EE 605 : Error Corre

ting Codes
IIT Bombay, Dept. of EE,

Semester: July-November 2007

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

Le ture notes : Finite Fields

Field: A set with two operations (F; +;
) is alled a eld if (i) (F; +) is an abelian group (ii) (F nf0g;
)
is an abelian group and (iii)
distributes over +

Examples:
R; C ; Q
Zp =

f0; 1;


; p

1g under modulo p addition and modulo p multipli ation; where p is a prime.

Subeld: If a subset S of a eld F forms a eld under the same operations, then S is alled a subeld
of F . F is alled an extension eld of S .
Example:

 R  C.

Exer ise: If L is a subeld of F , then prove that F is a ve tor spa e over L.
How to onstru t an algebrai extension of a eld:
Example: Constru tion of

from R

The polynomial f (X ) = X 2 + 1 2 R[X does not have a root in R and an not be fa tored over R,
i.e., it is irredu ible.
We want to onstru t an extension eld of R where f (X ) will have a root.
Consider the set S = fa + bX ja; b 2 Rg  R[X and dene multipli ation modulo f (X ) = X 2 + 1 in
this set (note the similarity with the onstru tion of Zp). Addition is natural.
One an he k that, under this denition of addition and multipli ation, the set S forms a eld. We
will he k, for example, the fa t that every nonzero element has multipli ative inverse. Consider any
nonzero element a + bX 2 S . Now,

(a + bX )

a +b
2

a +b
2

X
2

a2

ab

a +b
a +b
2
b2
a
= 2 2+ 2 2
a +b a +b
2

ab

a +b
2

b2

a + b2
2

X2

mod (X 2 + 1)

= 1


So, a2 +a b2

a b

2+ 2

(1)

X is the inverse of a + bX .

So, S is a eld under natural addition and multipli ation modulo (X 2 + 1). Obviously, R

 S and

EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

IIT-Bombay

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

the restri tion of the operations in S to R are the natural addition and multipli ation in R and so, R is
a subeld of S .
Now, for notational larity, let us denote the element a + bX 2 S as a + bi, where the indeterminate
X is repla ed by the symbol i, and denote the symbol S by C . One an easily varify from the denition
of addition and multipli ation that these are the well known addition and multipli ation of omplex
numbers.
Note that a ording to the denition of multipli ation in C , i:i = i2 (mod i2 + 1) = 1 and so, i is
a root of the polonomial X 2 + 1. So, the extension eld C is onstru ted so that the polynomial X 2 + 1
has a root in it.
It so happens that C an not be extended further the in same way, i.e., there is no irredu ible
polynomial of degree more than one over C . As a result, any polynomial of degree n over C has n roots
in C , ounting multipli ities; and so it an be fa tored into n linear (i.e., of the form a0 + a1 X ) fa tors.
This is known as the fundamental theorem of algebra.
Zp

and its extensions: Let p be a prime. Under modulo p addition and modulo p multipli ation,

forms a eld. We will prove only the existen e of multipli ative inverse of any nonzero element
in Zp. The other onditions are left to the reader to verify. Consider any a 2 Zp. Consider the set
A = fab mod pjb 2 Zpg. Now, for any 0  b1 ; b2  p 1, ab1 mod p = ab2 mod p ) a(b1 b2 ) 
0 mod p ) pja or pj(b1 b2 ). But 0 < a < p and so p 6 ja. So, pj(b1 b2 ) ) b1 b2 = 0 ) b1 = b2 . So,
the set A has p distin t elements, i.e., all the elements of Zp. In parti ular 1 2 A, and so, 9b 2 Zp, so
that ab = 1 in Zp.
Zp

Now, similar to the onstru tion of C from R, if there is an irredu ible polynomial f (X ) of degree r
[X
= fa0 +z1 X +


+ar 1 X r 1 ja0 ; a1 ;


; ar 1 2
over Zp, then we an extend Zp to a larger eld L = (Zf p(X
))
Zpg whi h is the set of all polynomials of degree less than r and where multipli ation is dened modulo
f (X ). Addition is oe ient wise modulo p addition. One an verify easily that L is a eld under
these operations. Just as a hint about how to prove the existen e of multipli ative inverse of nonzero
elements, use the same te hnique as in the proof for Zp (noting that f (X ) is irredu ible over Zp). L
has pr elements (ea h ai an be hosen in p ways) elements and so it is denoted by Fpr or GF (pr ).

Chara teristi of a eld:

Denition: For a eld F , if n is the smallest positive integer su h that 1 + 1 +


+ 1(n times ) = 0
then n is alled the hara teristi of F . If no su h n exists then the hara teristi of F is dened to be
0.
Clearly, if the hara teristi of F is n and a 2 F , then a + a +


+ a(n times ) = a(1 + 1 +


+
1(n times )) = 0.
Example: Fpr has hara teristi p, Q ; R ; C have hara teristi 0.
Lemma: If the hara teristi of F is nonzero, then it is prime.
Proof: Suppose the hara teristi n of F is not a prime and n = n1 n2 where 1 < n1 ; n2 < n.
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EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

IIT-Bombay

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

Then
1 + 1 +


+ 1(n1 times ) 6= 0
1 + 1 +


+ 1(n2 times ) 6= 0
But for any eld F , if a; b 2 F then a 6= 0 and b 6= 0 ) ab 6= 0. So,

(1 + 1 +


+ 1(n1 times ))(1 + 1 +


+ 1(n2 times )) 6= 0

1 + 1 +


+ 1(n = n1 n2 times ) 6= 0

- ontradi tion.

Note that the elds Zp(also denoted as Fp or GF (p)) and Fpr as onstru ted above have hara teristi

p.
Lemma:

is a subeld of any eld of hara teristi 0.

Proof: Omitted here, though dis ussed in the lass.

Lemma: Zp is a subeld of any eld of hara teristi p.
Proof: Omitted here, though dis ussed in the lass.
Note that there are innite elds of hara teris p, for example Fp (X ) (eld of rationals of polynomials over Fp ).
Theorem: Any nite eld F has pr number of elements for some prime p and positive integer r.
Proof: Sin e Q is a subeld of any eld of hara teristi 0, any eld of hara teristi 0 is innite.
Suppose the hara teristi of F is p. By a previous lemma, p is prime. Zp is a subeld of F , again by
a previous lemma. So, F is a ve tor spa e over Zp. It must have nite dimension, sin e it has nite
number of elements.
Suppose the dimension of F over Zp is r. If fx1 ; x2 ;


; xr g is a basis of F over Zp, then the elements
P
of F are of the form ri=1 ai xi where a1 ; a2 ;


; ar 2 Zp, and su h linear ombibations give distin t
elements (property of any basis). Sin e ea h ai an take p values, there are pr su h linear ombinations
and so there are pr elements in F .

The number of elements in a nite eld is alled its order. The theorem says that if n has two distin t
prime fa tors, then there is no nite eld of order n. However, it does not guarantee the onverse, i.e.,
the fa t that for any prime p and positive integer r, there is a nite eld of order pr . Of ourse, from our
onstru tion of an extension eld of Zp, if we an show that for any positive integer r there is at least
one irredu ible polynomial of degree r over Zp, then we are through. However, we will take a dierent
route and in fa t, we will prove the existen e of irredu ible polynomials of any degree r over Zp using
the existen e of an extension eld of order pr .

EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

IIT-Bombay

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

Le ture 2
Proposition: If f (X ) 2 F [X and  2 F , then f () = 0 if and only if (X
Proof: If (X

)jf (X ), then f (X ) = (X

)jf (X ).

)g(X ) for some g(X ) 2 F [X . Then f () = 0  g() = 0

Now, suppose f () = 0. By dividing f (X ) by (X ), we an nd two polynomials q(X ) and r(X ),

where deg(r(X )) < deg(X ) = 1 i.e. r(X ) = onstant = (suppose), so that f (X ) = (X )q(X )+ .
Now, 0 = f () = 0  q() + = ) = 0 ) f (X ) = (X )q(X ) ) (X )jf (X ).

Lemma: Given a eld F and a polynomial f (X )
f (X ) an be fa tored linearly.

2 F [X , there is an extension eld of F

over whi h

Proof: Suppose f (X ) = f1 (X )f2 (X )


fl (X ) is the fa torization of F (X ) into irredu ible fa tors (not
ne essarily distin t) over F .
If f1 (X ) is not linear, then F an be extended using f1 (X ) to (fF1 ([XX)) where f1 (X ) fa tors further
(sin e it has a root in this extension eld). So, over this eld, f (X ) fa tors further into smaller degree
irredu ible fa tors. Continue with this pro ess with ea h irredu ible fa tor of degree more than one till
one gets an extension eld over whi h f (X ) an be fa tored into linear fa tors.


Splitting eld: The smallest extension eld of F over whi h f (X ) 2 F [X fa tors into linear fa tors
is alled the splitting eld of f (X ).
Proposition: If F is a eld of hara teristi p and ;  2 F , then ( +  )p = p +  p .
Proof: By binomial expansion,
( +  )p =
p

p  
X
p
i=0

i  p

Sin e p is a prime, for i 6= 0; p, i is a multiple of p and so it is zero modulo p.

Corrolary: If F is a eld of hara teristi p and a0 ; a1 ;


; at
ap0 + ap1 +


+ apt .

2 F,

then (a0 + a1 +


+ at )p =

Corrolary: If F is a eld of hara teristi p and f (X ) = a0 + a1 X +


+ at X t

ap0 + ap1 X p +


+ apr X tp .

2 F [X , then f (X )p =

Formal derivative: For a polynomial f (X ) = a0 + a1 X +


+ at X t 2 F [X , its formal derivative is

dened as f 0(X ) = a1 + 2a2 X +


+ tat X t 1 .
It an be proved that f (X ) has a multiple root in some extension eld if and only if f (X ) and f 0 (X )
have a ommon fa tor over F .
Now we pro eed to prove the existen e of a nite eld of order pr for any prime p and positive
r
integer r. Let Fp denote the eld Zp and let L denote the splitting eld of the polynomial (X p 1 1),
r
r
whi h is also the splitting eld of (X p X ). Let S be the set of roots of (X p X ) in L. Clearly,
S n f0g is the set of roots of (X pr 1 1). One an he k that S is a subeld of L (also, obviously, an
extension eld of Fp ). We verify a few onditions here.
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EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

IIT-Bombay

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

Closed under addition: a; b 2 S ) ap = a and bp = b ) (a + b)p = ap + bp = a + b ) a + b 2 S .

r

r
r
r
Closed under multipli ation: a; b 2 S ) (ab)p = ap bp = ab ) ab 2 S .

0; 1 2 S : Obvious
Additive inverse: a 2 S
ases: p = 2 and p 6= 2).

) ( a) p

= ap = a ) a 2 S . (Che k the step ( 1)p = 1 for two

r

Multipli ative inverse: a 2 S ) ap = a ) a

r

pr

= ap

=a

) a 2 S.
1

The other onditions are trivial. So, S is a subeld of L. Now, the formal derivative of X p X is
pr X pr 1 1 = 1. So, X pr X and its formal derivative do not have any nontrivial ommon fa tor.
r
So, X p X does not have any multiple root and thus S has pr distin t elements. This gives us a eld
of order pr .
r

Examples of nite eld onstru tion

Suppose, we want to onstru t F24 by extending F2 . We need an irredu ible binary polynomial of
degree 4.
1. X 4 + X + 1 is irredu ible 2. X 4 + X 3 + 1 is irredu ible 3. X 4 + X 2 + 1 = (X 2 + X + 1)2 is not
irredu ible 4. X 4 + X 3 + X 2 + X + 1 is irredu ible.
Let us take f (X ) = X 4 + X + 1. The elements of the eld F24 are the binary polynomials of degree
< 4. But all the nonzero elements are powers of X as shown below.
0
1 = 0 = X 0
=X
2 = X 2
3 = X 3
4 = X + 1

5 = X 2 + X
6 = X 3 + X 2
7 = X 3 + X + 1
8 = X 2 + 1
9 = X 3 + X
10 = X 2 + X + 1

11 = X 3 + X 2 + X
12 = X 3 + X 2 + X + 1
13 = X 3 + X 2 + 1
14 = X 3 + 1

The same an be he ked if the multipli ation is taken modulo X 4 + X 3 + 1. An element  (like
X in the above example) whi h generates all the nonzero elements of the eld is alled a primitive
element. It an be shown that every nite eld has a primitive element.
However, if we take f (X ) = X 4 + X 3 + X 2 + X + 1, then we observe the following:
0
5 = 1
0
0
1= =X
=X
2 = X 2
3 = X 3
4 = X 3 + X 2 + X + 1
i.e., all the elements are not obtained as the power of X . However, we an he k that all the elements
are obtained as the power of X 3 + X . So, X 3 + X is a primitive element of the eld F24 onstru ted as
F2 [X
.
(X 4 +X 3 +X 2 +X +1)
Moni irredu ible polynomials like X 4 + X + 1 and X 4 + X 3 + 1 for whi h X is a primitive element
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EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

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are alled primitive polynomials. It an be shown that for any prime p and positive integer r, there
is a primitive polynomial of degree r over Fp .

Polynomials
Though we have been talking about polynomials, let us dene them formally here and explore the
ni e properties they have.
Let F be a eld. Expressions of the form f (X ) = a0 + a1 X + a2 X 2 +


+ an X n , where n is a
nonzero integer and a0 ; a1 ; a2 ;


; an 2 F , are alled polynomials over F . Addition and multipli ation
are dened in the usual way and is omitted here.
For any eld F , the set of polynomials F [X has many ni e properties. To start with, under the
natural polynomial addition and polynomial multipli ation, it forms a ring, i.e.,
1. (F [X ; +) is an abelian group
2. a) If f (X ); g(X ) 2 F [X , then f (X )g(X ) 2 F [X
b) 1 2 F [X satises 1  f (X ) = f (X )  1 = f (X ) for all f (X ) 2 F [X
) multipli ation is asso iative
3. multipli ation distributes over addition, i.e., f (X )(g1 (X ) + g2 (X )) = f (X )g1 (X ) + f (X )g2 (X )
and (g1 (X ) + g2 (X ))f (X ) = g1 (X )f (X ) + g2 (X )f (X ).
Moreover, multipli ation is also ommutative in F [X , that is, it is a ommutative ring. Further,
it is an integral domain, i.e., the produ t of two nonzero polynomials is again nonzero. Can you give
an example of a ommutative ring whi h is not an integral domain?
For a nonzero polynomial a0 + a1 X + a2 X 2 +


+ an X n , where an 6= 0, its degree is dened to
be n, and an is alled its leading oe ient. The degree of the zero polynomial is dened to be 1. A
polynomial is said to be moni if its leading oe ient is 1.

F [X has many more interesting properties whi h are important for us. Many of these properties
are similar to that of Z.
1. For any f (X ); g(X ) 2 F [X , g(X ) 6= 0, there exists unique q(X ); r(X ) 2 F [X with deg(r(X )) <
deg(g(X )) so that f (X ) = q(X )g(X ) + r(X ). If r(X ) = 0 then we say that g(X ) devides f (X ) and
state the fa t as: g(X )jf (X ).
For f (X ); g(X ) 2 F [X , the ommon moni divisor of smallest degree is alled their greatest ommon
divisor (g d) and is denoted as g d(f (X ); g(X ). [Prove that there is only one su h polynomial, i.e., the
g d is unique. Hint: use the above property If g d(f (X ); g(X ) = 1, then f (X ) and g(X ) are said to
be relatively prime.
2. For any f (X ); g(X ) 2 F [X , 9a(X ); b(X ) 2 F [X su h that a(X )f (X )+b(X )g(X ) = g d(f (X ); g(X )).
(Note that this is also true for Z.) Proof of this is by onstru tion: use Eu lid's algorithm for omputing
g d and then onstru t a(X ) and b(X ) from the quotients obtained during the algorithm. Details: in
lass. Try to prove this also without using Eu lid's algorithm (i.e. without assuming that Eu lid's
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EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

IIT-Bombay

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

algorithm works.) Hint: prove that g d(f (X ); g(X )) is the unique smallest degree moni polynomial in
the set fa(X )f (X ) + b(X )g(X )ja(X ); b(X ) 2 F [X g.
Consequen es: If f (X ) and g(X ) are relatively prime then the above a(X ) satises the ondition:
a(X )f (X )  1 mod g(X ). This gives another proof of existen e of multipli ative inverse of nonzero
elements in (Fg([XX)) when g(X ) is irredu ible (similarly in Zp).
3. Like Z, F [X is also a unique fa torization domain, i.e., it is an integral domain where every
polynomial f (X ) an be fa tored in the form f11 (X )f22 (X )


ftt (X ), where f1 (X ); f2 (X );


; ft (X )
are unique, upto permutation, distin t irredu ible polynomials and 1 ; 2 ;


; t are unique positive
integers.

Minimal polynomial and onjugates

Let L be an extension eld of F and a 2 L. The smallest degree moni polynomial (if it exists) over
F whi h has a as a root is alled the minimal polynomial of a over F .
Examples:
1. Consider the extension
 62 R, and (X ) if  2 R.

over R. The minimal polynomial of any  2 C is (X

)(X

 ) if

as onstru ted above. We take the indeterminate Y to distinguish it

2. Consider F24 = (X F4 +2 [XX+1)
from the symbol X used in the onstru tion of F24 . Clearly, Y 4 + Y + 1 is the minimal polynomial of
 = X.

If a; b 2 L have the same minimal polynomial over F , then they are alled onjugates of ea h other.
Examples:
1. Consider the extension C over R. The omplex onjugate of any  2 C is a onjugate if  62 R.
If  2 R, then it does not have any onjugate.

2. Consider F24 = (X F4 +2 [XX+1)

as onstru ted above. We take the indeterminate Y to distinguish it
from the symbol X used in the onstru tion of F24 . One an he k that Y 4 + Y + 1 = (Y )(Y
2 )(Y 4 )(Y 8 ). (Do you see some pattern here? That is not a oin iden e!!!)

Let L be an extension eld of F and a 2 L. The following properties are easy to prove:
1. Let fa (X ) be the minimal polynomial of a. Then for any f (X ) 2 F [X , f (a) = 0 if and only if
fa (X )jf (X ).
2. fa (X ) is irredu ible over F .

Glimpse of Group Theory

The pair (G; ) of a set and an operation is alled a group if
1. For any a; b 2 G, a  b 2 G, i.e., G is losed under the operation .

 is asso iative: (a  b)  = a  (b  ) 8a; b; 2 G.

3. Existen e of identity element: 9e 2 G su h that e  a = a  e = a 8a 2 G.
2.

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4. Existen e of inverse: for every a 2 G, 9b 2 G su h that a  b = b  a = e.

One an show that the identity element is unique, and also the inverse of any element is unique.

Some onventions:
a) If the operation  is ommutative, it is often denoted by +. If it is denoted by +, then the identity
element is denoted by 0 and inverse of a is denoted by a.
b) If the operation  is not ommutative, or for any general operation whi h is not known to be
ommutative, then it is written like multipli ation, for instan e, a  b is often written as simply ab and
inverse of a is denoted as a 1 .

Subgroup: A subset H  G is alled a subgroup of G if it forms a group under the same operation.
Examples:
1. Z; Q ; R ; C are groups under addition. They form a hain of subgroups of C .
2. The set of m  n matri es over R forms a group under matrix addition.
3. The set Q  = Q

n f0g; R ; C  are groups under multipli ation

invertible n  n matri es over R form a group under matrix multipli ation.

4. The set of
non-abelian group.

5. The set of n  n matri es over

It is a

with determinant 1 forms a subgroup of the above group.

Coset: Let H be a subgroup of G. For any a 2 G, the set aH = fahjh 2 Gg is alled a left oset of H
and Ha is alled a right oset of H . If G is abelian then both these are same and are simply alled a
oset of H .
Lemma: If b 2 aH , then bH = aH .
Proof: b 2 aH =) b = ah for some h 2 H . Now, 2 bH ) = bh1 for some h1 2 H ) = ahh1 2
aH . So, bH  aH . Now, 2 aH ) = ah2 for some h2 2 H ) = (bh 1 )h2 2 bH . So, aH  bH . 
Proposition: The left osets of H in G form a partition of G, i.e., they are disjoint and their union is
G.
Proof: Obviously, any element a of G is in a left oset aH of H . So, the union of the left osets of
H is G.
Now, for any two left osets aH and bH , we will show that either they are same or they are disjoint.
Suppose, they are not disjoint and 2 aH \ bH . Then by the previous lemma, H = aH = bH .

The number of elements in a group is alled its order.

Corollary: If G is a nite group and H is a subgroup, then jH j divides jGj.

For any element a 2 G and n 2 Z, dene

aa


a(n times )
an = (a 1 )(a 1 )


(a 1 ) ( n times)
e
(

if n > 0
if n < 0
if n = 0

(2)

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Cy li subgroup:
If G an be written as fai ji 2 Zg for some a 2 G then G is alled a y li group generated by a.

Examples: Z; Zn (for any positive integer n)

In general, one an he k that for any a 2 G, the set hai = fai ji 2 Zg forms a subgroup of G and it
is alled the y li subgroup generated by a. If this subgroup is nite, then its order is also alled the
order of the element a and is denoted by ord(a).

Examples: 2Z; 3Z, et . are y li subgroups of Z. In fa t, any subgroup of a y li group is also y li

(proof?).
Clearly, for an element a 2 G of nite order ord(a) = n, hai an be written as fe; a; a2 ;


; an
and an = e. Sin e the order of any subgroup divides the order of the group, we have,

g;

Proposition: If G is a nite group and a 2 G, then aordG = e.

Some results easy to prove:
1. If G = hai is order n and djn, then had i = fe; ad ; a2d ;


; a(n=d 1)d g is a subgroup of order n=d. Also,
this is the only subgroup of this order. In fa t, as stated in a later proposition, this is true only if G is
y li .
2. One an also he k (prove) that the subgroup generated by ai is the same as that generated by a(i;n) ,
where (i; n) denotes the g d of i and n. So, ai has the order n=(i; n).
3. From 2, we an see that ai generates G if and only if (i; n) = 1. So, the number of generators of a
y li group of order n is (n) where (n) is the number of integers i 2 f1; 2;


; ng for whi h (i; n) = 1,
and is alled the Euler's fun tion.
4. Now, onsider a y li group G of order n and note that every element in G generates a y li group
or some order dividing n, and also for every positive integer djn, there are (d) generators of the y li
subgroup of order d. So, we have,

n=

djn

(d)

Proposition: Let G be a group of order n. G is y li if and only if for every djn, there is at most one
y li subgroup order d.
Proof: In light of result 1 above, only the reverse impli ation is left to be proved. Sin e every element
generates a y li subgroup, i.e., every element is a generator of a unique y li subgroup of G, we have,
ord(G) =

H : y li subgroup

djn

(d)

jgen(H )j
(3)

where gen(H ) denotes the set of generators of H . The last inequality follows sin e there is at most
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one y li subgroup of order d. Now, we also know djn (d) = n = ord(G). So, the last inequality is
satised with equality, whi h an happen if there is exa tly one y li subgroup of order d for ea h djn.
In parti ular, taking d = n gives the desired result.

Ba k to nite elds:
For any eld F , the multipli ative group F

n fog is denoted by F .

Using the last proposition on groups, we get,

For any  2 Fq ,  q 1 = 1. So, all the nonzero elements of Fq are roots of the polynomial X q 1 1,
and onsidering the degree of the polynomial, they are the only roots of this polynomial. So, the
elements of Fq are the roots of the polynomial X q X . Re all that this was also shown before while
proving that for any prime power, there exists a nite eld of that order. So, we have,

Lemma: If L is an extension eld of Fq and  2 F , then  2 F

, q = .

Proposition: The mutipli ative group Fq is y li

Proof: The order of Fq is q 1. Take any dj(q 1). We will show that there is at most one y li
subgroup of order d. Then the result will follow from a previous proposition.
Suppose there are two y li subgroups H1 and H2 of order d. All elements of H1 [ H2 are roots of
the polynomial X d 1, sin e they are in a subgroup of order d. But H1 [ H2 has more than d elements
: ontradi tion.
This proposition shows that every nite eld has a primitive element.

De-mistifying onjugates:
If Fqr is an extension eld of Fq and  2 Fqr , then we want to nd the Fq - onjugates of  .

Lemma:  q is a onjugate of  .
Proof: Let f (X ) 2 Fq [X be the minimal polynomial of  . f ( q ) = (f ( ))q = 0.
Suppose r is the smallest positive integer su h that  q =  .
r

Proposition: ;  q ;


;  q

are the onjugates of  , i.e., f (X ) =

Proof: By the lemma, ;  q ;


;  q

Qr

 q ).

i=0 (X

are all roots of f (X ), i.e., they are onjugates of  . But we

need to show that there are no other onjugate of  . Equivalently, we need show that the oe ients
Q
Q
i
i
of the polynomial f (X ) = ir=01 (X  q ) are in Fq , be ause, then it means that ir=01 (X  q ) is the
minimum degree moni polynomial over Fq having  as a root.
Q

Suppose f (X ) = ir=01 (X  q ) = b0 + b1 X +


+ br X r . Then (f (X ))q = ir=01 (X q  q ) =

Qr 1 q
 qi ) = f (X q ). So, b0 + b1 X q +


+ br X qr = f (X q ) = (f (X ))q = (b0 + b1 X +


+ br X r )q =
i=0 (X
bq0 + bq1 X q +


+ bqr X qr . So, b0 = bq0 ; b1 = bq1 ;


; br = bqr ) b0 ; b1 ;


; br 2 Fq .
n

;  q ;


;  q

(i+1)

is alled the Fq - onjuga y lass of  , and is denoted as [ q .

Examples: Let us onsider the extension eld F16 = f0; 1; ; 2 ;


; 14 g over F2 . The onjuga y
lasses are:
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EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

IIT-Bombay

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

[02 = f0g
[12 = f1g
[2 = f; 2 ; 4 ; 8 g
[3 2 = f3 ; 6 ; 12 ; 9 g
[5 2 = f5 ; 10 g
[7 2 = f7 ; 14 ; 13 ; 11 g
Note that F4 is also a subeld of F16 and so we an talk about the F4 - onjuga y lasses of elements
of F16 . If  2 F16 , then its minimal polynomial, say f (X ) over F4 is also a polynomial over F2 with a
root  , and so it divides the minimal polynomial, say g (X ) over F2 . So, the F4 - onjuga y lass of  is
a subset of the F2 - onjuga y lass of  . The F4 - onjuga y lasses in F16 are:
[02 = f0g
[12 = f1g
[2 = f; 4 g
[2 2 = f2 ; 8 g
[3 2 = f3 ; 12 g
[6 2 = f6 ; 9 g
[5 2 = f5 g
[10 2 = f10 g
[7 2 = f7 ; 13 g
[14 2 = f14 ; 11 g
Polynomials of the form X n 1 are of spe ial interest to us. The roots of X n 1 are alled the n-th
roots of unity for obvious reason. The following results, whose proofs are left as exer ise, will give us
insight about these polynomials.
1. Suppose q = pm is a prime power and n is relatively prime to q. Prove that there exists a positive
integer r su h that nj(qr 1).
2. For any positive integers m and n and a prime p, prove that the following are equivalent.
A. There is an element of order n in Fpm .
B. n divides pm
C. X n

1.

1 divides X p

1.

3. Let r and m be two positive integers and let p be a prime. Prove that the following are equivalent.
A. r divides m.
B. pr

1 divides pm

C. X p

D. X p

1.

1 divides X p

X divides X p

1.

X.
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EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

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Instru tor: B. K. Dey

E. Fpr is a subeld of Fpm .

4. (i) If n is relatively prime to p then prove that X n 1 2 Fp [X has distin t roots in the splitting
eld. (Hint: use formal derivative). Prove that the splitting eld of X n 1 is Fpm if m is the smallest
positive integer su h that nj(pm 1).
(ii) If n = tpl where t is relatively prime to p, then what an you say about multipli ity of roots of
X n 1?
(ii) Take p = 2 and n = 51 and nd the smallest extension eld of F2 where there is an element of order
n. Con lude that this is also the splittingeld of X 51 1.
If n is of the form tpl , where (t; p) = 1, then (X n 1) = (X t 1)p . X t 1 has t distin t simple roots
and the roots of X n 1 are the same as the roots of X t 1 and ea h is of multipli ity pl . Hen eforth,
we will onsider n to be relatively prime to p, the hara teristi of the eld.
l

Cy lotomi oset: For any i 2 f0; 1;


; n 1g, the q- y lotomi oset modulo n of i is dened
as [inq = fi; iq; iq2 ;


; iqr 1 g where r is the smallest positive integer su h that iqr  i (mod n). Here
every element is taken modulo n, and so [inq  [0; n 1.
For example, the 2- y lotomi osets modulo 7 are:
[072 = f0g
[172 = f1; 2; 4g
[372 = f3; 6; 5g
If n is relatively prime to q = pm , then let r be the smallest positive integer su h that nj(qr 1).
Then the splitting eld of X n 1 2 Fq [X is Fqr . The roots of X n 1 learly forms a subgroup of
Fqr . Sin e every subgroup of a y li group is also y li , the roots of X n 1 form a y li subgroup.
Suppose  is a generator of that group. The roots of X n 1 are f1; ;  2 ;


;  n 1 g. The onjuga y
lasses of the elements in this set forms a partition of this set and ea h onjuga y lass is the set of
roots of an irredu ible fa tor of X n 1.
For example, onsider n = 7, q = 2. Then r = 3. The polynomial X 7

X 7 1 = (X

1 fa torizes as

1)(X 3 + X 2 + 1)(X 3 + X + 1)

(4)

The roots of X 7 1 are all the nonzero elements of F8 . If we onstru t F8 as (Y 3F+2Y[Y2+1) , then Y is
a primitive element of F8 . The irredu ible fa tors of X 7 1, the onjuga y lasses in the set f1;  =
Y; 2 ;


; 6 g and the 2- y lotomi osets (or the binary y lotomi osets) modulo 7 have one-one
orresponden es as following.
Irredu ible fa tor
X 1 !
X3 + X2 + 1 !
X3 + X + 1 !

Conjuga y lass
f1g !

f;  ;  g !
f ;  ;  g !
2

12

Cy lotomi oset
f0g
f1; 2; 4g
f3; 6; 5g

EE 605: Error Corre ting Codes

IIT-Bombay

Instru tor: B. K. Dey

Referen e books:
1. R. Lidl and H. Niederreiter, \Introdu tion to nite elds and their appli ations," Cambridge :
Cambridge Univiversity Press, 1986
2. R. Lidl and H. Niederreiter, \Finite elds," Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1997
3. Herstein, \Topi s in Algebra"
4. All the books on oding theory mentioned in the ourse web page.

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