A MINI-COURSE ON THE

PRINCIPLES OF PLASMA DISCHARGES

Michael A. Lieberman
c _Michael A. Lieberman, 2003. All rights reserved.
OUTLINE
Introduction to Plasma Discharges and Processing
Summary of Plasma Fundamentals
Break
Summary of Discharge Fundamentals
Analysis of Discharge Equilibrium
Inductive RF Discharges
ORIGIN OF MINI-COURSE
45 hr graduate course at Berkeley =
12 hr short course in industry =
4 hr mini-course
INTRODUCTION TO PLASMA DISCHARGES
AND PROCESSING
-1-
PLASMAS AND DISCHARGES
Plasmas:
A collection of freely moving charged particles which is, on the
average, electrically neutral
Discharges:
Are driven by voltage or current sources
Charged particle collisions with neutral particles are important
There are boundaries at which surface losses are important
Ionization of neutrals sustains the plasma in the steady state
The electrons are not in thermal equilibrium with the ions
Device sizes 30 cm 1 m
Driving frequencies from DC to rf (13.56 MHz) to microwaves
(2.45 GHz)
-2-
TYPICAL PROCESSING DISCHARGES
-3-
RANGE OF MICROELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS
Etching
Si, a-Si, oxide, nitride, III-Vs
Ashing
Photoresist removal
Deposition (PECVD)
Oxide, nitride, a-Si
Oxidation
Si
Sputtering
Al, W, Au, Cu, YBaCuO
Polymerization
Various plastics
Implantation
H, He, B, P, O, As, Pd
-4-
ANISOTROPIC ETCHING
.. ..
Wet Etching Ion Enhanced Plasma Etching
Plasma Etching
-5-
ISOTROPIC PLASMA ETCHING
1. Start with inert molecular gas CF
4
2. Make discharge to create reactive species:
CF
4
CF
3
+ F
3. Species reacts with material, yielding volatile product:
Si + 4F SiF
4

4. Pump away product
5. CF
4
does not react with Si; SiF
4
is volatile
ANISOTROPIC PLASMA ETCHING
6. Energetic ions bombard trench bottom, but not sidewalls:
(a) Increase etching reaction rate at trench bottom
(b) Clear passivating lms from trench bottom
Mask
Plasma
Ions
-6-
UNITS AND CONSTANTS
SI units: meters (m), kilograms (kg), seconds (s), coulombs (C)
e = 1.6 10
19
C, electron charge = e
Energy unit is joule (J)
Often use electron-volt
1 eV = 1.6 10
19
J
Temperature unit is kelvin (K)
Often use equivalent voltage of the temperature:
T
e
(volts) =
kT
e
(kelvins)
e
where k = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 10
23
J/K
1 V 11, 600 K
Pressure unit is pascals (Pa); 1 Pa = 1 N/m
2
Atmospheric pressure 10
5
Pa 1 bar
Often use English units for gas pressures
Atmospheric pressure = 760 Torr
1 Pa 7.5 mTorr
-7-
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
Quantity Symbol Value
Boltzmann constant k 1.3807 10
23
J/K
Elementary charge e 1.6022 10
19
C
Electron mass m 9.1095 10
31
kg
Proton mass M 1.6726 10
27
kg
Proton/electron mass ratio M/m 1836.2
Planck constant h 6.6262 10
34
J-s
h = h/2 1.0546 10
34
J-s
Speed of light in vacuum c
0
2.9979 10
8
m/s
Permittivity of free space
0
8.8542 10
12
F/m
Permeability of free space
0
4 10
7
H/m
Bohr radius a
0
= 4
0
h
2
/e
2
m 5.2918 10
11
m
Atomic cross section a
2
0
8.7974 10
21
m
2
Temperature T associated
with T = 1 V 11605 K
Energy associated with
E = 1 V 1.6022 10
19
J
Avogadro number
(molecules/mol) N
A
6.0220 10
23
Gas constant R = kN
A
8.3144 J/K-mol
Atomic mass unit 1.6606 10
27
kg
Standard temperature
(25

C) T
0
298.15 K
Standard pressure
(760 Torr = 1 atm) p

1.0133 10
5
Pa
Loschmidts number
(density at STP) n

2.6868 10
25
m
3
Pressure of 1 Torr 133.32 Pa
Energy per mole at T
0
RT
0
2.4789 kJ/mol
calorie (cal) 4.1868 J
-7a-
PLASMA DENSITY VERSUS TEMPERATURE
-8-
RELATIVE DENSITIES AND ENERGIES
-9-
NON-EQUILIBRIUM
Energy coupling between electrons and heavy particles is weak
Input
Electrons Ions
Neutrals
strong
power
Walls
Walls
Walls
strong
strong weak
weak
weak
Electrons are not in thermal equilibrium with ions or neutrals
T
e
T
i
in plasma bulk
Bombarding c
i
c
e
at wafer surface
High temperature processing at low temperatures
1. Wafer can be near room temperature
2. Electrons produce free radicals = chemistry
3. Electrons produce electron-ion pairs = ion bombardment
-10-
ELEMENTARY DISCHARGE BEHAVIOR
Consider uniform density of electrons and ions n
e
and n
i
at
time t = 0
Warm electrons having low mass quickly drain to the wall,
setting up sheaths
Ions accelerated to walls; ion bombarding energy c
i
= plasma-
wall potential V
p
-11-
CENTRAL PROBLEM IN DISCHARGE MODELING
Given V
rf
(or I
rf
or P
rf
), , gases, pressure, ow rates, discharge
geometry (R, l, etc), then
Find plasma densities n
e
, n
i
, temperatures T
e
, T
i
, ion bom-
barding energies c
i
, sheath thicknesses, neutral radical densi-
ties, potentials, currents, uxes, etc
Learn how to design and optimize plasma reactors for various
purposes (etching, deposition, etc)
-12-
CHOOSING PLASMA PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
How about inductive? (gure published in 1991)
-12a-
SUMMARY OF PLASMA FUNDAMENTALS
-13-
POISSONS EQUATION
An electric eld can be generated by charges:
E =

0
or
__
S
_

E dA =
Q
encl

0
S
E
Q
encl
For slow time variations (dc, rf, but not microwaves):
E =
Combining these yields Poissons equation:

2
=

0
Here E = electric eld (V/m), = charge density (C/m
3
),
= potential (V)
In 1D:
dE
x
dx
=

0
, E
x
=
d
dx
yields
d
2

dx
2
=

0
This eld powers a capacitive discharge or the wafer bias power
of an inductive or ECR discharge
~ E
V
rf
-14-
FARADAYS LAW
An electric eld can be generated by a time-varying magnetic
eld:
E =
B
t
or
_
C
E dl =

t
__
A
B dA
E
B
I
rf
Here B = magnetic induction vector
This eld powers the coil of an inductive discharge (top power)
~
E E
I
rf
-15-
AMPERES LAW
Both conduction currents and displacement currents generate
magnetic elds:
H = J
c
+
0
E
t
= J
T
J
c
= conduction current,
0
E/t = displacement current, J
T
= total current, H = magnetic eld vector, B =
0
H with

0
= 4 10
6
H/m
Note the vector identity:
(H) = 0 J
T
= 0
In 1D:
J
Tx
(x, t)
x
= 0
so
J
Tx
= J
Tx
(t), independent of x
-16-
REVIEW OF PHASORS
Physical voltage (or current), a real sinusoidal function of time
V (t) = V
0
cos(t +)
0
V (t)
V
0
t
2
Phasor voltage (or current), a complex number, independent
of time

V = V
0
e
j
= V
R
+jV
I

V
I
V
R
V
0
Using e
j
= cos +j sin, we nd
V
R
= V
0
cos , V
I
= V
0
sin
Note that
V (t) = Re
_

V e
jt
_
= V
0
cos(t +)
= V
R
cos t V
I
sint
Hence
V (t)

V (given )
-17-
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM PROPERTIES
Electrons generally near thermal equilibrium
Ions generally not in thermal equilibrium
Maxwellian distribution of electrons
f
e
(v) = n
e
_
m
2kT
e
_
3/2
exp
_

mv
2
2kT
e
_
where v
2
= v
2
x
+v
2
y
+v
2
z
f
e
(v
x
)
v
x
v
Te
=
(kT
e
/m)
1/2
Pressure p = nkT
For neutral gas at room temperature (300 K)
n
g
(cm
3
) 3.3 10
16
p(Torr)
-18-
AVERAGES OVER MAXWELLIAN DISTRIBUTION
Average energy

1
2
mv
2
) =
1
n
e
_
d
3
v
1
2
mv
2
f
e
(v) =
3
2
kT
e
Average speed
v
e
=
1
n
e
_
d
3
v vf
e
(v) =
_
8kT
e
m
_
1/2
Average electron ux lost to a wall
x
y
z

e
=
_

dv
x
_

dv
y
_

0
dv
z
v
z
f
e
(v) =
1
4
n
e
v
e
[m
2
-s
1
]
Average kinetic energy lost per electron lost to a wall
c
e
= 2 T
e
-19-
FORCES ON PARTICLES
For a unit volume of electrons (or ions),
mn
e
du
e
dt
= qn
e
Ep
e
mn
e

m
u
e
mass acceleration = electric eld force +
+ pressure gradient force + friction (gas drag) force
m = electron mass
n
e
= electron density
u
e
= electron ow velocity
q = e for electrons (+e for ions)
E = electric eld
p
e
= n
e
kT
e
= electron pressure

m
= collision frequency of electrons with neutrals
x
p
e
p
e
(x) p
e
(x +dx)
u
e
Drag
force
Neutrals
x x +dx
p
e
-20-
BOLTZMANN FACTOR FOR ELECTRONS
If electric eld and pressure gradient forces almost balance:
0 en
e
Ep
e
Let E = and p
e
= n
e
kT
e
:
=
kT
e
e
n
e
n
e
Put kT
e
/e = T
e
(volts) and integrate to obtain:
n
e
(r) = n
e0
e
(r)/T
e

x
n
e
n
e0
-21-
UNDERSTANDING PLASMA BEHAVIOR
The eld equations and the force equations are coupled
Newton's
Laws
Fields,
Potentials
Charges,
Currents
Maxwell's
Equations
-22-
DEBYE LENGTH
De
The characteristic length scale of a plasma
Low voltage sheaths few Debye lengths thick
Lets consider how a sheath forms near a wall:
Electrons leave plasma before ions and charge wall negative
n
x

n
e
= n
i
= n
0
x
x
n
i
= n
0
n
e
n

0
Electrons
Assume electrons in thermal equilibrium and stationary ions
-23-
DEBYE LENGTH
De
(CONTD)
Newtons laws
n
e
(x) = n
0
e
/T
e
, n
i
= n
0
Use in Poissons equation
d
2

dx
2
=
en
0

0
_
1 e
/T
e
_
Linearize e
/T
e
1 + /T
e
d
2

dx
2
=
en
0

0
T
e

Solution is
(x) =
0
e
x/
De
,

De
=
_

0
T
e
en
0
_
1/2
In practical units

De
(cm) = 740
_
T
e
/n
0
, T
e
in volts, n
0
in cm
3
Example
At T
e
= 1 V and n
0
= 10
10
cm
3
,
De
= 7.4 10
3
cm
= Sheath is 0.15 mm thick (Very thin!)
-24-
ELECTRON PLASMA FREQUENCY
pe
The fundamental timescale for a plasma
Consider a plasma slab (no walls). Displace all electrons to the
right a small distance x
e0
, and release them:
Ions
Electrons
+
+
+
+

x
0
E
x
e
E(x)
Charge/area
Charge/area
en
0
x
e
en
0
x
e
Maxwells equations (parallel plate capacitor)
E =
en
0
x
e
(t)

0
Newtons laws (electron motion)
m
d
2
x
e
(t)
dt
2
=
e
2
n
0

0
x
e
(t)
Solution is electron plasma oscillations
x
e
(t) = x
e0
cos
pe
t,

pe
=
_
e
2
n
0

0
m
_
1/2
Practical formula is f
pe
(Hz) = 9000

n
0
, n
0
in cm
3
= microwave frequencies (
>

1 GHz) for typical plasmas

-25-
1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION
(T
e
= 1 V, n
e
= n
i
= 10
13
m
3
)
Electron v
x
x phase space at t = 0.77 s
Electron number ^ versus t
-26-
1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION (CONTD)
Electron density n
e
(x) at t = 0.77 s
Electric eld E(x) at t = 0.77 s
-27-
1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION (CONTD)
Potential (x) at t = 0.77 s
Right hand potential (x = l) versus t
-28-
PLASMA DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
p
RF discharges are driven at a frequency
E(t) = Re (

E e
jt
), etc
Dene
p
from the total current in Maxwells equations

H =

J
c
+j
0

E
. .
j
p

E
Total current

J
Conduction current

J
c
= en
e
u
e
is mainly due to electrons
Newtons law (electric eld and neutral drag) is
jm u
e
= e

E m
m
u
e
Solve for u
e
and evaluate

J
c
to obtain

p
=
0
_
1

2
pe
( j
m
)
_
For
m
,
p
is mainly real (nearly lossless dielectric)
For
m
,
p
is mainly imaginary (very lossy dielectric)
-29-
RF FIELDS IN LOW PRESSURE DISCHARGES
Consider mainly lossless plasma (
m
)

p
=
0
_
1

2
pe

2
_
For almost all RF discharges,
pe

=
p
is negative
Typical case:
p
= 1000
0
Sheath Plasma Sheath

E =

J
j
0

J
j
p

0
(continuous)

E =

J
j
0

E =

J
Electric eld in plasma is 1000 smaller than in sheaths!
Although eld in plasma is small, it sustains the plasma!
-30-
PLASMA CONDUCTIVITY
p
Useful to introduce the plasma conductivity

J
c

p

E
RF plasma conductivity

p
=
e
2
n
e
m(
m
+j)
DC plasma conductivity (
m
)

dc
=
e
2
n
e
m
m
The plasma dielectric constant and conductivity are related by:
j
p
=
p
+j
0
Due to
p
, rf current owing through the plasma heats electrons
(just like a resistor)
-31-
OHMIC HEATING POWER
Time average power absorbed/volume
p
d
= J(t) E(t)) =
1
2
Re (

J

E

) [W/m
3
]
Put

J = (
p
+j
0
)

E to nd p
d
in terms of

E
p
d
=
1
2
[

E[
2

dc

2
m

2
+
2
m
Put

E =

J/(
p
+j
0
) to nd p
d
in terms of

J.
For almost all rf discharges (
pe
)
p
d
=
1
2
[

J[
2
1

dc
-32-
SUMMARY OF DISCHARGE FUNDAMENTALS
-33-
ELECTRON COLLISIONS WITH ARGON
Maxwellian electrons collide with Ar atoms (density n
g
)
dn
e
dt
= n
e
= Kn
g
n
e
= collision frequency [s
1
], K(T
e
) = rate coecient [m
3
/s]
Electron-Ar collision processes
e + Ar Ar
+
+ 2e (ionization)
e + Ar e + Ar

e + Ar + photon (excitation)
e + Ar e + Ar (elastic scattering)
e
Ar
Ar
e
Rate coecient K(T
e
) is average of cross section [m
2
] for
process, over Maxwellian distribution
K(T
e
) = v)
Maxwellian
-34-
ELECTRON-ARGON RATE COEFFICIENTS
-35-
ION COLLISIONS WITH ARGON
Argon ions collide with Ar atoms
Ar
+
+ Ar Ar
+
+ Ar (elastic scattering)
Ar
+
+ Ar Ar + Ar
+
(charge transfer)
Ar
Ar
Ar
+
Ar
+
Ar
Ar
Ar
+
Ar
+
Total cross section for room temperature ions
i
10
14
cm
2
Ion-neutral mean free path

i
=
1
n
g

i
Practical formula

i
(cm) =
1
330 p
, p in Torr
Rate coecient for ion-neutral collisions
K
i
=
v
i

i
with v
i
= (8kT
i
/M)
1/2
-36-
THREE ENERGY LOSS PROCESSES
1. Collisional energy c
c
lost per electron-ion pair created
K
iz
c
c
= K
iz
c
iz
+K
ex
c
ex
+K
el
(2m/M)(3T
e
/2)
=c
c
(T
e
) (voltage units)
c
iz
, c
ex
, and (3m/M)T
e
are energies lost by an electron due to
an ionization, excitation, and elastic scattering collision
2. Electron kinetic energy lost to walls
c
e
= 2 T
e
3. Ion kinetic energy lost to walls is mainly due to the dc potential

V
s
across the sheath
c
i


V
s
Total energy lost per electron-ion pair lost to walls
c
T
= c
c
+c
e
+c
i
-37-
COLLISIONAL ENERGY LOSSES
-38-
BOHM (ION LOSS) VELOCITY u
B
Plasma Sheath Wall
Density n
s
u
B
Due to formation of a presheath, ions arrive at the plasma-
sheath edge with directed energy kT
e
/2
1
2
Mu
2
i
=
kT
e
2
At the plasma-sheath edge (density n
s
), electron-ion pairs are
lost at the Bohm velocity
u
i
= u
B
=
_
kT
e
M
_
1/2
-39-
AMBIPOLAR DIFFUSION AT HIGH PRESSURES
Plasma bulk is quasi-neutral (n
e
n
i
= n) and the electron
and ion loss uxes are equal (
e

i
)
Ficks law
= D
a
n
with ambipolar diusion coecient D
a
= kT
e
/M
i
Density prole is sinusoidal
0
x
n
s
n
0

wall

wall
l/2 l/2
Loss ux to the wall is

wall
= h
l
n
0
u
B
where the edge-to-center density ratio is
h
l

n
s
n
0
=

l
u
B

i
Applies for pressures > 100 mTorr in argon
-40-
AMBIPOLAR DIFFUSION AT LOW PRESSURES
The diusion coecient is not constant
Density prole is relatively at in the center and falls sharply
near the sheath edge
0
x
n
s
n
0

wall

wall
l/2 l/2
For a cylindrical plasma of length l and radius R, loss uxes to
axial and radial walls are

axial
= h
l
n
0
u
B
,
radial
= h
R
n
0
u
B
where the edge-to-center density ratios are
h
l

0.86
(3 +l/2
i
)
1/2
, h
R

0.8
(4 +R/
i
)
1/2
Applies for pressures < 100 mTorr in argon
-41-
ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGE EQUILIBRIUM
-42-
PARTICLE BALANCE AND T
e
Assume uniform cylindrical plasma absorbing power P
abs
R
l
Plasma P
abs
n
e
= n
i
= n
0
Particle balance
Production due to ionization = loss to the walls
K
iz
n
g
n
0
R
2
l = (2R
2
h
l
n
0
+ 2Rlh
R
n
0
)u
B
Solve to obtain
K
iz
(T
e
)
u
B
(T
e
)
=
1
n
g
d
e
where
d
e
=
1
2
Rl
Rh
l
+lh
R
is an eective plasma size
Given n
g
and d
e
= electron temperature T
e
T
e
varies over a narrow range of 25 volts
-43-
ELECTRON TEMPERATURE IN ARGON DISCHARGE
-44-
ION ENERGY FOR LOW VOLTAGE SHEATHS
c
i
= energy entering sheath + energy gained traversing sheath
Ion energy entering sheath = T
e
/2 (voltage units)
Sheath voltage determined from particle conservation in the
sheath
Plasma Sheath
+

i

i

V
s
Insulating
wall
Density n
s

i
= n
s
u
B
,
e
=
1
4
n
s
v
e
e

V
s
/T
e
with v
e
= (8eT
e
/m)
1/2
The ion and electron uxes must balance

V
s
=
T
e
2
ln
_
M
2m
_
or

V
s
4.7 T
e
for argon
Accounting for the initial ion energy, c
i
5.2 T
e
-45-
ION ENERGY FOR HIGH VOLTAGE SHEATHS
Large ion bombarding energies can be gained near rf-driven
electrodes embedded in the plasma
+ +
C
large

V
s

V
s
+

V
s
~

V
rf
~

V
rf
Low voltage
sheath 5.2 T
e
Plasma
Plasma

V
s
0.4

V
rf

V
s
0.8

V
rf
s
The sheath thickness s is given by the Child Law

J
i
= en
s
u
B
=
4
9

0
_
2e
M
_
1/2

V
3/2
s
s
2
Estimating ion energy is not simple as it depends on the type
of discharge and the application of bias voltages
-46-
POWER BALANCE AND n
0
Assume low voltage sheaths at all surfaces
c
T
(T
e
) = c
c
(T
e
)
. .
+ 2 T
e
..
+ 5.2 T
e
. .
Collisional Electron Ion
Power balance
Power in = power out
P
abs
= (h
l
n
0
2R
2
+h
R
n
0
2Rl) u
B
ec
T
Solve to obtain
n
0
=
P
abs
A
e
u
B
ec
T
where
A
e
= 2R
2
h
l
+ 2Rlh
R
is an eective area for particle loss
Density n
0
is proportional to the absorbed power P
abs
Density n
0
depends on pressure p through h
l
, h
R
, and T
e
-47-
PARTICLE AND POWER BALANCE
Particle balance = electron temperature T
e
(independent of plasma density)
Power balance = plasma density n
0
(once electron temperature T
e
is known)
-48-
EXAMPLE 1
Let R = 0.15 m, l = 0.3 m, n
g
= 3.3 10
19
m
3
(p = 1 mTorr
at 300 K), and P
abs
= 800 W
Assume low voltage sheaths at all surfaces
Find
i
= 0.03 m. Then h
l
h
R
0.3 and d
e
0.17 m
From the T
e
versus n
g
d
e
gure, T
e
3.5 V
From the c
c
versus T
e
gure, c
c
42 V. Adding c
e
= 2T
e
7 V
and c
i
5.2T
e
18 V yields c
T
= 67 V
Find u
B
2.9 10
3
m/s and nd A
e
0.13 m
2
Power balance yields n
0
2.0 10
17
m
3
Ion current density J
il
= eh
l
n
0
u
B
2.9 mA/cm
2
Ion bombarding energy c
i
18 V
-49-
EXAMPLE 2
Apply a strong dc magnetic eld along the cylinder axis
= particle loss to radial wall is inhibited
For no radial loss, d
e
= l/2h
l
0.5 m
From the T
e
versus n
g
d
e
gure, T
e
3.3 V
From the c
c
versus T
e
gure, c
c
46 V. Adding c
e
= 2T
e

6.6 V and c
i
5.2T
e
17 V yields c
T
= 70 V
Find u
B
2.8 10
3
m/s and nd A
e
= 2R
2
h
l
0.043 m
2
Power balance yields n
0
5.8 10
17
m
3
Ion current density J
il
= eh
l
n
0
u
B
7.8 mA/cm
2
Ion bombarding energy c
i
17 V
= Signicant increase in plasma density n
0
-50-
ELECTRON HEATING MECHANISMS
Discharges can be distinguished by electron heating mecha-
nisms
(a) Ohmic (collisional) heating (capacitive, inductive discharges)
(b) Stochastic (collisionless) heating (capacitive, inductive discharges)
(c) Resonant wave-particle interaction heating (Electron cyclotron
resonance and helicon discharges)
Achieving adequate electron heating is a central issue
Although the heated electrons provide the ionization required
to sustain the discharge, the electrons tend to short out the
applied heating elds within the bulk plasma
-50a-
INDUCTIVE DISCHARGES
DESCRIPTION AND MODEL
-93-
MOTIVATION
Independent control of plasma density and ion energy
Simplicity of concept
RF rather than microwave powered
No source magnetic elds
-94-
CYLINDRICAL AND PLANAR CONFIGURATIONS
Cylindrical coil
Planar coil
-95-
EARLY HISTORY
First inductive discharge by Hittorf (1884)
Arrangement to test discharge mechanism by Lehmann (1892)
-96-
HIGH DENSITY REGIME
Inductive coil launches electromagnetic wave into plasma
z
Coil
Plasma
E

Window
Decaying wave

p
Wave decays exponentially into plasma

E =

E
0
e
z/
p
,
p
=
c

1
Im(
1/2
p
)
where
p
= plasma dielectric constant

p
= 1

2
pe
( j
m
)
For typical high density, low pressure (
m
) discharge

p

c

pe
=
_
m
e
2

0
n
e
_
1/2
12 cm
-97-
TRANSFORMER MODEL
For simplicity consider long cylindrical discharge
Plasma
l
R
b
z
^ turn coil

I
rf

I
p

p
Current

I
rf
in ^ turn coil induces current

I
p
in 1-turn
plasma skin
= A transformer
-98-
PLASMA RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE
Plasma resistance R
p
R
p
=
1

dc
circumference of plasma loop
cross sectional area of loop
where

dc
=
e
2
n
es
m
m
=R
p
=
2R

dc
l
p
Plasma inductance L
p
L
p
=
magnetic ux produced by plasma current
plasma current
Using magnetic ux = R
2

I
p
/l
=L
p
=

0
R
2
l
-99-
COUPLING OF PLASMA AND COIL
Model the source as a transformer

V
rf
= jL
11

I
rf
+jL
12

I
p

V
p
= jL
21

I
rf
+jL
22

I
p
Transformer inductances
L
11
=
magnetic ux linking coil
coil current
=

0
b
2
^
2
l
L
12
= L
21
=
magnetic ux linking plasma
coil current
=

0
R
2
^
l
L
22
= L
p
=

0
R
2
l
Put

V
p
=

I
p
R
p
in transformer equations and solve for impedance
Z
s
=

V
rf
/

I
rf
seen at coil terminals
Z
s
= jL
11
+

2
L
2
12
R
p
+jL
p
-100-
SOURCE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Equivalent circuit at coil terminals
Z
s
= R
s
+jL
s
R
s
= ^
2
2R

dc
l
p
L
s
=

0
R
2
^
2
l
_
b
2
R
2
1
_
Power balance =

I
rf
P
abs
=
1
2

I
2
rf
R
s
From source impedance =V
rf

V
rf
=

I
rf
Z
s
-101-
EXAMPLE
Assume plasma radius R = 10 cm, coil radius b = 15 cm, length
l = 20 cm, ^ = 3 turns, gas density n
g
= 1.7 10
14
cm
3
(5 mTorr argon at 300 K), = 85 10
6
s
1
(13.56 MHz),
absorbed power P
abs
= 600 W, and low voltage sheaths
At 5 mTorr,
i
0.6 cm, h
l
h
R
0.19, and d
e
17.9 cm
Particle balance (T
e
versus n
g
d
e
gure) yields T
e
2.6 V
Collisional energy losses (c
c
versus T
e
gure) are c
c
58 V
Adding c
e
+c
i
= 7.2 T
e
yields total energy losses c
T
77 V
u
B
2.5 10
5
cm/s and A
e
350 cm
2
Power balance yields n
e
5.6 10
11
cm
3
and n
se
1.0
10
11
cm
3
Use n
se
to nd skin depth
p
1.7 cm; estimate
m
= K
el
n
g
(K
el
versus T
e
gure) to nd
m
1.4 10
7
s
1
Use
m
and n
se
to nd
dc
113
1
-m
1
Evaluate impedance elements R
s
14.7 and L
s
2.2 H;
[Z
s
[ L
s
190
Power balance yields

I
rf
9.0A; from impedance

V
rf
1720 V
-102-
PLANAR COIL DISCHARGE
Magnetic eld produced by planar coil
RF power is deposited in ring-shaped plasma volume
Plasma
z
^ turn coil

I
rf

I
p

p
Primary
inductance
Coupling
inductance
Plasma
inductance
_
As for a cylindrical discharge, there is a primary (L
11
), coupling
(L
12
= L
21
) and secondary (L
p
= L
22
) inductance
-103-
PLANAR COIL FIELDS
A ring-shaped plasma forms because
Induced electric eld =
_
0, on axis
max, at r
1
2
R
wall
0, at r = R
wall
Measured radial variation of B
r
(and E

) at three distances
below the window (5 mTorr argon, 500 W)
-104-
INDUCTIVE DISCHARGES
POWER BALANCE
-105-
RESISTANCE AT HIGH AND LOW DENSITIES
Plasma resistance seen by the coil
R
s
= R
p

2
L
2
12
R
2
p
+
2
L
2
p
High density (normal inductive operation)
R
s
R
p

1

dc

n
e
Low density (skin depth > plasma size)
R
s
number of electrons in the heating volume n
e
R
s
n
e
n
e

n
e
plasmasize
p

-106-
POWER BALANCE WITHOUT MATCHING
Drive discharge with rf current
Power absorbed by discharge is P
abs
=
1
2
[

I
rf
[
2
R
s
(n
e
)
Power lost by discharge P
loss
n
e
Intersection gives operating point; let

I
1
<

I
2
<

I
3
n
e
P
loss
P
abs
=
1
2

I
2
1
R
s
P
abs
=
1
2

I
2
2
R
s
P
abs
=
1
2

I
2
3
R
s
Power
Inductive operation impossible for

I
rf


I
2
-107-
CAPACITIVE COUPLING OF COIL TO PLASMA
For

I
rf
below the minimum current

I
2
, there is only a weak
capacitive coupling of the coil to the plasma
Plasma
z

I
p
+

V
rf
coupling
Capacitive
A small capacitive power is absorbed
= low density capacitive discharge
n
e
P
loss
P
abs
=
1
2

I
2
1
R
s
P
abs
=
1
2

I
2
3
R
s
Power
Cap
Ind
Cap Mode Ind Mode
-108-
MEASURMENTS OF ARGON ION DENSITY
Above 100 W, discharge is inductive and n
e
P
abs
Below 100 W, a weak capacitive discharge is present
-109-
SOURCE EFFICIENCY
The source coil has some winding resistance R
coil
R
coil
is in series with the plasma resistance R
s
Power transfer eciency is
=
R
s
R
s
+R
coil
High eciency = maximum R
s
R
s
n
e
n
e

n
e
plasmasize
p

Power transfer eciency decreases at low and high densities
Poor power transfer at low or high densities is analogous to
poor power transfer in an ordinary transformer with an open
or shorted secondary winding
-112a-
CONCLUSIONS
Plasma discharges are widely used for materials processing and
are indispensible for microelectronics fabrication
The coupling of the equations for the elds and the charged
particles is the key to plasma analysis
Neutral particles play a key role in ionization, energy loss, and
diusion processes in discharges
The particle and energy balance relations are the key to the
analysis of discharge equilibrium
The particle balance determines the electron temperature; the
energy balance determines the plasma density
A transformer model along with the particle and energy bal-
ance relations are the key to the analysis of inductive discharges
-111-