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The growth of nationalism in Malaya

The Grolier Encyclopdia of Knowledge defines "nationalism" as a popular sentiment that places the existence and well being of the nation highest in the scale of political loyalty. In simplified political terms, it signifies a persons willingness to work for the nation against foreign domination, whether political, economic or cultural. Nationalism in Malaya began at the close of the 19th century. Following the Pangkor Engagement in 1874, many changes took place in the administration system of Malaya. Perak was seen as the first state, which began receiving advice from a British resident. Soon all the other states in Malaya followed suit until eventually, the entire peninsula fell under British reign. The powers ascribed to the local heads of state like the Sultans and pembesar were eventually vanquished and in turn, given to the British Residents. Although the Residents were only placed to advise the heads of states, in reality, the Sultans were only conferred power in religious affairs and Malay cultures which called for elaborate ceremonies, while the Residents supervised the entire administration process. This was done to confuse the Malays, through cunning on the part of the British, since they knew very well that the Malay people held their Sultans in high reverence. As time passed, however, Malay groups that were dissatisfied with British reign soon took shape and formed the basis for nationalism in Malaya. Malay nationalism can be divided into three stages.

Religious stage (1900- 1926) Although Islam arrived in the Malay states in the 15th century, its teachings were not properly propagated to people. Consequently, people became very conservative and confused and held on to orthodox ideas about the religion, and this made the Muslim people very backwards. In the early 20th century, Islamic reform movements began in the Middle East, led by Syed Sheikh Muhammad Abduh, and were slowly assimilated into the Malay states. The reformation promoted the ideas of Pan-Islamism and encouraged Muslims to participate in economy, politics

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and social issues. The influence from the reformation was brought to the Malay states by his student, Syed Sheikh Al-Hadi, who formed the radically pro-Islamic movement, Kaum Muda. Kaum Muda believed that the misunderstandings in the implementation of Islam in the Malay states caused the Malays to become backwards and left out in many aspects and hence, the group wanted to change the orthodox ideas of the conservative group, Kaum Tua. Apart from that, they urged Muslims to conform to Islamic teachings based on the Al-Quran and the Sunnah of the prophet Muhammad. Its influence was short-lived and confined mainly to the Straits Settlements. It did, however, cause many Malays to evaluate their position in relation to other races in Malaya.

Social and Economic Stage (1927- 1936) Malay nationalism reached this stage when the Kesatuan Melayu Singapura (KMS) was established in 1926. Led by Mohammed Eunos bin Abdullah, KMS comprised mainly Englisheducated Malays who held administrative posts and opposed British domination. The formation of KMS greatly influenced Malay politics during this period in which economic and social achievements were given much emphasis. It spurned the elite Malays to provide education to Malay children to enable them to develop in various aspects.

Political stage (1937 1941) The 1930s saw major changes in Malayas political scene. It was this period that saw the sudden formation Malayan associations and clubs throughout the country. The question on everyones mind at the time was how the position of the native Malays could be improved. Then on 6 August 1939, a national conference was held in Kuala Lumpur by all these associations. One year later, a second one was held, again in Kuala Lumpur. One of the more outstanding groups was the Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM), formed in 1938. Led by its president, Ibrahim Yaacob, KMM ignited among the people, the flames of dissatisfaction with British rule and urged independence or Malaya by means of a revolution, and subsequently, a union with Indonesia. Not surprisingly, the British detained Ibrahim and his followers in 1941 but they were eventually released by the Japanese when they conquered the entire Malay peninsula in 1942.
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In wanting to find favour with the Malays, the Japanese sponsored two movements, Pembela Tanah Ayer (PETA) and Kesatuan Rakyat Indonesia Semenanjung (KRIS), both spearheaded by Ibrahim. These movements were disbanded, however, when the British returned at the end of the war in 1945.

Malayan Union

Malay nationalism began when the Malays began to feel cheated of their rights and yearned to free their country from foreign colonization, and reached its peak with the formation of the Malayan Union. The initial stage of the proposal for the Malayan Union began during the Second World War, when the British drew up a new constitution for Malaya at its colonial office in London. It was agreed, through this constitution, that Malaya would become a British colony state, instead of retaining its current status as a British protectorate state. The decision to establish the Malayan Union was made after London received information that one of the main reasons they were defeated by the Japanese was due to weaknesses in the Malayan administration system which was not coordinated properly. Prior to the Japanese occupation, Malaya comprised three administration units - the Straits Settlements, Federated Malay States and Unfederated Malay States. Each administration catered to the needs of its own territory. Through the Malayan Union, the British proposed that these three administration units be combined into a single unitary state, while Singapore remained a separate unit. In October 1945, Sir Harold MacMichael was sent to Malaya to discuss the Malayan Union proposal with the Sultans. The latter wasted no time in agreeing to the Malayan Union and on 21 st December 1946, three months from the time of MacMichaels arrival in Malaya, all nine Sultans agreed to the proposal and gave their signatures. Subsequently, the British government announced the constitution of Malayan Union on 22 January 1946 and made known its proposals. Among them were that:

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a. The Malayan Union would comprise the two Straits Settlements of Penang and Malacca, as well as the nine federated and Unfederated Malay states. It was to be controlled by a Governor. An Executive Council and a Union and Borneo. b. Singapore, on the other hand, which was part of the Straits Settlements, would remain a separate British colony the Malayan Union.
c.

Legislative Council would be appointed to help the

Governor, who would in turn, have to answer to the governor-general of Singapore, Malayan

with its own Governor. The British made sure of this, knowing very

well that Malayas opposition to a union with Singapore would hamper efforts of establishing

Although the Sultans still maintained their authority over religious matters and received

pensions from the British government, they were powerless in all other political matters. d. Each State Council would aid the local government, but they were to take orders from the central government.
e.

All citizens of Malaya, regardless of race, would have equal rights, which even included

admission into the civil service. f. Citizens of Malayan Union were allowed to possess two nationalities while residing in the country. g. The constitution also proposed that citizenship of the Malayan Union be opened to those who were: i. Aged 18 and above or residing in Malaya or Singapore for at least 10 of the 15 years prior to the formation of the Malayan Union.
ii.

Born outside the Malayan Union, on the condition that his or her father was a citizen or born in Malaya or Singapore prior to the setting up of the Malayan Union.

iii.

Living in the Malayan Union or Singapore for at least 5 of the 8 years before making their application for citizenship. This group of people, however, was expected to take an oath of allegiance, have a clean record, speak English or Malay and be prepared to reside in the Malayan Union.

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Opposition from the Malays Instead of accepting the Malayan Union with open arms, the Malay population gave the British a rude shock when they strongly objected to the new constitution. Even the Chinese and Indians did not favour the Malayan Union as expected. Led by retired British members of the Malayan Civil services and Malay leaders, MacMichael was accused of intimidating the Malay Sultans and consequently obtained their agreement to the Malayan Union through his cunning. A group of Malay students in the United Kingdom protested strongly against the Malayan Union and sent a memorandum suggesting that the British recognise the sovereignty of the Sultans and withdraw the privileges of equal rights to all people in Malaya. About 10,000 Malays demonstrated outside the sultans palace in Kelantan when MacMichael paid the sultan a visit on December 15th, 1945. In March 1946, Dato Onn bin Jaafar, a District Officer from Batu Pahat who had earlier formed the Peninsula Malay Movement of Johor on 3rd January 1946, met with some 200 Malay delegates from 41 associations to discuss their opposition to the Malayan Union. It was here that the Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melaya Bersatu or United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was formed, led by its president, Dato Onn Bin Jaafar. During this congress, the Malays agreed on several issues. Among them were to:
a. b.

boycott the proposal of Malayan Union and all formal ceremonies urge the Sultans to boycott the installation ceremony of Sir Edward Gent, the appointed

Governor of the Malayan Union

c. d. e.

urge the Malays to mourn the establishment beginning 1st April 1946 draft a new constitution with the British establish a Malay political party to champion the cause of the Malays as a respectable race.

When the next congress was held in Johor Bahru on 11 May 1946, UMNO was made official.

UMNOs effect on the Malayan Union When the Malays first began their protests against the Malayan Union, the British refused to scrap the new constitution and proceeded to speed up its implementation. This was done to remove the

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British military administration, which had been governing Malaya since the Japanese left the peninsula. However, the opposition led by UMNO put too much pressure on the British who eventually revoked their plans for the Malayan Union. Some of UMNOs efforts include education of the public. UMNO members actively sought support from a wide cross-section of the Malayan society by travelling all over the peninsula. They evoked feelings of dissatisfaction from the public by indicating that the treaties organised by MacMichael were invalid and the proposals in the new constitution were implemented without consultation with the Malays. UMNO also managed to influence the sultans to boycott the installation ceremony of Sir Edward Gent and Sir Malcolm MacDonald, who were appointed the new Governor and GovernorGeneral respectively. UMNO leaders wore white bands for one week to protest the Malayan Union, while demonstrations were actively held. In addition, they were also seeking to implement another constitution, which would prevent easy access to Malayan citizenship and also enable the Sultans to hold on to their power. UMNOs efforts were not in vain, for the Malayan Union was finally revoked on 1 February 1948 when the Federation of Malaya came into existence.

Federation of Malaya The British were indeed surprised with the opposition against the Malayan Union and feedback from Gent and MacDonald. Consequently, the British sent two Members of Parliament in mid 1946 to monitor the situation. In looking at the massive opposition from the Malays, the British realised that if they ignored the problem, they would become highly unpopular and lose support altogether from the Malays. The British could also foresee the possibility of violence from the Malays and the loss of
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the their trust. And since at that time, the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) was already establishing itself in the peninsula, the British feared that it would thrive under support from citizens discontented with British administration. They were already disdained to find that many Chinese and Indians had already pledged their allegiance to the MCP and were not happy with the proposals in the Malayan Union. As such, the British decided to give leeway to the demands of the Malays and formed a working committee comprising 6 representatives from UMNO, the Sultans and the British Governor on 1st July 1946. One year later, the committee reached an agreement and a new constitution for the Federation of Malaya began to take effect from on 1st Feb 1948. In this new Federation, the special privileges of the Malays were restored back to while the Sultans maintained their sovereignty and were to be aided by a central government. This central government would comprise an Executive Council and a Legislative Council. The Sultan had the authority to enforce any bill that was not passed by the Legislative Council and ratify other bills passed by the council. Ultimate authority, however, would be held by the British High Commissioner, who would be the president of the Legislative Council. The British High Commissioner was to attend the conference of rulers thrice e year and consult the rulers on Immigration policies. Prior to the formation of the constitution for the Federation of Malaya, the British had formed a committee comprising representatives from various races to submit their proposals on the draft. As a result, some amendments were made to the constitution and the number of representatives in the Legislative Council was increased to 75 from 48 and made way for more places for the Chinese, Indians, Orang Asli and Eurasians. The Federation of Malaya, like the Malayan Union, would comprise the nine Malay states and two Straits Settlements of Penang and Malacca, while Singapore still remained a separate colony. While the Federal Government had authority over matters of law and order, defence, foreign issues, finance and commerce, the State governments had authority over agriculture, religion and education. The previous proposals for citizenship as stated in the Malayan Union were also revoked and saw some significant changes. To be a citizen of the Federation of Malaya, one had to be competent in both English and Malay, be of good conduct, swear an oath of allegiance to the Federation, and be prepared to reside permanently in the Federation.

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Apart from these requirements, citizenship was given to those who applied for it and also those who received it automatically. Those who were eligible for application include those who were living in the Federation for at least 15 of the 20 years required, before making their applications and those who were born in the Federation and were residing there for at least 8 of the 12 years before their application. Those who were born in Singapore did not qualify for citizenship. Those who received citizenship automatically include those who were:
a.

Residing in the Straits Settlements of either Penang or Malacca and were in fact, British

subjects b. Living in any states and were subjects of any of the Sultans c. Born in the Federation, provided that his or her parents were born in the Federation as well and lived there for 15 years. Although the Malays hailed the implementation of the Federation of Malaya, the other races in Malaya were not too pleased. Consequently, a number of groups and political parties rallied together and formed the All-Malaya Council of Joint Action (AMCJA) in February 1947. In July 1947, the AMCJA presented alternative proposals which were termed the peoples constitutional proposals. These proposals outlined an alternative to the Federation of Malaya. Among the proposals were that: a. All those in Malaya or who have been residing in Malaya for 8 years be given citizenship b. All citizens be granted equality in terms of rights and opportunities c. Singapore be included in the Federation of Malaya d. The Legislative Council comprised 55 percent of Malays in the first nine years e. The Legislative Council should elect an Executive Council f. A Council of races be elected and given the authority to delay any legislation with racial implications for three years.
g.

The Malay Sultans retain their position as constitutional monarchs

h. Affairs pertaining to Malay customs and Islam be controlled by the Malays.

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The British government, however, were more partial towards the Malays and preferred to deal with them compared to the Chinese. To make matters worse, the British were highly suspicious of the events that were taking place in China and were already satisfied with negotiations between them, the Malay rulers and UMNO. Hence, although the opposition from the Chinese was significant, the British were adamant in their decision to maintain the Federation of Malaya.

Malayan Communist Party (MCP)

Communism can be traced back to its German founder, Karl Marx. However, the first country that embraced its ideology was not Germany but Russia. Communism first came to Malaya when the Nanyang Communist Party was set up in Singapore by the Chinese Communist Party in 1925. The Malayan Communist Party (MCP) replaced the Nanyang Communist Party and took form sometime after Russia sent agents to this region to monitor the activities of the Communists. Their initial efforts to spread the ideology throughout South-East Asia encountered difficulties at first, since communism thrived in countries where citizens were seeking more radical, political changes. In Malaya, it seemed that not many of the local people backed communism since they were reluctant to force independence from the British via military force. The ideologies proclaimed by Communism were also contrary to the religious beliefs of the people of Malaya, especially the Malays. The MCP did not garner good response from the Indians and Malays as it did with the Chinese. This had to do with the fact the Communist agents were mainly Chinese who hailed from the Communist movement in China, and found it easier to interact with their Chinese comrades in Malaya because of similarities in culture and language. The MCP functioned as an illegal organisation at first and worked underground. Some of their early activities included conducting strikes and forming labour unions in Singapore and later, all over Malaya. Its most successful strike was the one organised in 1935 in a coal mine at Batu

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Arang, Selangor in which some 6,000 workers assumed control over the area and declared it a communist government. With the advent of the Second world War, communist parties in this region were warned against conducting any oppositions against the British or French, since these two countries were much needed in the fight against Germany, which strongly opposed Communism. The warning, however, fell on deaf ears since the Communists in Malaya had spent a decade opposing the British and valued their efforts to a large extent. Consequently, the Russians instructed Lai Teck to monitor the situation in Malaya.

MCPs Activities During the Second World War During this time, Lai Teck, who was the SecretaryGeneral, supported the British whole heartedly and fought against the Japanese during their invasion of Malaya, knowing very well that in helping the British, the party members would be trained by them and would be able to overthrow the British government eventually. True enough, MCP members were sent to be trained in Singapore and later placed in the battlefront, leading guerrilla groups in several states in Malaya. However, the guerillas proved to be no match for the Japanese, who, with their discipline and experience in jungle warfare, captured the entire peninsula and Singapore within 10 weeks. The Communists received harsh treatment from the Japanese, who tortured and executed them. Despite this, the Communists continued in their fight against the Japanese and formed the Malayan Peoples Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA).

MCPs Activities After the Second World War The MCP reigned temporarily in Malaya during the period between the surrender of the Japanese and return of the British. When the British returned to Malaya on 12 September 1945, they disarmed the MPAJA and established the British Military Administration. The Communists had no choice but to abide with the orders to disarm since they were not properly equipped and too minute in numbers to oppose the hefty British regiment. Even in such a situation, they were able to hide some weapons, which had been collected from the jungle immediately after the war and prepared for an impending attack.
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The MCP was also made legal by the British, and once again, through affiliations with government councils, like the Governors Advisory Council in Singapore and political parties like the Malayan Democratic Union and Malayan Nationalist Party, began its trade union activities and strikes. Lai Tecks arrival in Malaya proved successful before and during the Second World War, by way of his cunning nature. He coaxed the Communists into giving the British a false picture that they (the Communists) were working closely with them, while in reality, the MCP was preparing to overthrow the government and oust the British from Malaya at any moment. The play worked and for some time, Lai Teck fooled the MCP and acted as a double agent, selling information to the British. His sudden disappearance together with the partys funds in 1947, however, exposed his actions and aroused the members suspicion. Later, they uncovered the truth about their leader he was not only a double agent for the British, but also the Japanese. Lai Tecks actions brought significant changes in the MCP, and he was later replaced by Chin Peng, who preferred to use aggression in the Communists' opposition against the British, and hoped to eventually establish the Communist Republic of Malaya. Violence increased in Malaya and began with the activities of trade unions, followed by a series of murders of British estate managers. The murders were looked upon seriously by the British, who considered banning the MCP and proceeded to declare a state of emergency throughout Malaya on 18 June 1948.

Emergency In the early years of the Emergency, the Communists actively organized and participated in demonstrations against the British and formed guerrilla forces that crippled the countrys economy by attacking rubber estates and tin mines. Government personnel and officials from plantations also became victims of the Communists. The aggressive behaviour and spate of violence carried out but the Communists forced the British to react forcefully against them and consequently, the Communists had no choice but to seek refuge deep in the jungles of Malaya. British retaliation can be seen in three stages:

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First Stage (1948 1951) During the early years of the emergency, Malaya was under the administration of several British High Commissioners: Sir Edward Gent, who began the initial efforts to ward off the Communists; Sir Henry Gurney, who replaced Sir Edward Gent in 1948, but was murdered in a road ambush in Kuala Lumpur on 6 October 1951; and later, General Sir Gerald Templer. When the Communists activities reached its violent peak in 1948, the British encountered several setbacks. One of them was the refusal of the local people to aid the British in their fight against the Communist. The Law of Emergency The first thing the British did when the Communists began wreaking havoc, was to declare a state of emergency throughout Malaya on 18th June 1948. Under the Law of Emergency, those who were suspected of carrying weapons or instigating the people into supporting violence were arrested by the British government and detained for two years. Declaring the MCP Illegal Sir Edward Gent, who had imposed emergency in Malaya, also proceeded to ban the MCP and declare all its activities illegal on 23 July 1948. National Registration The British tried to abolish the Min Yuen or mass organization that provided supplies and food for the communist. Min Yuen, which was based in the jungle villages, and acted as a form of military intelligence and assassinated those who helped the British. To counter this the, British introduced a new system of national registration in which all those aged 12 or above were required to carry an identity card. This was done in order to detect easily, those who were Communists since they would not be in possession of an identity card. The Communists would be arrested if they tried to register. The Briggs Plan (1950 1960) The British announced the appointment of Lieutenant General Sir Harold Briggs as the new Director of Operations of Malaya in April 1950. Briggs had two things on his mind: to abolish the

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mass Min Yuen, which provided supplies and weapons to the Communists in the jungle; and to wipe out the Communists main engine the Malayan Liberation Races Army. He came up with a set of plans, later termed, the "Briggs Plan", which would inadvertently force the Communists to surrender and end their warfare. a. New Villages The first objective, he achieved by setting up "New Villages" in which the Chinese squatters, which made up the Min Yuen, were re-established into over 400 new settlements, comprising some 400,000 people in the beginning of 1952. Prior to the formation of these new villages, farmers and settlers from the squatters were tortured and forced into providing supplies to the Communists. When the villages were formed, they were encamped with barbed wires and given special protection by troops and officers from the Commonwealth forces, brought in specially to aid the British in their fight against the Communists. Through this, the British put a halt to the communication lines and flow of food and ammunition from the villagers to the Communists. b. Starvation Operation Under the Briggs plan, "Operation Starvation" was introduced in which citizens were issued with ration cards to control the flow of food and prevent the Communists from obtaining supplies through other means. Food was restricted and given out based on the number of people in a family. Strengthening of the British forces Briggs achieved the second objective by intensifying and improving efforts to ward off the Communists physically. This he did by increasing the British battalion by 20 troops, ensuring that the police force, army and government authorities met certain criteria, communicated effectively and coordinated their efforts. All these efforts, however, only angered the Communists more and caused them to look for new ways to overthrow the British government. Eventually, the Communists resorted to a new tactic and targeted government officials, which brought about the assassination of Sir Henry Gurney.

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Second Stage (1952 1955) General Sir Gerald Templer replaced Sir Henry Gurney when the latter was assassinated, and took his new position as High Commissioner in February 1952. His main objective was to initiate efforts towards the formation of a new and united nation of Malaya and at the same time, ensure that the Communists were wiped out. Templer, unlike the other High Commissioners, won the "hearts and minds of the people" through psychological methods of warfare and eventually succeeded in reducing the spate of violence carried out by the Communists and forcing many of them to surrender. In 1953, the MCP lost 7,000 members and consequently, Chin Peng moved to Thailand. Some of Templers efforts include: a. Offering leniency to those who surrendered to the British. Leaflets were dropped in the jungles of Malaya with promises of protection and freedom in exchange for voluntary surrender. b. Offering rewards to those who captured or killed any of the Communists or gave information on their whereabouts. Chin Pengs head, for example, carried a $250,000 reward. c. The introduction of social welfare programmes for the local people to persuade them to cooperate with the British. New Villages were provided with water and electricity, schools and clinics and many other facilities to ensure their well-being. d. Personal visits to the New Villages and the introduction of a private and confidential questionnaire system in which villagers could disclose information about the activities of the Communists or their whereabouts. e. The introduction of White and Black Areas, in which White Areas comprised areas in Malaya which were virtually free of Communists.

Third Stage (1955-1960) During these years, British efforts had been so successful that most of Malaya comprised White Areas. In this period, peace talks ensued between Tunku Abdul Rahman, then Prime Minister of
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Malaya, David Marshall (Chief Minister of Singapore), Tan Cheng Lock (president of the Malayan Chinese Association), Chin Peng and his fellow communists, in Baling, Kedah. The Baling Talk, as it was known later, were to no avail since Chin Peng was adamant in his decision to maintain the MCP. By 1957, the Communists began losing their support and the guerrilla fighters dwindled in numbers to about 1,500. Chin Peng also became discouraged when his closest ally, Lau Lee was assassinated in November 1956. The British finally declared Malaya free of Communists and lifted the order of Emergency on 31 July 1960.

Racial Problems Malaya consists of a "plural society" which was formed by different races with various backgrounds and customs. In The Malaysian Development Experience, Changes and Challenges book that published by INTAN, states that Malaya is "a colonial creation with ethnic groups living side-by-side but never mixed". Many factors have caused this situation. The first can be traced back to the "divide and rule" policy during British colonization. This kind of administration greatly limited interaction and communication among the different ethnic groups and segregated them according to their economic functions. The Malays were known to be farmers and fishermen and lived in the rural areas or kampung. Since there were also Malays who were involved in the government sector as ordinary officers and clerks, they were perceived to be dominant in politics and the first group of people that the British negotiated with. Most of the Chinese were involved in the commercial and mining sectors and were found mainly in urban areas. The Indians, on the other hand, worked as labourers in estates and plantations. Hence, these two races were perceived to be more dominant in the economics of the country. The education system, as it was long before we know it today, also varied according to the different ethnic groups in terms of syllabus, curriculum and methods of dissemination. There was no such thing as a standardized education system back then. While the Malays and Indians felt that a minimal amount of literacy was sufficient, the Chinese were vying to strengthen their bond with China through education, since most of the
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teachers and textbooks were imported from China. The same concept was practiced in Tamil schools. Since these vernacular schools comprised a single race, lessons were conducted in its respective language, such as Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. Due to the inconsistencies and differences in the education system, there existed barriers and gaps among the different races in Malaya. The Japanese occupation only widened the rift between the races, especially the Chinese and Malays. While the Malays were given better treatment by the Japanese who were in need of their support, the Chinese were tortured and brutally mistreated. This led to the formation of the Malayan Peoples Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) to fight the Japanese. To ward off attacks from resistance groups which comprised mainly Chinese, the Japanese instigated the anti-Chinese feeling by forming paramilitary units which consisted mainly of Malays, and thus, further widened the gap among the two races. When the Communists began their violence in the 1948, the British were forced to declare a state of Emergency throughout Malaya. It was during this period that inter-racial relations became worse since the British had formed forces, comprising mostly Malays, to fight the guerilla groups led by the Communists, who were mainly Chinese. All of these factors caused a great division in the Malayan society and much effort had to be taken to resolve the problem.

Efforts Towards Racial Unity In 1949, the Inter-Racial Relations Committee (Jawatankuasa Hubungan Antara Kaum) was formed, to enable leaders of various ethnic groups to find a solution to the existing racial problems. The committee, comprising Dato Onn bin Jaafar, Tan Cheng Lock, E.E.C Thuraisingham and 12 other members proposed that non-Malays be involved in local politics and more opportunities be given to the Malays in the business and industrial sectors. The committee also proposed that greater racial tolerance and understanding be fostered in the hope of achieving racial unity. In 1951, the British government formed the Member System, with the hope of achieving racial unity. The member system was similar to the Cabinet system as we know it today, and

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enabled people from various ethnic groups to get involved in the administration of the government and hold portfolios in areas such as Home Affairs, Agriculture, Land, Mines and Communication, Education, Health, Forestry, and Works and Housing. Although the more important portfolios in areas of finance and defense were still dominated by the British, the involvement of leaders of various ethnic groups enabled co-operation among the different races. Education also played an important role in paving the way towards racial unity in Malaya. In 1949, the Central Advisory Committee took form with the main purpose of unifying the local education system and implementing it. However, the committee failed to achieve its goal and its proposal that English be made the sole medium of education in schools in the Holgate Report was vehemently opposed by the Federal Legislative Council. Although the committee did not achieve much, it was a clear indication that the British were indeed making an effort to unify the multiracial society through education with one medium of instruction. Another committee which was established one year later, produced the Barnes Report, which recommended in 1952, that the syllabus of all primary schools be standardized and taught in English and Malay, while secondary schools retain English as their mode of instruction. Led by Dr W.P.Fenn and Dr Y.T. Wu, the British formed yet another committee to study the status of Chinese vernacular education in Malaya to incorporate it into a unified education system. The result was the Fenn-Wu report, which agreed to a national education system, but at the same time, proposed that Chinese medium schools be maintained. Finally, in 1952, the Education Ordinance based on the Barnes Report was approved. The Chinese and Indians were not in the least bit happy and resisted the new ruling. However, the longawaited decision on the national education system was only seen in the Razak Report after much deliberation and ethnic bargaining. The report was subsequently approved by the Federal Legislative Council on 16th May, 1956.

Political Parties in Malaysia

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United Malays National Organization (UMNO) UMNO was formed on 11th May 1946 and led by its first President, Dato Onn bin Jaafar. Its sole purposes were, at that time, to unite the Malays and lead the opposition against the Malayan Union, to protect the interests of the Malays and to gain independence from the British. Several years later, a conflict of interest occurred between Dato Onn and his party members. In his belief that an inter-racial nation was essential to achieve proper independence, Dato Onn had proposed that non-Malays be allowed to join the party. Due to this conflict, Dato Onn resigned and was replaced by Tunku Abdul Rahman, who later became the first Prime Minister of Malaya.

Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) MCA was formed by Leong Yew Koh and Lee Hau-Shik on 27th Feb. 1949. Its first president was Tan Cheng Lock. The objectives of MCA were to unite the Chinese and protect their interests, to propose more liberal citizenship, and to co-operate with the government and oppose Communism during the Emergency years. The party received much respect from the rest of society due to their efforts against communism, which involved the recruitment of the Chinese into the police and armed forces, and the resettlement of the local community into "new villages". Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) MIC was formed in August 1946 by John Thivy, who sought to protect the rights of the Indian community in Malaya and voice their opinions to the government. In the earlier years of its formation, however, the party did not receive much support from local Indians since it was dominated by Indians from the upper class, while most of the Indians in Malaya at that time, were labourers who hailed from the lower class of society. The MIC received full support from the Indian people of Malaya only when the Tamils took over the party in 1954.

Fight for Independence

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Topic 1: History and Politics

Sub Topic 1.2 : Independence

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The elections In 1952, UMNO and MCA combined forces, formed the UMNO-MCA Alliance, and took part in the local government and town council elections. The results were overwhelming. They had won 9 out of the 12 seats contested. Realizing their potential as a joint coalition, both parties decided to take their efforts a step further the general elections in 1955. This time, the MIC joined forces as well, and together the Alliance became a representative of the three main ethnic groups in Malaya. Another major victory was won in the 1955 elections when the Alliance bagged 51 out of the 52 seats contested. Tunku Abdul Rahman was elected the first Chief Minister, while 10 members from the Alliance were elected ministers. The majority of the Legislative Council was Alliances members, but the Executive Council was still dominated by British officials. Simultaneously, the High Commissioner held ultimate authority over any bill. As it was, Malaya still hadnt been granted full independence. Tunku Abdul Rahman wasted no time and flew to London on his "Merdeka Mission" in January 1955 to coax the British to grant independence to Malaya. The British agreed and subsequently fixed the date for independence - 31st August 1957. The Reid Commission Before independence could be attained however, some details needed to be taken care of, the most important being a new constitution for an independent Malaya. Hence, the British government appointed Lord Reid to head the Commonwealth Constitutional Commission to chart a new constitution for Malaya. Known as the Reid Commission, the committee was given the task of preparing a constitution that would serve a united and democratic Malaya with a firm government foundation, bearing in mind that the Sultans and the Malays were to retain their rights and special privileges. After much hard work, 131 memorandums were received from individuals and various organizations in Malaya. However, the draft of the constitution submitted by the Reid Commission was not to the liking of the Alliance, in particular, the proposals on religion and citizenship. Another delegation went to London, led again by Tunku Abdul Rahman to clarify certain matters and amend the draft of the constitution. The final amendment involved ethnic bargains.

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Topic 1: History and Politics

Sub Topic 1.2 : Independence

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

The MIC and MCA agreed to give special rights to the Malays and maintain Malay as the national language. UMNO, on the other hand, agreed to allow Chinese and Indian participation in politics and be awarded citizenship. After much discussion, the constitution was finally agreed upon and became known as the Merdeka Constitution.

Merdeka! Merdeka! Merdeka! Malaya did achieve its independence as agreed upon on 31st August 1957. The famous Merdeka proclamation by Tunku Abdul Rahman, who became the first Prime Minister of Malaya, took place at the Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur. The Sultan of Negeri Sembilan, Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni almarhum Tuanku Muhammad was proclaimed the first sultan of independent Malaya. The first general election of Malaya was held in 1959, in which the Alliance won 74 seats out of the 104 seats contested.

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