2009 / 03

Rethinking the Role of Leadership in Development

Francis Hutchinson ISSN 1171-0853

Introduction
Leadership has taken on a greater role in thinking about development. Whereas in the last twenty years development thinking has focused on getting the institutions right a influential new strand of thought has emerged which focuses on the role that leaders and the process of leadership play in the operation and success of these institutions. This Knowledge Note introduces this shift in thinking as well as discussing some of the key concepts that underlie this new way of thinking about one of the key drivers of development.

communities as drivers of change has not received similar attention. Yet, their role in spearheading or leading change is an important piece of the puzzle. In surveying Burundis reconstruction effort, Wolpe and MacDonald state that Policy-makers often speak of the institutional prerequisites of transparent, democratic governance: multi-party electoral competition, separation of powers, the rule of law, and the like. But, institutions must draw in individuals if the institutions are to have any real force. And institutional transformation requires individual transformation in the way people think, in how they relate to one another, and in how they work together. (2006:137-8, emphasis added) Literature on leadership abounds in business and organizational development literature, but is of limited applicability. Among its shortcomings with regard to development issues, are that it assumes a private sector context and the centrality of the pursuit of profit; neglects the potential of communities to assume leadership roles; and does not, in general, factor in political, social, or cultural issues. Indeed, unlike the stable, rules-based environments facing managers and executives in the private sector, leaders in developing countries often have to navigate through uncharted waters. De Ver phrases this eloquently, stating that in mainstream literature, leaders play within the rules. However, in many developing and transitional contexts, leaders are required to create the rules of the game. (2008:28, emphasis in the original) Surprisingly, development scholars, that presumably would be better equipped to deal with many of these issues, have traditionally neglected the topic of 1

Institutions and Leadership

During the 1980s, a great deal of emphasis in international development was placed on getting policies right. However, during the 1990s, the different political structures of the successful East Asian economies, along with the unexpected outcomes of privatization and liberalization drives in Russia and Latin America, highlighted the role institutions play in shaping and influencing the results of policies (Grindle 1999, Rodrik 2000). Development work moved from concentrating on the appropriate mix and sequence of policies to focusing on concepts such as context, history, and political structures. As a result, multilateral institutions and donor agencies began to argue that institutions mattered, stating that the quality of a countrys bureaucracy, law and order, property rights, and anticorruption measures need to be established or strengthened for long-term development to occur (Burki and Perry 1998). However, while the attention on institutions and a countrys social, political, and cultural context has enabled policy-makers to more accurately tailor policies to specific contexts, the role of individuals or

leadership. Grindle states that while empirical literature demonstrates the importance of effective leadership in development, scholars have tended to observe it, but not seek to explain or understand it (1999). Daloz argues that this discipline has tended to privilege other variables such as ethnicity, inter-state relations, policies, or institutions in seeking to understand what drives development (2003). However, while leadership in development has not been extensively dealt with at the academic or policy level, there is a growing body of material from leadership projects as well as empowerment, social entrepreneurship, human rights, and capacity development initiatives that provides insight into how it can be approached.

relationship that transforms them. Due to their capacity to understand problems, as well as a high level of emotional intelligence, transformational leaders are able to enlist the support of people through appealing to their desire for meaning and purpose. In doing so, these leaders can help followers adapt their behavior, gain self-confidence, and aspire to higher levels of achievement (Bolden 2004). Due to this focus, this approach to leadership has been adopted by many organizations as a way of resolving internal conflicts, coping with challenges, and instilling an ethos of self-improvement. In a review of 24 leadership models and competency frameworks used by leading private and public sector organizations, Bolden et al find that most have adopted some form of transformational leadership as a standard. Thus, while technical expertise and strategic capabilities are important, leaders are also expected to have interpersonal skills and personal attributes such as integrity and empathy to be able to motivate employees and help them tap their full potential (2003). However, in their work, Bolden et als found that most of the frameworks were not developed based on research or evidence, and then were not evaluated to see if they actually worked (2003). Despite the popularity of these different approaches, at a deeper level, they are only of partial utility for looking at development issues and contexts. Among their problematic assumptions is that leadership is concentrated in one individual and is usually exercised at the top of an organizational hierarchy. In addition, they assume that a leaders authority is unquestioned and s/he has control over outcomes (Bolden 2004, de Ver 2008). The reality is much more complex, as leadership can be spread among a number of individuals and groups and is, more often than not, disputed. Recently, other approaches that look - not just at leaders in isolation - but also at the communities they lead and the relationship that binds the two together, have become more popular. One such approach sees the leader as a servant, occupying the position out of a sense of altruism and a desire to serve others. Rather than this person leading others, the emphasis is on facilitating others to lead through delegation or mentoring. For the dispersed leadership school, the leadership role is not assumed to be at the organizations apex, but rather can be found at any level. Under this framework, people at any level that influence the organization can provide direction and assume leadership roles (Bolden et al 2003).

Key Concepts
There are many ways of defining leadership. In part, this is because the concept is understood differently across cultures and has varying connotations in different languages. In addition, disciplines such as psychology, anthropology, and political science have distinct ways of dealing with the concept, and the popularity of particular approaches wax and wane over time. Initial theories about leadership focused on specific individuals (so-called Great Men) and sought to understand their philosophies and approaches to dealing with people. Subsequent work attempted to isolate and examine specific traits or styles that were seen to be particularly effective. Following this, other approaches argued that different situations require different types of leadership, and effective leaders are those that can perceive these needs and tailor their leadership style in response. Thus, some contexts may require a more hands-on and directive style, and others a more consensual and participative approach (Bolden et al 2003:6-9). One particularly influential approach to leadership is the Transactional/Transformational school. Transactional leadership refers to the ability of leaders to effectively perceive and then cater to the interests of different interest groups in order to enlist their support. Traditionally associated with the leadership styles of politicians and successful executives, this approach focuses on appealing to constituents or employees self-interest in return for their commitment to attain a desired outcome. Transformational leadership, in contrast, is not based on appealing to peoples self-interest, but rather is a

These two approaches are more useful for development concerns, as leadership is thus understood as a capacity that is shared by: individuals or groups who assume guiding roles; and the collectivity that selects them and responds to their direction. Thus, rather than looking at leadership as a series of qualities that an individual may possess, it approaches leadership as a function that aims to create change. Research on this specific aspect of leadership is in its infancy. However, one potential way of beginning to un-pack leadership as a concept is to look at what capacities individuals, groups, and communities need in order to be able to effectively create or respond to change. The World Banks Global Leadership Initiative argues that leadership is comprised of three dimensions: Vision - the ability to engage with stakeholders to articulate a collective vision for the future Effectiveness - the technical and managerial skills necessary to realize this vision Integrity - inspiring by example and 1 commitment to the greater good

Bolden, R., Gosling, J., Marturano, A., and Dennison, P., 2003. A Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks, Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter. Burki, S.J., and Perry, G., 1998. Beyond the Washington Consensus: Institutions Matter, World Bank Report 18428, World Bank: Washington D.C. Daloz, J-P, 2003. Big Men in Sub-Saharan Africa: How Elites Accumulate Positions and Resources, Comparative Sociology, 2:1, 271-85. Lyne de Ver, H., 2008. Leadership, Politics, and Development: A Literature Survey, Background Paper. Leaders, Elites and Coalitions Research Programme, available at http://lecrp.org/research_publications/background_pa pers_bps Grindle, M., 1999. In Quest of the Political: The Political Economy of Development Policy Making, CID Working Paper 17, Center for International Development, Harvard University: Cambridge. Rodrik, D., 2000. 'Institutions for High-Quality Growth: What They Are and How to Acquire Them', Studies in Comparative International Development, 35(3):3-31. Wolpe H. and McDonald S., 2006, Burundis Transition: Training Leaders for Peace, Journal of Democracy, Volume 17, Number 1.

However, these capabilities do not exist in a vacuum, but are exercised within a particular context that will also determine how effective they are. Thus, approaches to studying individual and collective capacities for the effective exercise of leadership must also root them in the surrounding cultural and institutional environment.

Conclusion
This Knowledge Note has helped introduce the growing body of knowledge and initiatives regarding leadership that is emerging around the world. However, if leadership as a concept is to be harnessed for international development work then there is a need for more conceptual work on what leadership is and how best it can be exercised. Institutions and policies are essential for development but individuals, communities, and movements also play a vital role in initiating change.

CONTACT
Author: fhutchinson@synexe.com Synexe www.synexe.com synexe@synexe.com PO Box 6295 Wellington 6141 NEW ZEALAND +64 4 889 2152 PO Box 1344 Springwood Queensland 4127 AUSTRALIA +61 7 3102 1940

References
Bolden, R., 2004, What is Leadership?, Research Report 1, Leadership South West, Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Exeter.

1http://go.worldbank.org/7B71UWA590