- (at 70 degrees ) DNA polymerases attach nucleotides are added the DNA sequence is replicated.

DNA profiling.
Non coding blocks in DNA are called introns, and the coding regions are called exons. In introns DNA sequences are repeated many times, this is called short tandem repeats (STR's). A DNA profile is produced using gel electrophoresis, In which DNA fragments produced by restriction enzymes can be separated according to their size. - A single band shows when a persons maternal and paternal chromosomes have the same number of repeat units. - two bands occur when the two chromosomes have a different number of repeats at a locus. ( a locus is a place where the same STR's occur.)

- (at 55 degrees) primers attach at the start of the STR repeated sequence. - (at 95 degrees) the DNA splits into two strands. - DNA polymerase, DNA primers with fluorescent markers and nucleotides are added. - A sample of DNA is added to detergent to release the DNA from cells. Cycle 1: Polymerase chain reaction is used to copy DNA.

PCR.
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DNA profiling cont.

How a DNA profile is made using gel electrophoresis: - double-stranded DNA is added to a restriction enzyme which cuts the DNA into fragments. - fragments of double-stranded DNA are loaded into the wells of an agarose gel in a tank using micropipette. - the negatively charged DNA moves towards the positive electrode. The fragments separate into the invisible bands. - DNA is transferred to a nylon or nitrocellulose membrane by solution drawn up through the gel. DNA double strands split and stick to the membrane. - Membrane placed in a bag with DNA probe. Single-stranded DNA probe binds to fragments with a complimentary sequence. - if DNA is radioactive x-ray film is used to detect fragments, if fluorescent it is seen using UV light.

- pilus = protein tubes that allow bacteria to attach to surfaces - plasmids = small circles of DNA - main circular DNA - mesosome = in-folding of the cell surface membrane, site of respiration - flagellum = used for cell movement - capsule = a mucus layer for protection - ribosomes = site of protein synthesis - cell surface membrane - cell wall Made from:

Bacteria.
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are prokaryotic

Specific immunity.
B lymphocytes: - secrete antibodies in response to antigens - special protein molecules of a class known as immunoglobulins - B cell produces antibodies which which bind to bacteria with antigens on surface this labels them as 'non self' - antibody binds to antibody receptor on a macrophage - macrophage engulfs antibodies and bacterium - lysosomes fuse with vacuole releasing enzymes which destroy the bacteria.

- virus particles are released - new virus particles are formed - viral protien coats are made - the viral DNA replicates - virus inserts nucleic acid - virus attaches to a hosts cell How viruses reproduce: - protein coat - a strand of DNA or RNA (Viral DNA can be single or double stranded.) Consist of:

Viruses.
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Specific immunity cont.

T lymphocytes: are produced in the bone marrow. they have specific antigen receptors which bind to antigens with the complimentary shape. - T helper cells = stimulate B cells to divide and become cells capable of producing antibodies. also enhance the activity of phagocytes. - T killer cells = destroy any cells with antigens on the surface that have been labeled as 'non self'.

- clone of T memory cells and clone of active T helper cells are produced - the T helper cell is activated and divides - APC binds to T helper cell with complimentary CD4 receptors - macrophage presents antigens on its surface and becomes an antigen presenting cell (APC) - bacterium engulfed by macrophage - bacterium with antigens on surface

Activating T helper cells.

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The role of T killer cells.

Bacterium infects cell of host - the cell presents the antigens and becomes an APC - T killer cell with complimentary receptor binds to the APC - the T killer cell divides to form two clones active T killer cells and memory T killer cells. Cytokines from T helper cells stimulate the differentiation. - The active T killer cells bind to infected cells presenting antigens. - T killer cell releases chemicals that cause pores to form in the infected cell causing it to explode. - The infected cell dies.

- plasma cells secrete antibodies which bind to antigens identifying them for destruction. - B effector cells differentiate into plasma cells - the B cell divides to give B memory cells and B effector cells - activated T helper cell with complimentary receptor binds to APC and produces cytokines (proteins) that stimulate B cell. - B cell becomes an antigen-presenting cell (APC) - antigen binds to B cell with complimentary receptor - bacterium with antigens on surface

Clonal selection
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Transcription and Translation.

Transcription: - RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA - hydrogen between the paired bases break and the DNA unwinds - RNA nucleotides with complimentary bases to the ones on the template strand bond together forming mRNA - mRNA then leaves the nucleus through a pore in the nuclear envelope Translation: - mRNA attaches to a ribosome -the anticodons on tRNA are complimentary to the mRNA codons for the amino acid - free amino acids attach to the correct tRNA molecule which carry it to the ribosome - the anticodons bind to the codons and form a chain of amino acids which are held together with a peptide bond

- it is then integrated into the hot cell's genome using intergrase - the DNA is copied to make a double strand that can be inserted into the human genome - it makes a DNA copy of the RNA -uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase How the virus replicates: - macrophages also have CD4 receptors so the virus can infect them too - the viral RNA then enters the cell - they then combine with a second receptor allowing the envelope to fuse with the T helper cell membrane - gp120 bind to the CD4 receptors on the surface of T helper cells HIV invades T helper cells within the immune system:

HIV invades T helper cells

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HIV destroys T helpers.

HIV binds to cell receptors virus envelope fuses with cell surface membrane - virus reverse transcription copies viral RNA into viral DNA - intergrase inserts viral DNA into host DNA - transcription occurs - translation of virus envelope proteins - virus envelope proteins are incorporated into the cell membrane - the virus mRNA is translated - virus particle budding becomes wrapped in cell membrane, forming the virus protein