Fayolism

Fayol's work was one of the first comprehensive statements of a general theory of management. He [3] proposed that there were five primary functions of management and 14 principles of management Functions of management 1. to forecast and plan, 2. to organize 3. to command 4. to coordinate 5. to control (French: contrler: in the sense that a manager must receive feedback about a process in order to make necessary adjustments). Principles of Management 1. Division of work. This principle is the same as Adam Smith's 'division of labour'. Specialisation increases output by making employees more efficient. 2. Authority. Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this right. Note that responsibility arises wherever authority is exercised. 3. Discipline. Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership, a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the organization's rules, and the judicious use of penalties for infractions of the rules. 4. Unity of command. Every employee should receive orders from only one superior. like from top to bottom in an organization. 5. Unity of direction. Each group of organisational activities that have the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan. 6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest. The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. 7. Remuneration. Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services. 8. Centralisation. Centralisation refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. Whether decision making is centralized (to management) or decentralized (to subordinates) is a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree of centralisation for each situation. 9. Scalar chain. The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this chain. However, if following the chain creates delays, cross-communications can be allowed if agreed to by all parties and superiors are kept informed. 10. Order. People and materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel. High employee turnover is inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative. Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort.
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14. Esprit de corps. Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization.

Hierarchy
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most [1][6] fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top. While the pyramid has become the de facto way to represent the hierarchy, Maslow himself never used a pyramid to describe these levels in any of his writings on the subject. The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. With the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) needs, if these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term Metamotivation to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant [7] [clarification needed] betterment. Metamotivated people are driven by B-needs (Being Needs ), instead of deficiency needs (D-Needs). The human mind and brain are complex and have parallel processes running at the same time, so many different motivations from different levels of Maslow's pyramid usually occur at the same time. Maslow was clear about speaking of these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as "relative" and "general" [8] and "primarily", and says that the human organism is "dominated" by a certain need , rather than saying that the individual is "only" focused on a certain need at any given time. So Maslow acknowledges that many different levels of motivation are likely to be going on in a human all at once. His focus in discussing the hierarchy was to identify the basic types of motivations, and the order that they generally progress as lower needs are reasonably well met.

Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function. Physiological needs are the most prepotent of all the other needs. Therefore, the human that lacks food, love, esteem, or safety would consider the greatest of his/her needs to be food. Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species.

Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety due to war, natural disaster, or, in cases of family violence, childhood abuse, etc. people (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder and transgenerational trauma transfer. In the absence of economic safety due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like. This level is more likely to be found in children because they have a greater need to feel safe. Safety and Security needs include: Personal security Financial security Health and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Love and belonging

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are interpersonal and involve feelings of belongingness. The need is especially strong in childhood and can over-ride the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies with respect to this aspect of Maslow's hierarchy due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism etc. can impact individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general, such as: Friendship Intimacy Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of [citation needed] control and belonging.

Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel selfvalued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. Note, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels. Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter one ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Maslow also states that even though these are examples of how the quest for knowledge is separate from basic needs he warns that these two hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated (Maslow 97). This means that this level of need, as well as the next and highest level, are not strict, separate levels but closely related to others, and this is possibly the reason that these two levels of need are left out of most textbooks.

Self-actualization
Main article: Self-actualization What a man can be, he must be. This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of [10] becoming. This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or [11] inventions. As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs.
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Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X
In this theory, which has been proven counter effective in most modern practice, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of this, management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each and

every level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. According to Michael J. Papa, if the organizational goals are to be met, theory X managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employees' compliance. Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive atmosphere. The Theory X manager tends to believe that everything must end in blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are only out for themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employee's interest in the job is money. They will blame the person first in most situations, without questioning whether it may be the system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to structure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of this management style is it is much more likely to cause diseconomies of scale in large businesses. [edit]Theory

In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and exercise selfcontrol. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. According to them work is as natural as play[1]. They possess the ability for creative problem solving, but their talents are underused in most organizations. Given the proper conditions, theory Y managers believe that employees will learn to seek out and accept responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation. Many people interpret Theory Y as a positive set of beliefs about workers. A close reading of The Human Side of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X managers to develop the climate of trust with employees that is required for human resource development. It's human resource development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. This would include managers communicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the difference between superior-subordinate relationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their abilities. This climate would include the sharing of decision making so that subordinates have say in decisions that influence them.

Model 1 illustrates how single loop learning affects human actions. Model 2 describes how double loop learning affects human actions. The following Model 1 and Model 2 tables introduce these ideas (tables are from Argyris, Putnam & Smith, 1985, Action Science, Ch. 3.) Other key books conveying Argyris approach include Argyris & Schon, 1974 and Argyris, 1970, 1980, 1994).

Table 1 Model 1 Theory-In-Use

Governing Variables

Action Strategies

Consequences for the Behavioral World

Consequences for Learning

Effectiveness

Define goals and try to achieve them

Design and manage the environment unilaterally (be persuasive, appeal to larger goals)

Actor seen as defensive, inconsistent, incongruent, competitive, controlling, fearful of being vulnerable, Self-sealing manipulative, withholding of feelings, overly concerned about self and others or under concerned about others

Decreased effectiveness

Maximize winning and minimize losing

Defensive interpersonal Own and control the task and group relationship (claim ownership of the task, Single-loop (dependence upon actor, be guardian of definition and learning little additivity, little execution of task) helping of others)

Minimize generating or expressing negative feelings

Unilaterally protect yourself (speak with inferred categories accompanied by little or no directly observable behavior, be blind to impact on others and to the incongruity between rhetoric and behavior, reduce incongruity by defensive actions such as blaming, stereotyping, suppressing feelings, intellectualizing)

Defensive norms (mistrust, lack of risk taking, conformitment, emphasis on diplomacy, power-centered competition, and rivalry)

Little testing of theories publicly, much testing of theories privately

Be rational

Unilaterally protect others from being hurt (withhold information, create rules to censor information and behavior, hold private

Little freedom of choice, internal commitment, or risk taking

meetings)

Table 2 Model 2 Theory-In-Use

Governing Variables

Action Strategies

Consequences for the Consequences Behavioral for Learning World

Consequences for Quality of Life

Effectiveness

Valid information

Design situations or environments where participants can be origins and can experience high personal causation (psychological success, confirmation, essentiality)

Actor experienced as Quality of life will be minimally more positive than Disconfirmable defensive negative (high processes (facilitator, authenticity and high collaborator, freedom of choice) choice creator)

Free and informed choice

tasks are controlled jointly

Minimally defensive Double-loop interpersonal learning relations and group dynamics

effectiveness of problem solving and Increase longdecision making will be run great, especially for effectiveness difficult problems

Protection of self is a joint Internal commitment to enterprise the choice and and oriented toward growth constant monitoring of (speak in directly its implementation observable categories, seek to

Learningoriented norms (trust, individuality, Public testing of open theories confrontation on difficult issues)

reduce blindness about own inconsistency and incongruity)

Bilateral protection of others