The

seisniieity

of

Iran : 955

T h e T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e of

2th february

N . N . A M B R A S E Y S ( * ) - A . A . MOINFAR ( * * ) Received 011 l u n e 26 lb, 1977

RIASSUNTO. - Il t e r r e m o t o di T o r u d del 12 Febbraio 1953 e b b e u n a magnit u d o Ms di 6.4 ed a v v e n n e , d o p o u n lungo periodo di relativa calma, nella zona di faglia o m o n i m a n e l l ' I r a n settentrionale, una regione desolata ai confini con il K a v i r . La scossa f u sentita in u n raggio di 290 km e provoc la m o r t e di 800 persone, per lo pi nel villaggio di T o r u d . Non c' nessuna concreta testim o n i a n z a che il t e r r e m o t o sia stato associato alla faglia. Ad ogni m o d o , il sisma c a u s la l i q u e f a z i o n e dei deposili saturi del deserto. SUMMARY. - T h e T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e of 12lh F e b r u a r y 1953 had a m a g n i t u d e Ms of 6.4 a n d it o c c u r r e d , a f t e r a long period of relative quiescence, on the s y n o n y m o u s fault zone in n o r t h e r n Iran, a desolate region on the b o r d e r s of the Kavir. T h e shock was felt w i t h i n a radius of 290 kilometres and 1 caused the death of a b o u t 800 people, mainly in the village of T o r u d . T h e r e is no conclusive e v i d e n c e t h a t the e a r t h q u a k e w a s associated with f a u l t i n g . H o w e v e r , it did cause the l i q u e f a c t i o n of s a t u r a t e d desert deposits.

INTRODUCTION.

T h e e a r t h q u a k e of the most desolate p a r t s of

12th

February the region of C e n t r a l

1955 occurred of Torud on

in o n e o f the b o r d e r s I). It w a s Tehran,

the of felt

I r a n , in

the Kavir, the great over and of an area of

salt desert

Iran as

(Figure far as

260,000

square

kilometres,

Tabas

Turbat-i Torud and

Haidariyyeh, and about six 800

it d e v a s t a t e d were

the sub-district in the main

(Dehestan) village of at

where in its

people

killed

Torud

smaller

villages.

The

shock,

which

occurred

(*) I m p e r i a l College of Science, L o n d o n . (**) Plan & Budget O r g a n i s a t i o n , T e h r a n .

191 N. N. AMBRASEYS - A. A. MO IN FAR

a b o u t noon local time on T h u r s d a y 25rd B a h m a n 1331, h a d a surfacew a v e m a g n i t u d e of 6.4 and w a s associated with g r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s . T h e event w a s studied in the field by Prof. S. A b d a l i a n w h o visited the area shortly a f t e r the e a r t h q u a k e ('). T h e results of this field study are invaluable but leave a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t questions u n a n s w e r e d , such as the extent of the meizoseismal area and the n a t u r e of the observed ground deformations. In an a t t e m p t to s u p p l e m e n t the i n f o r m a t i o n already available a b o u t this i m p o r t a n t e a r t h q u a k e in Iran, and also in o r d e r to resolve the ambiguity on the n a t u r e of the g r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s so f a r r e p o r t e d , the authors visited the site in the spring of 1975.

neighbouring towns w h e r e the shock w a s not felt.

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THE

TORUD

EARTHQUAKE OF

12th

FEBRUARY

1953.

T h e area afTected by the T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e belongs to the w a s t e l a n d that borders to the northeast the Dasht-i Kavir, the great salt desert of Central Iran, Fig. 1. M o r e specifically, the shock affected the Dehestan of T o r u d which has an area of 2 2 , 0 0 0 square kilometres a n d a total population of a b o u t 3,200 sedentary people. T h e Dehestan consists of the capital village of T o r u d , w h i c h , before the e a r t h q u a k e , h a d a population of just over 200, and of six smaller villages the population of which does not exceed 500. O u t of 120 f a r m h o u s e s and small settlements, 50 are u n i n h a b i t e d , and most of them are scattered along the main c a r a v a n routes to the south a n d northeast, in the vicinity of c o p p e r a n d turquoise mines. T h e meizoseismal area of the T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e is s h o w n in Fig. 4, together with the re-calculated location of the instrumental epicentre of the m a i n shock (9) and the less accurate location of a f t e r s h o c k s . T a b l e 1 lists the characteristics of the main shock a n d of its a f t e r s h o c k s as well as the m a g n i t u d e s of these events calculated f r o m reported amplitude-period readings.

TABLE

Time Feb. 12 081530

Epicentre 35.40 55.08 ( 9 )

Ms
6.4 (0.2) mp = 6.9 (0.3), r 3 = 290 k m ; r 4 = 190 k m ; rs = 110 k m ( V I I I )

12 13 Apr. Jul. Jul. Aug. 1 11 24 24

082727 043628 022435 152508 053056 162030

36.00 55.00 () 35.60 54.70 ( l 2 ) 35.50 55.20 ( 3 ) 35.90 55.10C 2 ) 35.80 55.40 ( l 2 ) 35.40 54.80 4.5 4.0 4.3 (0.2) 4.5 4.7 ( ) . 3 )

Aftershock

mp = 5.2 (0.2)

T o r u d is the largest village affected by the e a r t h q u a k e . It w a s built originally on the edge of a 20-metre high terrace, overlooking the desert to the south and about 50 hectars of cultivated land s u r r o u n d e d by w a s t e l a n d . In 1888 the village contained 2 0 0 to 2 5 0 dwellings. It

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obtained its w a t e r i'rom the R u d k h a n e h - p a ' i Kaleh, a small river of seasonal (low with its source about 36 kilometres off to the n o r t h , that had cut deeply into the silts of the terrace, which stood on both sides into vertical walls 12 to 15 metres high, in places hollowed into caves by the r u n n i n g w a t e r . Some of these caves had been enlarged into t e m p o r a r y dwellings and storehouses and used by the villagers d u r i n g the dry seasons. T h e only perennial supply of w a t e r for T o r u d w a s provided by an old q a n a t w h o s e wells were sunk right through the silts, its stream emerging at the toe of the terrace, above which stood the dilapidated citadel of the village ( l4 ). By 1906 the village h a d grown and many of its n e w houses were built at the foot of the terrace, in f r o n t of which stood an I m a m z a d e h facing south. More caves had been excavated into the silts of the vertical walls of the R u d k h a n e h for the storage of straw, firewood and for the housing of animals. In 1906 T o r u d had a population of not more than 1000 and about 250 p r o p e r houses. Fig. 2 shows views of T o r u d sketched in February 1906 (" 7 ). By the m i d - 5 0 ' s the size of the village h a d doubled a n d its population had risen to almost 2 0 0 0 with 4 0 0 houses ( 4 ), and t w o smaller q a n a t s were dug to supply w a t e r for irrigation (Figure 3, points 13 and 24). At the time of the 1953 e a r t h q u a k e , T o r u d had a population of about 2.100. T h e e a r t h q u a k e completely destroyed T o r u d and only a few houses did not collapse. O n e of them is still there, located at the southwest limit of the new village (Fig. 3, point 20). Most, of the casualties occurred in the old part of the village and in its n a r r o w streets (Plates 1 and 2). No one was killed in the caves which stood up to the shaking far better than the o r d i n a r y houses of the village. Estimates of the casualties reported so f a r differ considerably, varying from 2 0 0 0 to u n d e r 9 0 0 (2- 8- l0' "). Most of these estimates were based on rather exaggerated press reports and on official estimates for T o r u d and for its Dehestan w h i c h w e r e a d d e d together. From interviews with a n u m b e r of local officials a n d survivors of the event, the best estimate for the casualties in T o r u d is 720 killed about 160 seriously i n j u r e d . T h e e a r t h q u a k e d a m a g e d the main q a n a t that today issues between the old and the n e w villages (Fig. 3, points 12. 14), as well as a m u c h smaller q a n a t t h a t runs to the south t o w a r d s Dagg-Kulud. T h e f o r m e r was soon repaired but its yield never rose above half of that yielded

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ft

l- i

X-

V ^

"V

Fig. 2 Sketches of T o r u d made by Sveri H e d i n in early February 1906. (a) looking south-west; c o m p a r e w i t h Plate 1. (fa) looking d u e south: notice terrace cliffs undercut by erosion, (t) looking north-east.

b e f o r e the e a r t h q u a k e ; the latter was damaged by ground d e f o r m a t i o n s and a f t e r being repaired its w a t e r turned brackish. At the time of the e a r t h q u a k e the u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r lablc in the lields that lie at the foot of he village, was only one to t w o metres below g r o u n d level, and it was almost at ground s u r f a c e in the vicinity of the outlet of the main q a n a t (Fig. 3, point 14). In these fields, the shock caused the ground to s l u m p and a series of long cracks to open u p f r o m

Fig. 5 M a p of the immediate vicinity of T o r u d showing location of ground d e f o r m a t i o n s (No. 1, and 2 slumping of the ground below the q a n a t outlet No. 14; no. 5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 and 10, shattered and in places eroded mudstones along bedding; no. 7, the only conjugate zone fractures in the form of shattered h a r d e r rocks. C o m p a t e w i t h Plate 5.

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1 Ruins of old T o r u d and caves in 1975: c o m p a r e with Figures 2a and 2b.

Ruins of the u p p e r part of old T o r u d , looking t o w a r d s I b r a h i m . N e w village, on the extreme right.

Daqq

Soltaneh

w h i c h brime and sand were ejected, particularly in the P a r e d a s h t f a r m w h e r e they w e r e a b o u t 20 metres long (Fig. 3, points 1, 2). T h e s e are most probably the n e w cracks referred to by Gansser ( 5 ). Although the cracks are no longer visible except in t w o places, local i n f o r m a t i o n suggests that they were f o r m e d by the g r o u n d o p e n i n g u p w i t h i n a n a r r o w zone w h i c h runs discontinuously in an east-west direction f o r a b o u t 8 0 0 metres, f r o m just south of the outlet of the R u d k h a n e h - p a ' i Kaleh to the east edge of the fields. Low adobe walls built a f t e r the e a r t h q u a k e across this zone today s h o w no sign of s u b s e q u e n t displa-

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cements. Nor is there any evidence that this zone of s l u m p i n g extended beyond the limits of the fields into the p e d i m e n t material and gravel fans. It is of interest that with the exception of this zone, w i t h i n w h i c h liquefied material was ejected to the s u r f a c e of the g r o u n d , there is no evidence of m u d volcanoes or ejected sand in the rest of the fields. T h e r e is evidence, h o w e v e r , of sands south of T o r u d , as well as of thin about 9 kilometres n o r t h of the village crossing what was previously a safe swallowed up. extensive liquefaction of Kavir dunes in the L a b s u r e h depression, (Fig. 4), w h e r e allegedly a camel track d u r i n g dry w e a t h e r , was

G r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s , about one kilometre to the south of T o r u d and near the f a r m of Sultaneh Ibrahim were reported by A b d a l i a n ('). This farm is situated at the fool of Kulud-Dagg, a low hill formed by the erosion of the south limb of a northeast-southwest trending anticline of b e d d e d Miocene saline m u d s t o n e s a n d h a r d e r sandstones of the Upper Red Formations. T h e hill consists of parallel ridges of the h a r d e r beds along w h i c h Abdalian mentions, in passing, the presence of a zone, about 15 metres wide and several kilometres long, within w h i c h he observed that locally the ground w a s d o w n t h r o w n to the south by 20 to 140 centimetres. Evidence for g r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s near the f a r m is still visible but only along very short lengths along the strike of the bedding (Fig. 3, points 5, 6). Erosion has removed any evidence f r o m which to judge the a m o u n t and sense of m o v e m e n t today. As a m a t t e r of fact, several parallel zones of d i s t u r b a n c e in the softer and to a lesser extent in the h a r d e r beds, are still visible south of the f a r m , most of them r u n n i n g east-northeast with a few disturbed zones following a conjugate direction (Fig. 3, points 7. 8, 9, 10), plate 3 Similar local d i s t u r b a n c e s were found f u r t h e r to the southeast of the f a r m in marls and sandstones near G e r d a and Chah-i M o r g h a b (Fig. 4). and T h e kavir lies about 10 kilometres to the south and east of T o r u d is totally u n i n h a b i t e d for almost 2 0 0 kilometres.

T o the southwest of the village, the first inhabited place is the small settlement of Bidestan (Pejestan or Paiesk) w h i c h , at the time of the e a r t h q u a k e , had a b o u t 100 houses and a population of 480. T h e shock destroyed 75 houses killing 18 and injuring 10 people, and caused slumping of the g r o u n d within a zone t w o metres wide and a few tens of metres long, between the settlement and the fields of Kelau which run parallel with the q a n a t . T o d a y , the village has been rebuilt next to the ruins of its old site.

54 30' 5445' 55 15' 55,0 '

Fig. 4 Meizoseismal area of the T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e . I = villages with a population of more than 45 affected by the shock; 2 = aflected settlements with a smaller population; 3 = uninhabited settlements; 4 = locations w h e r e there is evidence of liquefaction of the ground associated w i t h the e a r t h q u a k e ; 5 = ground deformations; A = location of main shock and of aftershocks; B and C = epicentres of all other k n o w n instrumentally determined epicentres.

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Next to Bidestan, a smaller settlement of a b o u t 20 houses. M e h d i a b a d was also ruined by the e a r t h q u a k e with the loss of two lives. A short q a n a t dug below the botton of the erosion stream about 15 metres deep, w a s blocked by the shock but it was later r e p a i r e d .

3 View of area of ground f r a c t u r e s No. 6, 7 and 10 of Figure 3.

In Satveh (or Sadfeh) half of the houses collapsed. O u t of 500 people, 8 were killed and 10 i n j u r e d and of the four q a n a t s of the village, three were damaged temporarily causing a serious lack of w a t e r . G r o u n d motions were strong enough to m a k e people u n a b l e to stand a n d to cause w a t e r to slosh from containers. At the time of the e a r t h q u a k e the u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r table was about 5 metres below g r o u n d s u r f a c e but there is no evidence of g r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s of any kind in the vicinity of the village. H o w e v e r , about f o u r kilometres to the south of Satveh, in the fields near the ruins of the a b a n d o n e d village of D a h a n e h , n e a r the old q a n a t and also f u r t h e r to the south, there w a s w i d e s p r e a d liquefaction in the bed of an erosion f u r r o w a n d also cracking of saturated silty deposits, f r o m w h i c h w a t e r and sand were ejected. Damage was less serious at H u s a y n i y a n . a village of a b o u t 4 0 houses, 50 kilometres southwest of T o r u d , w h e r e three people were i n j u r e d . Only a few houses collapsed but the rest were r u i n e d . At M o a l l e m a n , a near-by village of the same size, all houses suffered some d a m a g e but without casualties. T h e shock did not affect the q a n a t s n o r was there any evidence of g r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s . At H u s a y n a b a d no one was killed but the six houses of the settlement w e r e r u i n e d .

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T o the north of Husayniyan, the old village of R e s h m sustained m i n o r d a m a g e and only a f e w houses needed repair. H o w e v e r , the shock caused a t e m p o r a r y change in the yield of the spring that p r o v i d e d the sole source of w a t e r for the village. Further to the north of Reshm, at Galeki (or G a l u k i ) a semi-abandoned village, damage was equally small. T h e only other village in the area, Razeh, is about 30 kilometres northeast of T o r u d . No one was killed in Razeh itself, but half of its 20 old houses were shattered and some of the ruins of the old village collapsed. T h e r e was no d a m a g e to a small q a n a t , but the sole spring of w a t e r in the area dried up.

4 The old Hauz-i Paistan still standing.

Damage to isolated f a r m h o u s e s and a b a n d o n e d settlements in the area w a s found to be difficult to asses. A b o u t 7 kilometres southwest of T o r u d , Hauz-i Paistan, an a b - a m b a r or w a t e r reservoir covered with a d o m e of stone masorny was not damaged (Plate 4). About 18 kilometres f r o m T o r u d in the same direction, C h a h Ala'-e Pain, a f a r m h o u s e , was d a m a g e d . T w o o t h e r f a r m h o u s e s , u n i n h a b i t e d at the time of the earthq u a k e a n d located in the hills between C h a h and the site of the I m a m z a d e h Pir M a r d a n (or N u r 'Ala'), collapsed completely and a spring of w a t e r dried up. At 26 kilometres f r o m T o r u d on the road to Satveh, near the disused a b - A m b a r cf Sangi-i Sur, the shock caused a n o t h e r spring of brackish w a t e r to dry up. At this place, a few h u n d r e d metres northwest of the m a i n road, the e a r t h q u a k e caused some slumping of the g r o u n d . According to local information this should have occurred w h e r e

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a stream course r u n n i n g to the s o u t h w e s t cuts into a series of young terraces. T h e r e is some evidence here that as a result of the e a r t h q u a k e the alluvium to the southeast was d o w n t h r o w n against the brecciated volcanic rocks to the n o r t h w e s t . S o u t h w e s t of the a b a n d o n e d site of Q a l ' eh D o k h t a r , the q a n a t of G a n d a b w a s d a m a g e d , allegedly not by the e a r t h q u a k e of F e b r u a r y but by a later shock. T h e r e is also some u n a u t h e n t i c a t e d evidence that a f t e r the e a r t h q u a k e a n d for a few years, the desolate pastures of Baghdust, V a j a r u a n d T u d h a n w e r e covered with a rich vegetation u n u s u a l f o r this type of terrain, p e r h a p s suggesting a t e m p o r a r y c h a n g e of the w a t e r table. F u r t h e r n o r t h , at the f a r m of Salaran and the c o p p e r m i n e of C h a h m u s i , all of the houses, of which there were 10, w e r e d a m a g e d . In the region of Mahabiya and S'hisheh, d a m a g e w a s m o r e serious. O u t of 12 houses, 6 were destroyed w i t h o u t casualties. T h e q a n a t at M a h a b i y a was not affected but the spring of w a t e r Shisheh w a s temporarily blocked. T h e shock triggered small rockfalls near Shisheh Oliya. At C h e s h m e h Sefid, a deserted settlement of a few ruined houses, the e a r t h q u a k e caused slumping of the saturated g r o u n d at some distance f r o m the old q a n a t . According to local reports there was little d a m a g e at I m a m z a d e h Shah-i Oliya. Chah-i Jam, about 35 kilometres north of T o r u d , a small settlement of a b o u t six houses w a s also d a m a g e d . T h e r e w a s no d a m a g e to the walled settlement of C h a h Baba, n o w a b a n d o n e d , nor to its w a t e r supply. At Dizak, about 10 kilometres south of S h a h r u d , the shock cracked a few walls a n d in S h a h r u d and D a m g h a n it caused panic. It w a s strongly felt at S e m m a n , Sangsar, M i y a n d a s h t and Dashtgird. At K h u r , 180 kilometres south of T o r u d , a few old walls collapsed. T h e e a r t h q u a k e w a s felt in T e h r a n , D a m a v a n d , Behshahr, G o r g a n , G o n b a d - i K a b u s , J a j a r m , Kas'hmar, Torbat-i Haidaiyyeh, T a b a s and A n a r a k . It w a s not felt in G u m m , Kashan and M a s h a d .

DISCUSSION.

T h e region of T o r u d has never been an area of importance, being remote and arid, and as such has provided no k n o w n notices a b o u t historical e a r t h q u a k e s . G a n s s e r ( 5 ' 5 b i s ), on the authority of local information mentions an e a r t h q u a k e early in the 19 th century that allegedly devastated the area of Reshm, an event that could have been

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associated with one of the large shocks of the first q u a r t e r of the last century that affected southeast M a z a n d e r a n and Q a h a b r a s t a n . During this century, the T o r u d region, e n c o m p a s s e d by 35 A' - 36N a n d 54 - 55.5 0 E, has been subjected to f r e q u e n t shaking of m o d e r a t e intensity, mainly f r o m k n o w n e a r t h q u a k e s with epicentres outside the region of T o r u d . Some of these events are still r e m e m b e r e d by the older inhabitants of T o r u d , Satveh, Reshm a n d Chah-i Jam. T h e earliest e a r t h q u a k e r e m e m b e r e d in T o r u d occurred a r o u n d 1915 but it caused no d a m a g e . T h e e a r t h q u a k e of 22nd July 1927 of m a g n i t u d e 6.3, is r e m e m b e r e d vividly, particularly f o r its strong a f t e r s h o c k s that caused m i n o r d a m a g e in Satveh. T h e epicentre of this event lies outside the region of T o r u d , about 150 kilometres west of T o r u d , but nevertheless it was strongly felt, causing some panic in the village. T h e e a r t h q u a k e of 14th April 1928, which allegedly caused m i n o r d a m a g e in Satveh, is usually c o n f u s e d with the e a r t h q u a k e s of the previous year. A b o u t a decade later, there was again some slight d a m a g e in Satveh and rockfalls near Tang-i Reshm caused by the e a r t h q u a k e of 6th April, 1939. T h u s , the only k n o w n d a m a g i n g shock in the T o r u d region is the e a r t h q u a k e of 12th February 1953 which was followed by a long and well-established period of seismic quiescence. T h e r e are at least four more e a r t h q u a k e that are often placed erroneously in the T o r u d region. T h e first, on 10-23 J a n u a r y 1908, with a reported epicentre at 35.5 N - 55.5/;, is given by Wilson ( l5 ) on the authority of Shtell'ing ( 13 ). In fact, Shtelling refers to the Silakhor e a r t h q u a k e of 1909 that took place 590 kilometres a w a y from T o r u d , on the 10th J a n u a r y (old Style) or on the 23rd J a n u a r y (new Style). Wilson c o m m i t s three consecutive errors t h e r e f o r e : he gives 1908 instead of 1909, 'he does not notice that 10 = 25 ) a n u a r y in the old and n e w Styles, and he does not seem to have read the p a p e r he quotes, in which Shtelling dismisses the original location of the e a r t h q u a k e given by Galitzin, namely 33.5 - 55.0 for a m o r e precise one determined f r o m macroseismic data. T h e other three e a r t h q u a k e s that are usually given the e r r o n e o u s location of 35.5" - 55.0, a location of an adopted ISS epicentre, are those of 17th S e p t e m b e r 1923 and 3rd July 1924 at 0 8 0 3 and 0 8 1 8 ( G M T ) . In fact these e a r t h q u a k e s occurred 350 kilometres away f r o m T o r u d , near 37.8 - 57.3 w h e r e they caused considerable d a m a g e . T h e T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e of 1955 is the only relatively large event k n o w n to have occurred on a m a j o r fault zone such as the T o r u d fault

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zone. N e i t h e r the m a g n i t u d e of the shock nor the seismicity of the zone before and a f t e r this event suggest the presence of a recent active tectonic lineament. And although there is ample evidence for a Recent f a u l t zone r u n n i n g along the Torud-Satveh-Reshm axis, the i n f o r m a t i o n that can be gleaned today in s u p p o r t of fault m o v e m e n t s associated with the 1953 e a r t h q u a k e is indeed both meager and inconclusive. T h e three isolated cases of limited g r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s f o u n d south of T o r u d and D a h a n e h associated with the 1953 e a r t h q u a k e seem to suggest f e a t u r es of secondary n a t u r e , p e r h a p s associated with local readjustments caused by m o v e m e n t s in deeper structures. T h e case noticed north of Sang-i Sur may well be due to local slumping along a pre-existing contact face, and the g r o u n d d e f o r m a t i o n s in the fields just south of T o r u d are most certainly of secondary n a t u r e . While it is difficult to prove that there w a s no faulting associated with the 1955 e a r t h q u a k e , the fact that our sole authority for it (Abdalian (1953)), did not m a p the fault-breaks, taken together with the absence of any conclusive field evidence today in s u p p o r t of faulting, makes the conjecture of faulting unreliable at best. T h e r e is conclusive evidence, however, that the T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e caused the liquefaction of saturated, silty sands, both in the Kavir as well as in isolated depressions filled with aeolian deposits in the T o r u d area (Fig. 4). H o w e v e r , fluctuation of the u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r table in the Kavir is considerable. At the time of the 1955 e a r t h q u a k e the w a t e r table was high, almost at ground surface, and this time of the year, even u n d e r normal conditions, c a r a v a n s would follow tracks differing f r o m those used d u r i n g the dry season to avoid being stuck in soft areas of the desert. T h e d a m a g e caused by the T o r u d e a r t h q u a k e is typical of other events of similar m a g n i t u d e in Iran. Damage was mainly due to the poor construction of the houses and its m a x i m u m intensity should not have exceeded V I I I (MM). T h e r e is no evidence that houses built on the terrace of T o r u d suffered more than those built elsewhere. Nor is there any evidence f r o m the study of the ruins of the village that with the exception of the houses built on the edge of the loess terrace, that f o u n d a t i o n failures c o n t r i b u t e d to the destruction. T h e lack of timber f o r roofing a n d the use of flat vaults, as well as the n a r r o w streets, are thought to be one of the main reasons lor the large n u m b e r of casualties.

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N.

N. A M B R A S E Y S

- A. A.

MO IN FAR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

This w o r k w a s sponsored jointly by the Plan & Budget Organisation of Iran and the N a t u r a l E n v i r o n m e n t Research Council, London.

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( 9 ) NOWROOZI, A., 1971. - Seismo-tectonics oj the Persian Plateau, Eastern T u r k e y , Caucasus, and Hindu-Kush regions. B u l l . Seism. Soc. A m e r . 61, p p . 317-341. ( 10 ) PARHAM, B., 1972. - Reconstruction of earthquake damage-. Torucl. D e p t . R e s e a r c h & P l a n n i n g , Ministry of H o u s i n g & D e v e l o p m e n t , 52, P a r t 1, Tehran. ( " ) ROTHE, J. P., 1955. - Chronique Seismologique Calamits , G e n e v e , 33, p. 22. Rev. pour l'Etude des

( 12 ) RUSTANOVICH, D. N., 1967. - Seismichnost' territorii Turkmenskoy CCP i Ashkhabadskoe zemletriasenie 1948 g. V a p r o c . I n z e n . Seismol. Byul. 12. A k a d e m i a N a u k , M o s c o w . 0 3 ) SHTELLING, E., 1910. - Svedenii o zemletr' senii v Persii 10/25 Janvar 1909goda. A c a d . Imper. Sc.. C. R. C o m m . Seism. P e r m . , 3iii, St. Petersbourg. 0 4 ) VAUGHAN, H . B., 1890. - Report of a journey through Persia. Intelligence Branch Q u a r t e r M a s t e r G e n e r a l ' s D e p t . in I n d i a , C a l c u t t a . ( IS ) WILSON, A. T., 1930. - Earthquakes L o n d o n , 6, Pt. 1, p p . 103-131. in Persia. B u l l . School O r i e n t . Studies.