Surfaces and Interfaces

Tribology

7 Tribology
7.1 Definition of Tribology
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and related subjects and processes

7.2 Normal Loads, Contact Areas and Roughness

Figure 7-1: Contacts between real surfaces.

Rubbing surfaces are never perfectly flat, but they have a certain amount of roughness. The normal load is not borne by the apparent area of contact, but by a much smaller true area of contact. This corresponds to the raised areas, or asperities on each surface, coming into contact with each other. Since these contact areas are relatively small, the corresponding pressures are relatively large, with the result that the asperities become plastically deformed upon contact with each other. This continues until the contact areas increase sufficiently such that the contact pressure drops below the elastic limit of the material.

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Figure 7-2:Graph showing the variation of pm as a function of normal force, W, upon indentation of a hard sphere into a flat surface. The initial deformation from 0 to L is elastic and pm varies as W1/3. Plastic deformation begins at L and continues until the whole region of the indentation is in plastic flow. At this point (from M to N), the mean pressure pm is nearly independent of W.

In the following table, experimental data obtained for vaious materials are shown. 0 is the elastic limit. W at L is the lowest force necessary to cause plastic deformation, and r is the radius of curvature of the indenting sphere.
Material
0

pm at L kgmm-2 2.3 22 34 71 220

E2 dyncm-2 0.161012 1.21012 1.21012 21012 21012

1 1 + E1 E2

W at A in g r=10-4 810-8 2.510-6 9.110-6 4.710-5 1.410-3 r=10-2 cm 810-4 2.510-2 9.110-2 0.47 14 r=1 cm 8 250 910 4.7103 14104

lead-tellurium Commercial copper Highly worked copper Mild steel Alloyed Stahl

kgmm-2 2.1 20 31 65 200

45.510 1.7810-24 1.7810-24 110-24 110-24

-24

At radii of curvature of about 1 m, alloyed steel is plastically deformed at a load of around 1mg! In the case of plastic deformation of an asperity, the resulting contact area, A, is proportional to the normal load, W. If an asperity is elastically deformed (e.g. at low normal load), the contact area is proportional to W2/3. However, all of the asperities need to be taken into account, and it has to be remembered that the number of contacting asperities increases as the normal force is increased. The result is that that even in the case of elastic deformation, the real contact area is

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effectively proportional to the normal load, for an exponential (approximately Gaussian) distribution of asperity heights. A W

Figure 7-3: Theoretical curve of real contact area as a function of normal load..

Or putting it slightly differently: the surfaces are kept apart by tiny irregularities, which flow under load until their cross-sectional area is sufficient to carry the normal load.

7.3 Friction
7.3.1 Definition of Friction Friction can be described as the resistance encountered when one body is moved over another.

Figure 7-4: The frictional force needs to be overcome, in order to cause a body to slide.

The relation between normal load and frictional force is represented by the friction coefficient, .:

=F/W

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-values describe the magnitude of the frictional force. Values beween around 0.001 (e.g. in a lubricated bearing under light loads) and around 10 (e.g.when clean metals rub against each other in vacuum) are encountered, although most -values for sliding surfaces in air fall between 0.1 and 1.0. 7.3.2 The Laws of Friction The so-called Amontons Laws were, in fact, discovered by Leonardo da Vinci some 200 years earlier. Law 1: Frictional force is proportional to normal load. This Law, which can be expressed as F=W means that the friction coefficient, is independent of the normal load.

Figure 7-5: The change in friction coefficient with normal load W for unlubricated sliding of steel on aluminium in air.

Most metals, both lubricated and unlubricated, obey the first law. On the other hand, most polymeric materials do not. Law 2: The frictional force is independent of the apparent contact area. Again, this law normally is held for metals, but frequently not for polymers.

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Figure 7-6: Changes in the friction coefficient as a function of the apparent contact area for a wooden object sliding on unlubricated steel.

These first two laws can be explained making the following assumptions: 1) during sliding, the frictional force is proportional to the real contact area: F=As where s is the frictional force per unit area. 2) the true contact area is proportional to the normal load A=qW where q is the constant of proportionality. Putting these equations together: F=qsW F= W

or

Often a third law is added (Coulomb, 1785): Law 3: The frictional force is independent of the sliding speed. This law does not hold as frequently as the first two! It is almost always observed that the frictional force needed to be overcome in order to start a body moving is larger than the force needed to be overcome in order to maintain the body in motion. (i.e. the static friction coefficient s is larger than the dynamic friction coefficient d). These three laws are purely empirical results.

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7.3.3 Causes of Friction Friction is due to interactions between asperities. The energy induced by the motion is dissipated as heat in the near-surface region. In steady state, the energy produced per unit time is the product of the frictional force and the sliding speed. Adhesion and deformation play a major role in the dissipation, but the actual dissipation mechanism (e.g. phonic or electronic) remains hotly debated! 1. Adhesion Adhesion arises from the attractive forces operating between the asperities. Clean, oxide-free metal surfaces show significant adhesion effects, which can be observed under UHV conditions, but not in more normal environments. Using values of mechanical properties (such as shear strength) of the sliding partners, it can be calculated that adhesion contributes around 0.2 to the total value of .

Figure 7-7: Illustration of atomic behavior (preducted by theoretical models) upon contact of a nickel tip (on top) with a gold surface that is initially flat (below). No adsorption of oxygen or oxidization was taken into account, with the result that the model is only valid for atomically clean surfaces in vacuum (a) corresponds to the system under normal load at maximum indentation depth. (b) shows adhesion of gold atoms on the nickel as well as gold atoms that have been pulled out of the surface when the nickel tip is retracted.

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2. Deformation Apart from the interactions between asperities of both sliding partners, there is also the possibility that an asperity ploughs its way through the surface of the other partner, leading to a groove: This is the case when one of the partners is significantly harder that the other. One can also calculate the contribution of this process to the friction coefficient, making the assumption that the enclosed angle of the asperity is >80. In this case, one obtains a contribution of around 0.1.

Figure 7-8: Interactions between sliding surfaces: (a) only roughness-induced interactions; (b) macroscopic ploughing of one surface through the other.

Together, adhesion and deformation contribute around 0.3 to the total -value. In the following table, however, one can see that typical -values for unlubricated surface pairings are considerably higher.

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Typical values of the static friction coefficients on unlubricated metals in air identical metals in air s gold 2 silver 0.8-1* tin 1 aluminium 0.8-1.2 copper 0.7-1.4 indium 2 magnesium 0.5 lead 1.5 cadmium 0.5 Chromium 0.4 Metals on steel (0.13% C) in air s silver 0.5 aluminium 0.5 cadmium 0.4 copper 0.8 chromium 0.5 indium 2 lead 1.2 copper - 20% lead 0.2 Tinplate (tin-based ) 0.8 Tinplate (lead-based ) 0.5 -brass (Cu - 30% Zn) 0.5 Leaded / -brass (Cu - 40% Zn) 0.2 Cast iron 0.4 Mild steel (0.13% C) 0.8
*If two values are stated, one corresponds to the situation with an intact oxide layer and the other for the situation where the oxide layer has been penetrated.

The effects that play the biggest role here are work hardening and junction growth. Work hardening leads to a higher value of the adhesion component than one would expect from normal shear strength values. Junction growth occurs when an asperity is plastically deformed by means of a shear force, thereby leading to an increase in contact area. This process is limited either by the tensile strength of the material or the presence of a boundary film of low shear strength. The presence of a such a film is one of the principles of lubrication.

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7.4 Lubrication
7.4.1 Types of Lubrication For unlubricated metallic surfaces, the friction coefficient normally lies above 0.5. Such high -values are generally unacceptable for applications, since they would lead to enormous energy losses. In order to reduce the frictional forces, lubricants are normally employed. Lubricants form a layer of lower shear strength than the sliding surfaces. In many situations, the lubricatnt totally separates the sliding surfaces, such that they no longer have any interaction with each other. In other situations the lubricant reduces the interaction, reducing the extent of junction growth. Lubrication can be subdivided into five categories: 1. Hydrodynamic lubrication, in which the sliding surfaces are separated by a thick lubricant film (thickness > height of the asperities). 2. Hydrostatic lubrication, in which the oil is pumped under pressure between the sliding surfaces. 3. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL), in which the local pressures are so high that significant elastic deformation of the sliding surfaces occurs. 4. Boundary lubrication, in which the surfaces are separated by monomolecular (or nearly monomolecular) films. 5. Solid lubrication, which is based on a solid interfacial layer of low shear strength. 7.4.2 Lubricants Most lubricants are liquids, whose viscosity is their most important property. Viscosity can be thought of as the shear force at a plane inside the liquid per unit velocity gradient (in a direction perpendicular to the plane). When defined in this way, the viscosity is known as the dynamic viscosity. The SI-unit for the viscosity is the Pascal-second (1Pas = 1 kg m-1s-1). Dynamic viscosities are often given in centipoise (1cP = 10-3 Pas). Typical lubricants have dynamic viscosities in the range 2 - 400 cP. The viscosity of pure water is around 1 cP. The relation dynamic viscosity/liquid density is often important in calculations, and for this reason it is given a name: kinematic viscosity. The SI-unit is m2s-1, although centistokes are frequently used (1 cSt = 10-6m2s-1). Typical mineral oils mostly contain alkanes (20-30 C-Atoms) and a significant amount of aromatics. Synthetic oils, on account of their high price, tend to be used only in exceptional circumstances (e.g. for high-perfomance engines). Esters, polyglycols and silicone oils are all used as synthetic oils. Increasingly, plant-derived oils are being used, often for ecological reasons. These generally have high levels of oxygen-containing molecules, which can impart useful properties to the oil.

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Lubricating oils are normally mixed with a large number of additives, in order to modify the viscosity, or the temperature dependence of the viscosity, to inhibit corrosion, to suppress bacterial growth, or to modify friction and wear properties. In some situations, greases are used instead of oils. Greases normally consist of oils, to which additives such as soaps or clay have been added. Calcium or lithium soaps are frequently used in greases. 7.4.3 The Stribeck Curve It is frequently observed in lubricated systems that the friction coefficient changes as a function of speed. This is shown in the well-known Stribeck curve, in which the friction coefficient, , is displayed as a function of the viscosity multiplied by the tangential velocity, and divided by the normal load ( U/W). The curve can be divided into three regions.

Figure 7-9: Change of the friction coefficient with the quantity Stribeck curve.

U/W for lubricated sliding bearings: The

7.4.4 Hydrodynamic Lubrication In this kind of lubrication, the asperities on the sliding partners never come into contact with each other. These surfaces are kept apart by hydrodynamic pressure. The sliding surfaces have to be conformal; in other words, they need to be geometrically similar and held apart by a small lubricant-filled gap.

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Figure 7-10: Conformal bearing geometries: (a) plane bearing and (b) journal bearing.

The pressure that counteracts the normal load originates from the viscous forces in the liquid, which are a consquence of the relative motion of the two surfaces. In order to form a hydrodynamic film, the gap between the surfaces must become narrower in the direction of motion.

Figure 7-11: The bearings in Fig. 7-10 in the case of hydrodynamic lubrication. The convergence has been exaggerated for clarity.

The film thickness in a normal journal bearing typically corresponds to 1/1000th the diameter of the journal, the maximum film thickness being approximately five times as large as the minimum value. The friction coefficient in a hydrodynamically lubricated system can be calculated from the system geometry, the normal load, and the viscosity of the lubricant (which can be pressure dependent). 7.4.5 Hydrostatic Lubrication This type of lubrication obtians the load-carrying pressure from an external pump. The biggest advantage over hydrodynamic lubrication is that the lubricant film continues to exist, and the load continues to be carried, even at zero relative velocity of the sliding surfaces.

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7.4.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication When the sliding surfaces are not conformal, but have point or line contact (e.g. in the case of gears, ball-bearing races, or in cam-followers), much higher local pressures are present.

Figure 7-12: Examples of non-conformal sliding surfaces: (a) gears (b) cam and follower (c) ball in bearing race.

Under these conditions, the pressure dependence of the lubricant as well as the elastic deformation of the sliding surfaces play important roles. This kind of lubrication is known as elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL). The viscosity of the lubricant is dependent on the pressure in the following way: = 0exp( p)
viscosity at p=0 Pa: Pressure coefficient of viscosity :
0

Under EHL conditions, GPa pressures are frequently involved. This means that the viscosity, value of of 210-8 Pa-1, can be as much as 105-106 times its value at atmospheric given an pressure, behaving, in fact, more like a solid than a liquid.

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The elastic deformation of the sliding surfaces can be visualised as follows:

Figure 7-13: Contact between a sphere and a plane under EHL-conditions: (a) point contact without normal load and without relative sliding motion, (b) contact area resulting from the normal load, (c) elastic distortion under normal load and sliding.

When an elastic sphere touches a plane surface, the contact initially occurs at a point. As the pressure increases, the contact area grows, and can be calculated with the Hertz equation. If there is a lubricating film and the sphere is sliding over the surface, the pressure distribution is as shown above. If one takes the elastic deformation of the surface by the hydrostatic pressure into account, it can be shown with the Reynolds equation that the gap stays parallel at first with increasing pressure, but then suddenly enlarges on one side. As U/W becomes small, the film thickness also decreases, and the friction increases (Stribeck curve) until the film is broken through and contact between the sliding surfaces is initiated, defining the beginning of boundary lubrication. Dissipation of viscous energy in thin EHLfilms can be calculated to be around 100 TW m-3. This would be the equivalent of the dissipation of the entire electricity production of the USA in 5 liters!

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7.4.7 Boundary Lubricants At very high loads or low speeds, hydrodynamic forces can no longer maintain a lubricant film between the sliding surfaces and direct contact between the asperities starts to become important. A boundary lubricant is essential under these conditions, in order to avoid excessive friction and wear. Boundary lubricants form adsorbed molecular films on the surfaces. The repulsive forces between the films carry a significant part of the load and shield the asperities from unprotected contact.

Figure 7-14: Simplified view of boundary lubrication: polar end-groups of hydrocarbon chains bind to the surfaces and form a layer of lubricating molecules that reduce direct contact between asperities. There is much evidence that, in reality, thicker layers are frequently formed, although monolayers have been demonstrated to afford some degree of protection.

Examples of boundary lubricants are the long-chain carboxylic acids, whose polar end-groups make a strong bond with the oxide layer of the metal surfaces. The long chains can orient themselves and form protective layers, 2-3nm thick, sometimes reacting with the substrate to form thicker layers (metal soaps). The reduction of the friction coefficient is dependent on the chain length.

Figure 7-15: Variation of friction coefficient as a function of the lubricant chain length for steel surfaces, lubricated with carboxylic acids and alcohols.

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Figure 7-16: Friction coefficient as a function of chain length for hydrocarbons on tungsten surfaces.

Many plant oils (e.g. rapeseed oil) contain long-chain molecules that are polar, and can function as boundary lubricants. Only a small concentration (0.1-1wt.%) of such molecules is necessary, in order to afford a certain degree of surface protection under boundary conditions. A second class of molecules that protects surfaces under extreme conditions is known as Extreme-pressure additives. These are molecules that only react once extreme conditions (e.g. pressure, temperature) are reached, at which point they react with the surface, producing a protective layer with low shear strength in exactly the right place. This class of additive frequently contains sulfur, phosphorus, or chlorine, forming sulfides, phosphates, or chlorides on the surface, which possess low shear strength. Frequently used molecules include zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZnDTP), tricresyl phosphate (TCP) and dibenzyl disulfide (Figure 717). The mechanism of action of ZnDTP is extremely complex and has been extensively investigated, and a model of the structure of the protective film is shown in Figure 7-18.

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Figure 7-17: Structure of three extreme pressure antiwear additives: (a) tricresyl phosphate (TCP) (b) dibenzyl disulfide (c)zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate (ZDTP).

Figure 7-18 Structure of protective film formed by ZnDTP on steel

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The development of a lubricant requires considerable effort, since the various additives may not be compatible with each other. In particular, it is possible that competitive adsorption between additives leads to a reduction of the effectiveness of EP additives. On the other hand, excessive reaction of the EP additives with the surface can lead to corrosive effects. Many EP additives are ecologically undesirable and alternatives are being urgently sought. 7.4.8 Solid Lubrication In various circumstances it is not practicable to use liquid lubricants, e.g. in the food industry or in high-temperature or vacuum environments. In such situations, solid lubricants are frequently employed, e.g. graphite, molybdenum disulfide and PTFE (Teflon).

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7.5 Wear
7.5.1 The Archard Wear Equation Whenever surfaces rub against each other, wear almost always occurs. A simple analysis (Holm and Archard), which was originally developed for metals, yields a wear coefficient, K, which is frequently used in practice. One of the assumptions for the analysis is that the contact between the surface occurs at asperities and that the true contact area is the sum of the individual asperity contacts. This area is proportional to the normal load and the local deformation is assumed to be plastic.

Figure 7-19: Schematic diagram of the formation of a contact area during the relative motion of two asperities.

In Figure 7-19, the contact between two asperities is shown. In (c), the contact area becomes maximal and the normal load, which is suported by this contact area, is given by: W=p a2
Flow pressure: p Radius of the contact area: a

p is the flow pressure, which normally corresponds to the indentation hardness, H. During sliding [(d) and (e)], the task of supporting the normal load is taken over by other asperity contacts, such that continuous sliding involves continuous creation and destruction of single asperity-contact areas. Wear is due to the removal of fragments of material from the asperities. The volume of the single fragments depends on the size of the asperity-contact areas, i.e. the volume of the removed materials is proportional to the cube of the contact dimension, a. If we assume that this volume consists of a half-sphere of radius a, 2 V= a3 3 Not all asperity contacts lead to wear particles. Let us assume that a proportion, forms particles. The mean wear volume, V, produced by the sliding of an asperity pair over each other is given, per unit sliding distance, by:

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Q=

V = 2 a

a 3

The total wear rate, due to all asperity contacts, Q, is the sum of all contribtions over the total contact area:

Q=

Q=

a2

The total normal load is given by: W= W =p a2

And so the wear rate,Q, is

Q= W KW = H 3p

In the second part of this equation, /3 has been replaced by K and p by the indentation hardness, H. This equation, which shows the relation between worn volume per unit sliding distance and the normal load and hardness of the softer surface, is often called the Archard Equation. The constant, K, which is usually called the wear coefficient, is dimensionless, and always <1. K/H [mm3N-1m-1], sometimes called the dimensional wear coefficient is often used, especially in cases when the hardness is not easily definable (e.g. in the case of elastomers). K/H is the quantity of worn material [mm3] per unit sliding distance [m] per unit of normal load [N]. The wear rate is, according to the assumptions of Archard, independent of the sliding speed and the apparent contact area. This assumption appears to hold in many situations.

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Figure 7-19: Wear, shown as pin wear volume over the entire sliding distance in an unlubricated pin-on-ring test, sliding on tool steel (when not otherwise mentioned).

The curves in Fig. 7-19 show the characteristics of the materials under steady-state conditions. Surfaces must often be run-in before this behavior can be observed. The following table shows values of the dimensionless wear coefficient, K for various materials sliding on tool steel, obtained in an unlubricated pin-on-ring test in air. The values are highly dependent on test conditions and thus provide little insight into the wear mechanisms involved. Material mild steel / Brass PTFE Brass PMMA copper-beryllium hardened tool steel Stellite 1 stainless steel (ferritic) PE Sliding partner Mild steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Tool steel Wear coefficients, K 7 10-3 6 10-4 2.5 10-5 1.7 10-4 7 10-6 3.7 10-5 1.3 10-4 5.5 10-5 1.7 10-5 1.3 10-7

The values are all between 10-7 and 10-2. This is a far greater range than seen with friction coefficients. There is no apparent correlation between the two quantities. 7.5.2 Mild and Severe Wear During wear experiments with brass, the following behavior is observed:

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Figure 7-20: Wear and electrical contact resistance for a pin made from (Co-alloy) as a function of the normal load.

/ -brass sliding on hardened stellite

These experiments were carried out using hexadecane as a lubricant, but not under hydrodynamic conditions. Similar results were obtained during dry sliding. At low loads, the Archard equation holds, with a K-value of around 2 10-6. At loads between 5 and 10N, the wear rate increases significantly by a factor 100. Above this region, the Archard equation holds once more, with a new wear coefficient of 10-4. The wear-rate transition coincides both with a drop in

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electrical resistance, as well as a change in the color and size of wear particles. Below the transition, the behavior is known as mild wear, and above the transition as severe wear. Mild wear involves small (0.01 - 1 m) wear particles, which mostly consist of oxides. On the other hand, the characteristic particles during severe wear are much larger (20 - 200 m) and chiefly metallic in composition. Severe wear is unacceptable in most practical applications. The mechanism of the transition is confirmed by the following results:

Figure 7-21: Variation of wear coefficient with sliding speed for / brass sliding on steel at various temperatures and environments.

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