SAB 2712 GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

Profesor Madya Dr. Hj. Edy Tonnizam Mohamad D03-223/07-5531767 edy@utm.my 019-7172167

A view of Earth from the Moon

Earth 4.5 billion years Origin of universe 14 billion years Crust due to cooling Dinasour died 65 million years ago

Our Earth is Just Like An Egg

Earths internal structure

Earth structure

Crust (10 70km): divided into oceanic and continental crust. Low density. Silicon-oxygen based.
Mantle (2880 3200km): consists of layers of dense rocks (olivine & basalt). Temperature within mantle is about 30000C, thus materials may be in the form of liquid. Silicon-oxygen + iron + magnesium. Density of uppermost peridotite 3.3 g/cm3. Core (3480 km): Most dense. Consists of iron nikel alloy. Average density 11g/cm3. Temperature may exceeds 40000C.

Plate Tectonics

MAGMA
molten

material that is still in the earth and which has not yet been ejected to the surface.

The chemical composition of the magma largely determines the eruptive behavior of a volcano.

Magma which is composed of mantle rock has little dissolved gas.

This type of magma erupts as a relatively placid viscous liquid (lava), flows smoothly if sufficiently hot and freezes into a black rock called basalt.

EXSOLUTION SURFACE occurs in the magma reservoir beneath the volcano. It separates a zone of magma containing dissolved volatiles from an overlying zone of magma containing exsolved gas bubbles FRAGMENTATION SURFACE occurs at the top of the magma column. It separates the zone of magma containing exsolved gas from the overlying eruption column. Fragmentation of the magma is generated by rapid gas expansion and bubble explosion.

Plate tectonics is a gradual movement of crustal plate on the surface of the earth. In certain regions, 2 plates move apart creating a rift, where volcanic magma can erupt (pacific ocean,hawaiian island). In other case, 2 plates crush together and raising huge mountain ranges (Himalaya of Asia, Alps of Europe). Subduction the plate being subducted gradually bends downward & plunges into the earth where it eventually encounters sufficient heat to soften & melt.

Volcanology

Gunung Merapi

Lava fountains (5&shyp;10 m high) spouting from eruptive fissures during the October 1980 eruption of Krafla Volcano.

PHYSIOGRAPHY BEFORE AND AFTER THE 1883 ERUPTION The pre-eruption island of Kratatau was composed of three coalsced volcanoes aligned along a north-northwest direction, parallel to the volcanoes on Sumatra. From north to south, these were Perboewatan, Danan, and Rakata.

During the eruption, Perboewatan, Danan, and the northern half of Rakata appear to have collapsed into the vacating magma chamber, thus forming a submarine caldera and destroying the northern two-thirds of the island. Eruptions since 1927 have built a new cone called Anak Krakatau ("child of Krakatau") in the center of the 1883

Karakatau

Plate Tectonics

Earth's outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces called plates. The place where the two plates meet is called a plate boundary.

Dynamic Earth

The theory of plate tectonics

Involves understanding the workings of our dynamic planet Began in the early part of the twentieth century with a proposal called continental drift the idea that continents moved about the face of the planet

Dynamic Earth

The theory of plate tectonics

A theory, called plate tectonics, has now emerged that provides geologists with the first comprehensive model of Earths internal workings All major interactions among individual plates occurs along their boundaries

Plate boundaries

Fossil Evidence in Support of the Theory

Eduard Suess was an Austrian geologist who first realized that there had once been a land bridge between South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. He named this large land mass Gondwanaland (named after a district in India where the fossil plant Glossopteris was found). He based his deductions on the plant Glossopteris, which is found throughout India, South America, southern Africa, Australia, and Antarctica.

The jigsaw puzzle

On the earths crust are continental mass, continental shelf & ocean basin.
The present continents (e.g. Europe, Australia & Africa) originate from one big piece continent - Gondwanaland.

The dynamic position (floating) of the earths crust on the partly liquid & melting mantle, had broken the crust into several pieces & formed the presence continents.

Dynamic Earth

Plate boundaries
Divergent boundary two plates move apart, resulting in upwelling of material from the mantle to create new seafloor Convergent boundary two plates move together with subduction of oceanic plates or collision of two continental plates

Convergent Boundaries

Places where plates crash or crunch together are called convergent boundaries. When two plates collide , some crust is destroyed in the impact and the plates become smaller. Oceanic Plate and Continental Plate When a thin, dense oceanic plate collides with a relatively light, thick continental plate, the oceanic plate is forced under the continental plate. This phenomenon is called subduction.

This is an example of a divergent plate boundary. The mid-Atlantic Ridge is an area where new sea floor is being created. As the rift valley expands, two continental plates have been constructed from the original one. The molten rock continues to push the crust apart creating new crust as it does.

As the rift valley expands, water collects forming a sea. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is now 2,000 metres above the adjacent sea floor, which is at a depth of about 6,000 metres below sea level.

The sea floor continues to spread and the plates get bigger and bigger.

Dynamic Earth

Plate boundaries
Transform boundaries - located where plates grind past each other without either generating new lithosphere or consuming old lithosphere Changing boundaries - new plate boundaries are created in response to changes in the forces acting on the lithosphere

Fault

Fault

The dynamic earth Gradation process: erosion & deposition slow rate. - Agent: atmosphere, water, wind & snow. - When rate of deposition is higher than erosion, deposits of erosion material will happened or reflects. Volcanism refers to the volcanic activity. source: earth internal heat (magma & lava flow). create igneous & metamorphic rock, volcanic structure

Subduction zone

Tectonic collision

Directions and rates of plate motions

Several mechanisms contribute to plate motion

Tsunami