Non-tariff barriers to trade (NTBs) are trade barriers that restrict imports but are not in the usual

form of a tariff. Some common examples of NTB's are anti-dumping measures and countervailing duties, which, although they are called "non-tariff" barriers, have the effect of tariffs once they are enacted. Their use has risen sharply after the WTO rules led to a very significant reduction in tariff use. Some nontariff trade barriers are expressly permitted in very limited circumstances, when they are deemed necessary to protect health, safety, or sanitation, or to protect depletable natural resources. In other forms, they are criticized as a means to evade free trade rules such as those of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the European Union (EU), or North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) that restrict the use of tariffs. Some of non-tariff barriers are not directly related to foreign economic regulations, but nevertheless they have a significant impact on foreign-economic activity and foreign trade between countries. Trade between countries is referred to trade in goods, services and factors of production. Non-tariff barriers to trade include import quotas, special licenses, unreasonable standards for the quality of goods, bureaucratic delays at customs, export restrictions, limiting the activities of state trading, export subsidies, countervailing duties, technical barriers to trade, sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures, rules of origin, etc. Sometimes in this list they include macroeconomic measures affecting trade.

Contents
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1 Six Types of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade 2 Examples of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade 3 Types of Non-Tariff Barriers

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3.1 Licenses 3.2 Quotas

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3.2.1 Agreement on a "voluntary" export restraint

3.3 Embargo 3.4 Standards 3.5 Administrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance 3.6 Import deposits 3.7 Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls

4 The transition from tariffs to non-tariff barriers 5 Non-tariff barriers today 6 See also 7 References

8 Bibliography 9 External links

Six Types of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade

1. Specific Limitations on Trade: 1. Quotas 2. Import Licensing requirements 3. Proportion restrictions of foreign to domestic goods (local content requirements) 4. Minimum import price limits 5. Embargoes 2. Customs and Administrative Entry Procedures: 1. Valuation systems 2. Anti-dumping practices 3. Tariff classifications 4. Documentation requirements 5. Fees 3. Standards: 1. Standard disparities 2. Intergovernmental acceptances of testing methods and standards 3. Packaging, labeling, and marking 4. Government Participation in Trade: 1. Government procurement policies 2. Export subsidies 3. Countervailing duties 4. Domestic assistance programs 5. Charges on imports: 1. Prior import deposit subsidies 2. Administrative fees 3. Special supplementary duties 4. Import credit discrimination 5. Variable levies 6. Border taxes

6. Others: 1. Voluntary export restraints 2. Orderly marketing agreements [edit]Examples

of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade

Non-tariff barriers to trade can be: Import bans General or product-specific quotas Rules of Origin Quality conditions imposed by the importing country on the exporting countries Sanitary and phyto-sanitary conditions Packaging conditions Labeling conditions Product standards Complex regulatory environment Determination of eligibility of an exporting country by the importing country Determination of eligibility of an exporting establishment (firm, company) by the importing country. Additional trade documents like Certificate of Origin, Certificate of Authenticity etc. Occupational safety and health regulation Employment law Import licenses State subsidies, procurement, trading, state ownership Export subsidies Fixation of a minimum import price Product classification Quota shares Foreign exchange market controls and multiplicity Inadequate infrastructure "Buy national" policy Over-valued currency Intellectual property laws (patents, copyrights) Restrictive licenses Seasonal import regimes Corrupt and/or lengthy customs procedures

[edit]Types

of Non-Tariff Barriers

There are several different variants of division of non-tariff barriers. Some scholars divide between internal taxes, administrative barriers, health and sanitary regulations and government procurement policies. Others divide non-tariff barriers into more categories such as specific limitations on trade, customs and administrative entry procedures, standards, government participation in trade, charges on

import, and other categories. We choose traditional classification of non-tariff barriers, according to which they are divided into 3 principal categories. The first category includes methods to directly import restrictions for protection of certain sectors of national industries: licensing and allocation of import quotas, antidumping and countervailing duties, import deposits, so-called voluntary export restraints, countervailing duties, the system of minimum import prices, etc. Under second category follow methods that are not directly aimed at restricting foreign trade and more related to the administrative bureaucracy, whose actions, however, restrict trade, for example: customs procedures, technical standards and norms, sanitary and veterinary standards, requirements for labeling and packaging, bottling, etc. The third category consists of methods that are not directly aimed at restricting the import or promoting the export, but the effects of which often lead to this result. The non-tariff barriers can include wide variety of restrictions to trade. Here are some example of the popular NTBs. [edit]Licenses The most common instruments of direct regulation of imports (and sometimes export) are licenses and quotas. Almost all industrialized countries apply these non-tariff methods. The license system requires that a state (through specially authorized office) issues permits for foreign trade transactions of import and export commodities included in the lists of licensed merchandises. Product licensing can take many forms and procedures. The main types of licenses are general license that permits unrestricted importation or exportation of goods included in the lists for a certain period of time; and one-time license for a certain product importer (exporter) to import (or export). One-time license indicates a quantity of goods, its cost, its country of origin (or destination), and in some cases also customs point through which import (or export) of goods should be carried out. The use of licensing systems as an instrument for foreign trade regulation is based on a number of international level standards agreements. In particular, these agreements include some provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, concluded under the GATT (GATT). [edit]Quotas Licensing of foreign trade is closely related to quantitative restrictions quotas - on imports and exports of certain goods. A quota is a limitation in value or in physical terms, imposed on import and export of certain goods for a certain period of time. This category includes global quotas in respect to specific countries, seasonal quotas, and so-called "voluntary" export restraints. Quantitative controls on foreign trade transactions carried out through one-time license. Quantitative restriction on imports and exports is a direct administrative form of government regulation of foreign trade. Licenses and quotas limit the independence of enterprises with a regard to entering foreign markets, narrowing the range of countries, which may be entered into transaction for certain commodities, regulate the number and range of goods permitted for import and export. However, the system of licensing and quota imports and exports, establishing firm control over foreign trade in certain goods, in many cases turns out to be more flexible and effective than economic instruments of foreign trade regulation. This can be explained by the fact, that licensing and quota systems are an important instrument of trade regulation of the vast majority of the world. The consequence of this trade barrier is normally reflected in the consumers loss because of higher prices and limited selection of goods as well as in the companies that employ the imported materials in

the production process, increasing their costs. An import quota can be unilateral, levied by the country without negotiations with exporting country, and bilateral or multilateral, when it is imposed after negotiations and agreement with exporting country. An export quota is a restricted amount of goods that can leave the country. There are different reasons for imposing of export quota by the country, which can be the guarantee of the supply of the products that are in shortage in the domestic market, manipulation of the prices on the international level, and the control of goods strategically important for the country. In some cases, the importing countries request exporting countries to impose voluntary export restraints. [edit]Agreement on a "voluntary" export restraint In the past decade, a widespread practice of concluding agreements on the "voluntary" export restrictions and the establishment of import minimum prices imposed by leading Western nations upon weaker in economical or political sense exporters. The specifics of these types of restrictions is the establishment of unconventional techniques when the trade barriers of importing country, are introduced at the border of the exporting and not importing country. Thus, the agreement on "voluntary" export restraints is imposed on the exporter under the threat of sanctions to limit the export of certain goods in the importing country. Similarly, the establishment of minimum import prices should be strictly observed by the exporting firms in contracts with the importers of the country that has set such prices. In the case of reduction of export prices below the minimum level, the importing country imposes anti-dumping duty which could lead to withdrawal from the market. Voluntary" export agreements affect trade in textiles, footwear, dairy products, consumer electronics, cars, machine tools, etc. Problems arise when the quotas are distributed between countries, because it is necessary to ensure that products from one country are not diverted in violation of quotas set out in second country. Import quotas are not necessarily designed to protect domestic producers. For example, Japan, maintains quotas on many agricultural products it does not produce. Quotas on imports is a leverage when negotiating the sales of Japanese exports, as well as avoiding excessive dependence on any other country in respect of necessary food, supplies of which may decrease in case of bad weather or political conditions. Export quotas can be set in order to provide domestic consumers with sufficient stocks of goods at low prices, to prevent the depletion of natural resources, as well as to increase export prices by restricting supply to foreign markets. Such restrictions (through agreements on various types of goods) allow producing countries to use quotas for such commodities as coffee and oil; as the result, prices for these products increased in importing countries. Quota can be of the following types: 1) Tariff rate quota 2) Global quota 3) Discriminating quota 4) Export quota [edit]Embargo Embargo is a specific type of quotas prohibiting the trade. As well as quotas, embargoes may be imposed on imports or exports of particular goods, regardless of destination, in respect of certain goods supplied to specific countries, or in respect of all goods shipped to certain countries. Although the embargo is usually introduced for political purposes, the consequences, in essence, could be economic.

[edit]Standards Standards take a special place among non-tariff barriers. Countries usually impose standards on classification, labeling and testing of products in order to be able to sell domestic products, but also to block sales of products of foreign manufacture. These standards are sometimes entered under the pretext of protecting the safety and health of local populations. [edit]Administrative

and bureaucratic delays at the entrance

Among the methods of non-tariff regulation should be mentioned administrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance which increase uncertainty and the cost of maintaining inventory. [edit]Import

deposits

Another example of foreign trade regulations is import deposits. Import deposits is a form of deposit, which the importer must pay the bank for a definite period of time (non-interest bearing deposit) in an amount equal to all or part of the cost of imported goods. At the national level, administrative regulation of capital movements is carried out mainly within a framework of bilateral agreements, which include a clear definition of the legal regime, the procedure for the admission of investments and investors. It is determined by mode (fair and equitable, national, mostfavored-nation), order of nationalization and compensation, transfer profits and capital repatriation and dispute resolution. [edit]Foreign

exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls

Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls occupy a special place among the non-tariff regulatory instruments of foreign economic activity. Foreign exchange restrictions constitute the regulation of transactions of residents and nonresidents with currency and other currency values. Also an important part of the mechanism of control of foreign economic activity is the establishment of the national currency against foreign currencies. [edit]The

transition from tariffs to non-tariff barriers

One of the reasons why industrialized countries have moved from tariffs to NTBs is the fact that developed countries have sources of income other than tariffs. Historically, in the formation of nationstates, governments had to get funding. They received it through the introduction of tariffs. This explains the fact that most developing countries still rely on tariffs as a way to finance their spending. Developed countries can afford not to depend on tariffs, at the same time developing NTBs as a possible way of international trade regulation. The second reason for the transition to NTBs is that these tariffs can be used to support weak industries or compensation of industries, which have been affected negatively by the reduction of tariffs. The third reason for the popularity of NTBs is the ability of interest groups to influence the process in the absence of opportunities to obtain government support for the tariffs. [edit]Non-tariff

barriers today

With the exception of export subsidies and quotas, NTBs are most similar to the tariffs. Tariffs for goods production were reduced during the eight rounds of negotiations in the WTO and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). After lowering of tariffs, the principle of protectionism demanded the introduction of new NTBs such as technical barriers to trade (TBT). According to statements made at United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD, 2005), the use of NTBs, based on the

amount and control of price levels has decreased significantly from 45% in 1994 to 15% in 2004, while use of other NTBs increased from 55% in 1994 to 85% in 2004. Increasing consumer demand for safe and environment friendly products also have had their impact on increasing popularity of TBT. Many NTBs are governed by WTO agreements, which originated in the Uruguay Round (the TBT Agreement, SPS Measures Agreement, the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing), as well as GATT articles. NTBs in the field of services have become as important as in the field of usual trade. Most of the NTB can be defined as protectionist measures, unless they are related to difficulties in the market, such as externalities and information asymmetries information asymmetries between consumers and producers of goods. An example of this is safety standards and labeling requirements. The need to protect sensitive to import industries, as well as a wide range of trade restrictions, available to the governments of industrialized countries, forcing them to resort to use the NTB, and putting serious obstacles to international trade and world economic growth. Thus, NTBs can be referred as a new of protection which has replaced tariffs as an old form of protection

8 Effects of Tariffs on the Imposing Country

Kindleberger has discussed eight effects of tariff on the imposing country: (a) protective effect; (b) consumption effect; (c) revenue effect; (d) redistribution effect; (e) terms of trade effect; (f) income effect; (g) balance of payment effect; and (h) competitive effect. In words of Kindleberger, a tariff "is likely to alter trade, price, output, consumption, and to reallocate resources, change factor proportions, redistribute income, change employment and alter the balance of payments." All these effects of tariffs are discussed below: 1. Protective Effect: A tariff has protective effect for the domestic industries. It tends to raise the domestic price of the imported commodity, reduce the domestic demand for that commodity and thereby stimulates its domestic production. In Figure 2, DD and SS are the domestic demand and supply curves of the commodity in question. In the absence of trade, the equilibrium is at point E, the price is OP3 and country's production and consumption is P3E. Under free trade conditions, becomes the supply curve which includes both domestic and foreign supply.

Foreign supply is assumed to be perfectly elastic. Equilibrium is at point T and the price is OP. At this price, quantity OQ2 is demanded, of which OQ1 is produced at home and the rest Q1Q2 is imported. Now the government imposes a tariff equal to the amount P P2, thus shifting the supply curve to and raising the price to OP2. As a result, the quantity demanded falls from OQ2 to 0Q4, the quantity produced at home increases from OQ2 to OQ3 and the quantity imported reduces from Q1Q2 to Q3Q4. In this case, the protective effect (which is another name for production effect) is Q1Q3 2. Consumption Effect: Imposition of tariff raises the price, and as a result, the demand for the commodity falls. Total outlay on consumption of the commodity is larger or smaller depending upon whether demand is inelastic or elastic. In Figure 2, before the imposition of tariff, the consumers demand OQ2at price OP1. With the imposition of tariff (i.e., P,P2), the price rises from OP, to OP2 and the quantity demanded falls from OQ2 to 0Q4. thus, Q4Q2 is the consumption effect. 3. Revenue Effect: Tariff brings revenue to the government. The revenue to the government is equal to the amount of the import duty multiplied by the quantity of imports. In Figure 2, the revenue effect is P1P2 x Q3Q4 = KLMN. 4. Redistribution Effect: Redistribution Effect refers to the transfer of real income from the consumers to the producers as a result of tariff. The tariff-imposed price increase (from OP1 to OP2) results in the loss of consumer's surplus equal to the amount P1p2LT. Of the total loss suffered by the consumers, P1P2 KR amount is transferred to the domestic producers. This is the redistribution effect. KLMN amount is transferred to the government as tariff revenue. The loss of consumer's surplus represented by the triangles KRM and LNT is transferred neither to the producers nor to the government; do KRM + LNT represent the total net real loss to the economy as a result of tariff. KRM is the net real loss suffered by the society due to inefficient use of the resources; increased output (i.e., Q1Q3) as a result of the tariff is possible by diverting factors of production from other sectors of the economy at higher cost (as represented by the rising supply curve). LNT is the net real loss due to the reduction in consumption (i.e., Q4Q2) The above discussed effects of tariff (in Figure 2) can be summarises below: 1. Tariff imposed: P1P2. 2. Effect on price: from OP1 to OP2, i.e., P1P2. 3. Effect on imports: from Q1 Q2 to Q3 Q4 4. Protective effect: from OQ1 to 0Q3, i.e. Q1Q3.

5. Consumption effect: from OQ2 to OQ4 i.e., Q4 Q2. 6. Revenue effect: KLMN 7. Redistribution effect: P1P2KR 8. Real loss on production: KRM 9. Real loss on consumption: LNT 10. Total real cost of tariff: KRM + LNT 5. Terms of Trade Effect: When a country imposes a tariff duty, its willingness to receive imports is reduced. For a given quantity of exports, the country now demands a larger quantity of imports because a part of these imports are to be surrendered to the customs authorities in the form of tariff payment. Or, putting the same thing differently, the country is now willing to offer less of exports in exchange for a given quantity of imports. Thus, the tariff reduces the country's offer of exports for imports. In diagrammatic terms, the tariff shifts the country's offer curve to the left. This increases the country's terms of trade or the rate at which exports are exchanged for imports. The terms of trade is given by the slope of line OT. Country H is exporting OW wheat and importing OC cloth from country F. Now suppose the country H imposes a tariff on imports of cloth from country F. As a result, the offer curve of country H will shift from OH to OH'. The new equilibrium is at point E' and the new term of trade is given by the slope of line OT'. Now, the country H exports OW, of wheat in exchange for OC, of cloth from country F. The change in the terms of trade (i.e., from OT to OT'), as a result of the imposition of tariff, is in favour of country H because it now offers less of its wheat in exchange for a certain quantity of country Fs cloth. The fall in imports from country F (i.e. CC,) is less than the fall in exports from country H (i.e., WW,). 6. Balance of Payments Effect: Tariff has favourable effect on the balance of payments position of the imposing country. It reduces imports and increases the export surplus of the country. Thus, through tariffs, a deficit in the balance of payment can be corrected. 7. Income Effect:

As a result of tariff, the expenditure on imported goods is reduced. This will increase the export surplus of the country and thereby the income from foreign trade. The money shifted from imports can now be spent on the domestically produced goods. If the country is at less than-full employment level, this will raise income and employment in the country. 8. Competitive Effect: Tariff protects the domestic industry from foreign competition. Under this protection an infant industry after a period of time, grows into an economically strong industry which can fully compete in the world market. But, the sluggish and lazy industry may not like to face the competition and remain inefficient even under the protection cover provided through tariffs.

The Effects of Non tariff Barriers on International Trade

While trade can generate many economic benefits, governments at times set up barriers to international trade. One of the more common and harmful barriers is a nontariff barrier, a barrier behind the border that is a policy (other than a tariff or tax) or official practice that can unfairly inhibit competition. Unjustified nontariff barriers can distort the prices and quantities of goods and services traded internationally, restrict international investment, and reduce economic welfare in exporting and importing countries. As tariffs have fallen both in the United States and in many other countries, nontariff barriers have increased in importance and are often cited as more traderestricting than tariffs. Nontariff barriers can arise as a result of government policies aimed explicitly at protecting domestic firms from international competition, or from rules or laws within a country that effectively hinder trade. Unjustified nontariff barriers (NTBs) make it more difficult for international goods and services to compete freely and fairly with those produced domestically. Common examples of NTBs are burdensome or nontransparent product standards or regulations. For example, in Korea, pharmaceutical imports must be tested on Korean nationals, and each individual batch produced must undergo testing. In China, the process of standards certification for telecommunications and IT products can be burdensome and unpredictable, as two separate Chinese regulatory agencies each check for conformity to the same set of standards. Other often-cited NTBs include investment restrictions, government procurement laws, and lax enforcement of intellectual property rights. Measuring the effects of NTBs on trade is more difficult than assessing the effects of tariffs, but some attempts have been made. A growing body of evidence consistently shows that the economic welfare gains from eliminating NTBs are at least as large as those obtained from further tariff liberalization. One study shows that the U.S. payoff from eliminating NTBs with just seven of our trading partners (Australia, Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, and Great Britain) would generate annual income gains of $90 billion for the United States (0.72 percent of GDP), compared with $37 billion from tariff liberalization (0.30 percent of GDP). These benefits arise largely from the pro-competitive effects of increased international trade and more efficient allocation of resources. Tariff negotiations are fairly straightforward, and forums such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) exist for this purpose. Members are required to report their tariff schedule to the WTO each year, so members know the tariff rate for each product in every country. However, countries do not always agree on what constitutes a NTB and there is no formal, consistent notification process,

thereby making negotiations aimed at addressing such barriers more complicated. Part of the policy problem is making distinctions as to whether NTBs are warranted for nontrade reasons (e.g., product safety standards) or whether they are simply covert barriers to imports (nontransparent licensing requirements for foreign firms). For instance, customary regulatory and legal procedures within one country might be seen as complex and overly burdensome to would-be exporters. Apart from the challenges of identifying NTBs, policymakers face difficulties in knowing which NTBs they should seek to dismantle first. The U.S. Department of Commerce has surveyed its industry and trade experts and country desk officers in an effort to identify the most prevalent NTBs faced by U.S. exporters and to identify which export products are most likely affected. The survey results suggest that, on average, at least one NTB affects U.S. exporters for each major product category in which they export to our main trading partners. For instance, a problematic regulatory environment was cited as a problem in 43 of the 49 countries covered by the survey, and was cited as the top problem in 14 of those countries. The industries facing the most NTBs included entertainment, pharmaceuticals, and information technology.

What does Tariff actually Mean?

Tariffs are generally imposed because the government does not want to expose its domestic industries to heavy-duty competition from foreign countries. Tariff can be called a tax that is imposed by a government on any good that is imported into the country. It is mostly in the form of some percentage of the value of good that is being imported. Tariffs are generally imposed because the government does not want to expose its domestic industries to heavy-duty competition from foreign countries. Mostly, it happens that when goods like electronic equipments etc. are not in fashion in the developed countries, companies from these countries tend to sell these goods in developing countries at reduced rates. This is technically known as dumping and tariffs are an important tool to avoid such a situation. Some economists are against the practice of imposing tariffs. They contend that if all the countries remove their tariffs and there is complete free trade in the world, a big surge in the global economy can take place. Lets take an example as to what effect tariffs have on the economy of a developing country. Lets say that country A (developing) produces LCDs that are in big demand in country B (developed). The government of country B is wary that the LCDs produced by country A will lead to loss of its own electronic goods industry. So, it imposes a heavy tariff on the LCDs that are imported in its country. On the other hand in country A the LCD producers have to face a harsh time. As they have to pay heavy tariff they refrain from selling LCDs in country B. The result is that they have to cut back their production. Now, as is well known, reduction in production means reduction in workforce. This leads to unemployment. As unemployment rises other industries in country A also get severely affected because their products are now less in demand for the reason that people are consuming them in less quantity. So, we see that restrictions such as tariffs have a negative impact on one or the other side. But to see the other side of the coin, malpractices such as dumping have forced certain nations to impose extremely heavy tariffs on several goods and services. In a nutshell, it can be said that in the present economic setup tariffs have come to stay as a necessary evil.