events
Dead
P o w e r d B m
Reflection of an event is the amount of backscattered light (dB) relative to the input power. Larger values are better.
Attenuation Reflection
of an event is a measure of the difference in power before and after the event (dB).
Attenuation
of approximately 10 m (33 ft.) after each reflective event. This means that if two connectors were within 10 m of each other, you would not see the second one as a separate event. OTDR PLOT. Figure 11 provides an example of what can be seen on an OTDR screen. The deadzone is the Transmitted Light Light absorbed by fog turns to heat area where the OTDR is blind after hitting a reflective event. The overall slope of the line indicates the loss/km of the fiber itself. The difference of the Y axis indicates the attenuation of the link. The X axis, on the other hand, indicates distance, and is used to precisely locate an event. OTDR S R EFLECTION . ATTENUATION
AND
FOG
Attenuated Light
Figure 13
event is examined, it becomes visible that the attenuation is the vertical difference in power between the start and finish of the event, while the reflection is the vertical component above the slope of the line (Figure 12). ABSORPTION, REFLECTION
AND
Loss Budget Equals: Fiber = 3.5 dB/km @ 850 nm Connector = 0.75 dB Splice = 0.15 dB
3.5 dB/km x 0.3 km= 1.05 dB 0.75 dB x 4 = 3.00 dB 0.15 dB x 1 = 0.15 dB
REFRACTION. Three things happen to light as it travels through a medium: it is reflected, refracted and absorbed. Referring to Figure 13, the example of a car driving through fog with the lights on best describes this. The fog reflects some light at the car, creating glare (optical return loss). This is wasted energy that does not help light the road ahead. Some light is refracted in all directions, causing the fog bank to glow, again not helping the cause. Lastly, some light is absorbed and turned into heat. What light remains and is transmitted through the fog is weaker than what the headlights put in and has been attenuated. This is useable energy that is left over. The same thing happens in fiber optic cables. Microscopic hydroxide (OH) ions present in the glass as imperfec-
SUM = 4.20 dB
Figure 14
tions can have the same effect as fog in the air. HOW MUCH LOSS IS ACCEPTABLE? Loss budget is used to determine how much power loss a network can sustain and still operate. There are two types of loss budgets. The first, cable loss budget (passive), is used by most contractors when the types of electronics used on the network are unknown (Figure 14). The second, active component loss budget is used when the electronics specifications are available to match the Tx and Rx levels (Figure 15). It is important to note that most installers are not privy
to the choice of active components the user will install. installer with This leaves the only enough
information to make sure the links do not exceed the worst-case loss as specified by the manufacturer of the cable and connectors.
VFLs provide no measurement data and cannot be used to certify cable. They are used only as troubleshooting tools. Tx = -15 dBm Rx = -40 dBm +/- 10 dB
Required Loss to achieve ideal power at Rx -30.0 dBm - (-15.0 dBm) = 15 dB Budget -50.0 dBm - (-15.0 dBm) = 35 dB Power at Rx with caused by passive loss -15.0 dBm - (4.2 dB) = 19.2 dBm Additional attenuation required to match levels -40.0 dBm (-19.2 dBm) = 20.8 dB
Transmitted power must be attenuated by at least 15 dB to avoid over driving Rx. To receive the ideal power level at the Rx, the signal should be attenuated by 25 dB. Given the cable loss from the previous example of 4.20 dB, a 20 dB attenuator needs to be added.