Chapter-1 Bhel Introduction: 1.1 Power Generation

Institute of Science & Technology, Klawad, 2012-13
CHAPTER-1 BHEL INTRODUCTION
It was established more than 50 years ago when its first plant was setup in Bhopal ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry in India. A dream which has been more than realized with a well recognized track record of performance it has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and achieved a turnover of Rs 2,658cror for the year 2007-08,showing a growth of 17 per cent over the previous year. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited is countrys Navaratna company and has earned its place among very prestigious national and international companies. It finds place among the top class companies of the w o r l d f o r manufacture of electrical equipments.
1.1 POWER GENERATION Power generation sector comprises thermal, gas, hydro and nuclear power plant business .BHEL supplied utility sets accounts to 87,646 MW 65% of the total installed capacity of 1,38,175 MW in the country , as against nil in 1969 -70.As part of Indias largest Solar Power-based Island Electrification Project in India, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) has successfully commissioned two Grid-Interactive Solar Power Plants of 100 KW each in Lakshadweep. W i t h this, the company has commissioned a total of eleven Solar P o w e r P l a n t s i n t h e Lakshadweep islands, adding over 1 MW of Solar Power to the power generating capacity of the coral islands in the Arabian Sea. B H E L h a s p r o v e n turnkey capabilities for executing power projects from concept t o commissioning and manufactures boilers, thermal turbine generator sets and auxiliaries up to500MW.It possesses the technology and capability to procure thermal power generation up to1000MW.Co- generation and combined cycle plants have also been introduced. For the efficient use of high ash content coal BHEL supplies circulating fluidized boiler. B H E L m a n u f a c t u r e r s 2 3 5 M W n u c l e a r s e t s a n d h a s a l s o c o m m e n c e d p r o d u c t i o n o f 5 0 0 M W nuclear turbine generator sets. C u s t o m m a d e 1
hydro sets of Francis, Pelton and Kepian types for different head d i s c h a r g e combination are also engineering and manufactured by BHEL. In, all 700 utility sets of thermal, hydro, gas and nuclear have been placed on the company as on date. The power plant equipment manufactured by BHEL is based on contemporary technology comparable to the best in the world and is also internationally competitive. T h e C o m p a n y h a s p r o v e n expertise in Plant Performance Improvement through renovation modernization and up rating of variety of power plant equipment besides specialized know how of residual life assessment, health diagnostics and life extension of plants.
1.2 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION (T&D)

BHEL offer wide-ranging products and systems for T & D applications P r o d u c t s . B H E L manufactured include power transformers, instrument transformers, dry type transformers, series and shunt reactor, capacitor tanks, vacuum and SF circuit breakers gas insulated switch gear sand insulators .A s t r o n g e n g i n e e r i n g b a s e e n a b l e s t h e Company to undertake turnkey delivery of electric substances up to 400 kV level series shunt compensation compensation systems (for (for power increasing factor and power voltage t r a n s f e r capacity of transmission lines and improving system stability and voltage regulation), systems improvement) and HVDC systems (for e c o n o m i c t r a n s f e r o f b u l k p o w e r ) . B H E L h a s i n d i g e n o u s l y d e v e l o p e d t h e s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t controlled shunt reactor (for reactive power management on long transmission lines). Presently a400 kV Facts (Flexible AC Transmission System) project under execution. INDUSTRY SECTOR BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and system to important industries like as follows Cement Petrochemicals Fertilizers Steel papers
Refineries Mining and telecommunication BHEL has indigenously developed the state-of-the-art controlled shunt reactor (for reactive p o w e r management on long t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s ) . P r e s e n t l y a 4 0 0 k V F A C T S ( F l e x i b l e A C Transmission System) projects is under execution.
1.3 TELECOMMUNICATION
BHEL manufactures EPABX and MAX systems based on C-Dot technology and has plans to make other ranges of telecommunication equipment also these are basically used for connecting links between various modules like peripherals, exchange and its equipments .it is necessary to run a number of internal cables of suitable conductors between the following stages and frames : Handset to exchanges cable chamber Cable chamber to M.D.F M.D.F to I.D.F I.D.F to number block Number block to exchange equipment Between two exchanges Between two cities Between two countries
Prior to advent of electronic exchanges interconnection of various circuits are made by mechanical contacts that are operated by mechanical movement produced by the attraction of an iron armature of an electromagnet or by the operation of an electric motor. There are some disadvantages of such systems for using mechanical contacts, due to following reasons: Contacts are subjected to wear and tear Require adjustment time to time 3
Mantainance is highly precise Prone to corrosion etc
But now a days electronic exchanges are used.in electronic exchange devices effect the interconnection between different transmission circuits and electromechanical relays and mechanical contacts.the ggreatest advantages of using electronic devices in place of electromechanical devices is that no time
Figure 1.1 BHEL company We are an integrated power plant equipment manufacturer and one of the largest engineering and manufacturing companies in India in terms of turnover. We were established in 1964, ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India - a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized track record of performance. The company has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77. We are engaged in the design, engineering, manufacture, construction, testing, commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products and services for the core sectors of the economy, viz. 4
Power, Transmission, Industry, Transportation (Railway), Renewable Energy, Oil & Gas and Defence. We have 15 manufacturing divisions, two repair units, four regional offices, eight service centres and 15 regional centres and currently operate at more than 150 project sites across India and abroad. We place strong emphasis on innovation and creative development of new technologies. Our research and development (R&D) efforts are aimed not only at improving the performance and efficiency of our existing products, but also at using state-of-the-art technologies and processes to develop new products. This enables us to have a strong customer orientation, to be sensitive to their needs and respond quickly to the changes in the market.
1.4 MANUFACTURING & TESTING FACILITIES

BHEL Haridwar plant is equipped with most modern and sophisticated machine tools, facilities and test equipment to manufacture and test turbo generators up to 1000MW rating, which includes: New state-of-the-art total impregnation facility for impregnation wound stators of TARI/THRI type Turbo generators up to 350MW. CNC taping machine for insulation of TG winding bars. Most modern micalastic insulation plant for stator bars. Over speed and vacuum balancing tunnel. Waldrich rotor slot milling machine up to maximum barrel length of 7000mm, barrel diameter of 1400mm and rotor weight of 200 tonnes. Koellmann rotor slot milling machine up to maximum barrel length of 7000mm, barrel diameter of 1800mm and rotor weight of 225tonnes. Two computerised test beds to test large size Turbo generators up to 1000MW. Wotan CNC horizontal Boring machine. Centre lathe machine up to maximum length of 16m and dia. of 3.15m. Insulation life test assessment facility.
Figure 1.2 Heavy machinery in BHEL, haridwar Beside these BHEL, Haridwar has also set up a Generator Research Institute with an objective to develop basic know-how and know-why through experimental studies for reliable, efficient and optimum design of turbo generators and to improve their performance in service.
1.5 QUALITY & RELIABILITY

Quality is prime concern for BHEL. Turbo generators manufactured by BHEL are certified ISO: 9001. The certificate is testimonial of BHELs tryst with quality. It is endeavour to achieve excellence in all business processes BHEL has adopted and implemented new concepts to ensure compliance to standards/specifications at various stages of the project viz. engineering, manufacturing, testing, erection, commissioning etc. Quality through Measurement (QTM) provides web based management information for review, improvement and control of processes by measurement methodology. Weightage to processes and their attributes are decided on the basis of the impact of the process non conformity based on the customer needs. 6
Figure 1.3 BHEL
machinery
Critical to Quality (CTQ) customers special requirements are scrutinised vigorously during contact review and parameters critical to quality are identified. Root Cause Analysis (RCA) product and processes non conformity data is utilised for improving products, processes and systems. BHEL, Haridwar has established a fully equipped Central Plant Laboratory with a large number of sophisticated testing and measuring instruments including CNC 3D Co-ordinate Measuring Machine, Non-Destructive testing facilities like X-ray, Gama-ray, Ultrasonic and Magnetic Particle Inspection. BHEL has developed vendors/sub-vendors of required quality standards through rigorous procedures for the main equipment, auxiliaries, fabrication and erection work. Today BHEL turbo generators have earned a name for high level of Reliability, Availability and Maintainability.
CHAPTER-2 INTRODUCTION TO GSM

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems: the network subsystem, the radio subsystem, and the operation support subsystem. In order to ensure that network operators will have several sources of cellular infrastructure equipment, GSM decided to specify not only the air interface, but also the main interfaces that identify different parts. There are three dominant interfaces, namely, an interface between MSC and the base Transceiver Station (BTS), and an Um interface between the BTS and MS.
2.2 GSM NETWORK STRUCTURE

Every telephone network needs a well-designed structure in order to route incoming called to the correct exchange and finally to the called subscriber. In a mobile network, this structure is of great importance because of the mobility of all its subscribers [1-4]. In the GSM system, the network is divided into the following partitioned areas. GSM service area; PLMN service area; MSC service area; Location area; Cells.
The GSM service is the total area served by the combination of all member countries where a mobile can be serviced. The next level is the PLMN service area. There can be several within a country, based on its size. The links between a GSM/PLMN network and other PSTN, ISDN, or PLMN network will be on the level of international or national transit exchange. All incoming calls for a GSM/PLMN network will be routed to a gateway MSC. A gateway MSC works as an incoming transit exchange for the GSM/PLMN. In a GSM/PLMN network, all mobile-terminated calls will be routed to a gateway MSC. Call connections between PLMNs, or to fixed networks, 8
must be routed through certain designated MSCs called a gateway MSC. The gateway MSC contains the interworking functions to make these connections. They also route incoming calls to the proper MSC within the network. The next level of division is the MSC/VLR service area. In one PLMN there can be several MSC/VLR service area. MSC/VLR is a role controller of calls within its jurisdiction. In order to route a call to a mobile subscriber, the path through links to the MSC in the MSC area where the subscriber is currently located. The mobile location can be uniquely identified since the MS is registered in a VLR, which is generally associated with an MSC. The next division level is that of the LAs within a MSC/VLR combination. There are several LAs within one MSc/VLR combination. A LA is a part of the MSC/VLR service area in which a MS may move freely without updating location information to the MSC/VLR exchange that control the LA. Within a LA a paging message is broadcast in order to find the called mobile subscriber. The LA can be identified by the system using the Location Area Identity (LAI). The LA is used by the GSM system to search for a subscriber in a active state. Lastly, a LA is divided into many cells. A cell is an identity served by one BTS. The MS distinguishes between cells using the Base Station Identification code (BSIC) that the cell site broadcast over the air. 2.2.1 MOBILE STATION The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue connections through the system . Different type of MSs can provide different type of data interfaces. To provide a common model for describing these different MS configuration, reference configuration for MS, similar to those defined for ISDN land stations, has been defined. Each MS is identified by an IMEI that is permanently stored in the mobile unit. Upon request, the MS sends this number over the signaling channel to the MSC. The IMEI can be used to identify mobile units that are reported stolen or operating incorrectly. 9
Just as the IMEI identities the mobile equipment, other numbers are used to identity the mobile subscriber. Different subscriber identities are used in different phases of call setup. The Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is the number that the calling party dials in order to reach the subscriber. It is used by the land network to route calls toward an appropriate MSC. The international mobile subscribe identity (IMSI) is the primary function of the subscriber within the mobile network and is permanently assigned to him. The GSM system can also assign a Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) to identity a mobile. This number can be periodically changed by the system and protect the subscriber from being identified by those attempting to monitor the radio channel. 2.2.2 FUNCTIONS OF MS The primary functions of MS are to transmit and receive voice and data over the air interface of the GSM system. MS performs the signal processing function of digitizing, encoding, error protecting, encrypting, and modulating the transmitted signals. It also performs the inverse functions on the received signals from the BS. In order to transmit voice and data signals, the mobile must be in synchronization with the system so that the messages are the transmitted and received by the mobile at the correct instant. To achieve this, the MS automatically tunes and synchronizes to the frequency and TDMA timeslot specified by the BSC. This message is received over a dedicated timeslot several times within a multiframe period of 51 frames. We shall discuss the details of this in the next chapter. The exact synchronization will also include adjusting the timing advance to compensate for varying distance of the mobile from the BTS. The MS monitors the power level and signal quality, determined by the BER for known receiver bit sequences (synchronization sequence), from both its current BTS and up to six surrounding BTSs. This data is received on the downlink broadcast control channel. The MS determines and send to the current BTS a list of the six best-received BTS signals. The measurement results from MS on downlink quality and surrounding BTS signal levels are sent to BSC and processed within the BSC. The system then uses this list for best cell handover decisions. MS keeps the GSM network informed of its location during both national and international roaming, even when it is inactive. This enables the System to page in its present LA.
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The MS includes an equalizer that compensates for multi-path distortion on the received signal. This reduces inter-symbol interface that would otherwise degrade the BER. Finally, the MS can store and display short received alphanumeric messages on the liquid crystal display (LCD) that is used to show call dialing and status information. These messages are limited to 160 characters in length. 2.2.3 POWER LEVELS These are five different categories of mobile telephone units specified by the European GSM system: 20W, 8W, 5W, 2W, and 0.8W. These correspond to 43-dBm, 39-dBm, 37-dBm, 33dBm, and 29-dBm power levels. The 20-W and 8-W units (peak power) are either for vehiclemounted or portable station use. The MS power is adjustable in 2-dB steps from its nominal value down to 20mW (13 dBm). This is done automatically under remote control from the BTS, which monitors the received power and adjusts the MS transmitter to the minimum power setting necessary for reliable transmission. SIM CARD
As described in the first chapter, GSM subscribers are provided with a SIM card with its unique identification at the very beginning of the service. By divorcing the subscriber ID from the equipment ID, the subscriber may never own the GSM mobile equipment set. The subscriber is identified in the system when he inserts the SIM card in the mobile equipment. This provides an enormous amount of flexibility to the subscribers since they can now use any GSM-specified mobile equipment. Thus with a SIM card the idea of Personalize the equipment currently in use and the respective information used by the network (location information) needs to be updated. The smart card SIM is portable between Mobile Equipment (ME) units. The user only needs to take his smart card on a trip. He can then rent a ME unit at the destination, even in another country, and insert his own SIM. Any calls he makes will be charged to his home GSM account. Also, the GSM system will be able to reach him at the ME unit he is currently using.
The SIM is a removable SC, the size of a credit card, and contains an integrated circuit chip with a microprocessor, random access memory (RAM), and read only memory (ROM). It is inserted 11
in the MS unit by the subscriber when he or she wants to use the MS to make or receive a call. As stated, a SIM also comes in a modular from that can be mounted in the subscribers equipment. When a mobile subscriber wants to use the system, he or she mounts their SIM card and provide their Personal Identification Number(PIN), which is compared with a PIN stored within the SIM. If the user enters three incorrect PIN codes, the SIM is disabled. The PIN can also be permanently bypassed by the service provider if requested by the subscriber. Disabling the PIN code simplifies the call setup but reduces the protection of the users account in the event of a stolen SIM. 2.2.4 INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile country code (MSC), mobile network code (MNC), and a PLMN unique mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN). The IMSI is not hardware-specific. Instead, it is maintained on a SC by an authorized subscriber and is the only absolute identity that a subscriber has within the GSM system. The IMSI consists of the MCC followed by the NMSI and shall not exceed 15 digits. 2.2.5 TEMPORARY MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY A TMSI is a MSC-VLR specific alias that is designed to maintain user confidentiality. It is assigned only after successful subscriber authentication. The correlation of a TMSI to an IMSI only occurs during a mobile subscribers initial transaction with an MSC (for example, location updating). Under certain condition (such as traffic system disruption and malfunctioning of the system), the MSC can direct individual TMSIs to provide the MSC with their IMSI. 2.2.6 MOBILE STATION ISDN NUMBER The MS international number must be dialed after the international prefix in order to obtain a mobile subscriber in another country. The MSISDN numbers is composed of the country code (CC) followed by the National Significant Number (N(S)N), which shall not exceed 15 digits. THE MOBILE STATION ROAMING NUMBER (MSRN) The MSRN is allocated on temporary basis when the MS roams into another numbering area. The MSRN number is used by the HLR for rerouting calls to the MS. It is assigned upon demand by the HLR on a per-call basis. The MSRN for PSTN/ISDN routing shall have the same structure as international ISDN numbers in the area in which the MSRN is allocated. The HLR knows in 12
what MSC/VLR service area the subscriber is located. At the reception of the MSRN, HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is currently registered. 2.2.7 INTERNATIONAL MOBILE EQUIPMENT IDENTITY The IMEI is the unique identity of the equipment used by a subscriber by each PLMN and is used to determine authorized (white), unauthorized (black), and malfunctioning (gray) GSM hardware. In conjunction with the IMSI, it is used to ensure that only authorized usera are granted access to the system. An IMEI is never sent in cipher mode by MS.
2.3 BASE STATION SYSTEM

The BSS is a set of BS equipment (such as transceivers and controllers) that is in view by the MSC through a single A interface as being the entity responsible for communicating with MSs in a certain area. The radio equipment of a BSS may be composed of one or more cells. A BSS may consist of one or more BS. The interface between BSC and BTS is designed as an A-bis interface. The BSS includes two types of machines: the BTS in contact with the MSs through the radio interface and the BSC, the latter being in contact with the MSC. The function split is basically between transmission equipment, the BTS, and managing equipment at the BSC. A BTS compares radio transmission and reception devices, up to and including the antennas, and also all the signal processing specific to the radio interface. A single transceiver within BTS supports eight basic radio channels of the same TDM frame. A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that function for control of one or more BTS. It is a functional entity that handles common control functions within a BTS. A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and is controlled by a BSC. BTS is typically able to handle three to five radio carries, carrying between 24 and 40 simultaneous communication. Reducing the BTS volume is important to keeping down the cost of the cell sites. An important component of the BSS that is considered in the GSM architecture as a part of the BTS is the Transcoder/Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU). The TRAU is the equipment in which coding and decoding is carried out as well as rate adoption in case of data. Although the specifications consider the TRAU as a subpart of the BTS, it can be sited away from the BTS (at MSC), and even between the BSC and the MSC. 13
The interface between the MSC and the BSS is a standardized SS7 interface (A-interface) that, as stated before, is fully defined in the GSM recommendations. This allows the system operator to purchase switching equipment from one supplier and radio equipment and the controller from another. The interface between the BSC and a remote BTS likewise is a standard the A-bis. In splitting the BSS functions between BTS and BSC, the main principle was that only such functions that had to reside close to the radio transmitters/receivers should be placed in BTS. This will also help reduce the complexity of the BTS. FUNCTIONS OF BTS As stated, the primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals from a mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the signals are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at the cell site. Transcoding to bring 13-kbps speech to a standard data rate of 16 kbps and then combining four of these signals to 64 kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though, it can be done at BSC or at MSC. The voice communication can be either at a full or half rate over logical speech channel. In order to keep the mobile synchronized, BTS transmits frequency and time synchronization signals over frequency correction channel (FCCH and BCCH logical channels. The received signal from the mobile is decoded, decrypted, and equalized for channel impairments. Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to BSC. The channel subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is determined by BTS. BTS signals the mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink radio channel measurement corresponding to the downlink measurements made by MS has to be made by BTS. 2.3.1 BTS-BSC CONFIGURATIONS There are several BTS-BSC configurations: single site; single cell; single site; multicell; and multisite, multicell. These configurations are chosen based on the rular or urban application. These configurations make the GSM system economical since the operation has options to adapt the best layout based on the traffic requirement. Thus, in some sense, system optimization is possible by the proper choice of the configuration. These include omni directional rural configuration where the BSC and BTS are on the same site; chain and multidrop loop configuration in which several BTSs are controlled by a single remote BSC with a chain or ring connection topology; rural star configuration in which several BTSs are connected by individual 14
lines to the same BSC; and sectorized urban configuration in which three BTSs share the same site amd are controlled by either a collocated or remote BSC. In rural areas, most BSs are installed to provide maximum coverage rather then maximum capacity. TRANSCODER Depending on the relative costs of a transmission plant for a particular cellular operator, there may be some benefit, for larger cells and certain network topologies, in having the transcoder either at the BTS, BSC or MSC location. If the transcoder is located at MSC, they are still considered functionally a part of the BSS. This approach allows for the maximum of flexibility and innovation in optimizing the transmission between MSC and BTS. The transcoder is the device that takes 13-Kbps speech or 3.6/6/12-Kbps data multiplexes and four of them to convert into standard 64-Kbps data. First, the 13 Kbps or the data at 3.6/6/12 Kbps are brought up to the level of 16 Kpbs by inserting additional synchronizing data to make up the difference between a 13-Kbps speech or lower rate data, and then four of them are combined in the transcoder to provide 64 Kpbs channel within the BSS. Four traffic channel can then be multiplexed on one 64-Kpbs circuit. Thus, the TRAU output data rate is 64 Kpbs. Then, up to 30 such 64-Kpbs channels are multiplexed onto a 2.048 Mpbs if a CEPT1 channel is provided on the A-bis interface. This channel can carry up to 120-(16x 120) traffic and control signals. Since the data rate to the PSTN is normally at 2 Mbps, which is the result of combining 30-Kbps by 64-Kbph channels, or 120- Kbps by 16-Kpbs channels. BSC The BSC, as discussed, is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. It assigns and release frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own area. The BSC performs the intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs in its area to meet locally heavy demands during peak hours or on special events. The BSC controls the power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum power level for a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC provides the time and frequency synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures the time delay of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is not centered in its
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assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the timing such that proper synchronization takes place. The functions of BSC are as follows. The BSC may also perform traffic concentration to reduce the number of transmission lines from the BSC to its BTSs, as discussed in the last section. SWITCHING SUBSYSTEMS: MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER AND GATEWAY SWITCHING CENTER The network and the switching subsystem together include the main switching functions of GSM as well as the databases needed for subscriber data and mobility management (VLR). The main role of the MSC is to manage the communications between the GSM users and other telecommunication network users. The basic switching function of performed by the MSC, whose main function is to coordinate setting up calls to and from GSM users. The MSC has interface with the BSS on one side (through which MSC VLR is in contact with GSM users) and the external networks on the other (ISDN/PSTN/PSPDN). The main difference between a MSC and an exchange in a fixed network is that the MSC has to take into account the impact of the allocation of RRs and the mobile nature of the subscribers and has to perform, in addition, at least, activities required for the location registration and handover. The MSC is a telephony switch that performs all the switching functions for MSs located in a geographical area as the MSC area. The MSC must also handle different types of numbers and identities related to the same MS and contained in different registers: IMSI, TMSI,ISDN number, and MSRN. In general identities are used in the interface between the MSC and the MS, while numbers are used in the fixed part of the network, such as, for routing. 2.3.2 FUNCTIONS OF MSC As stated, the main function of the MSC is to coordinate the set up of calls between GSM mobile and PSTN users. Specifically, it performs functions such as paging, resource allocation, location registration, and encryption. Specifically, the call-handling function of paging is controlled by MSC. MSC coordinates the set up of call to and from all GSM subscribers operating in its areas. The dynamics allocation of access resources is done in coordination with the BSS. More specifically, the MSC decides when and which types of channels should be assigned to which MS. The channel identity and related radio parameters are the responsibility of the BSS, The MSC provides the control of interworking 16
with different networks. It is transparent for the subscriber authentication procedure. The MSC supervises the connection transfer between different BSSs for MSs, with an active call, moving from one call to another. This is ensured if the two BSSs are connected to the same MSC but also when they are not . In this latter case the procedure is more complex, since more then one MSC in involved. The MSC performs billing on calls for all subscribers based in its areas. When the subscriber is roaming elsewhere, the MSC obtains data for the call billing from the visited MSC. Encryption parameters transfers from VLR to BSS to facilitate ciphering on the radio interface are done by MSC. The exchange of signaling information on the various interface toward the other network elements and the management of the interface themselves are all controlled by the MSC. Finally, the MSC serves as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from Short Message Service Centers (SMSC) to the subscribers and from the subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus acts as a message mailbox and delivery system. VLR The VLR is collocated with an MSC. A MS roaming in an MSC area is controlled by the VLR responsible for that area. When a MS appears in a LA, it starts a registration procedure. The MSC for that area notices this registration and transfers to the VLR the identify of the LA where the MS is situated. A VLR may be in charge of one or several MSC LAs. The VLR constitutes the databases that support the MSC in the storage and retrieval of the data of subscribers present in its area. When an MS enters the MSC area borders, it signals its arrival to the MSC that stores its identify in the VLR. The information necessary to manage the MS is contained in the HLR and is transferred to the VLR so that they can be easily retrieved if so required. Data Stored in VLR The data contained in the VLR and in the HLR are more or less the same. Nevertheless the data are present in the VLR only as long as the MS is registered in the area related to that VLR. Data associated with the movement of mobile are IMSI, MSISDN, MSRN, and TMSI. The terms permanent and temporary, in this case, are meaningful only during that time interval. Some data are mandatory, others are optional.
2.4 HOME LOCATION REGISTER

The HLR is a database that permanently stores data related to a given set of subscribers. The HLR is the reference database for subscriber parameters. Various identification numbers and addresses as well as authentication parameters, services subscribed, and special routing 17
information are stored. Current subscriber status including a subscribers temporary roaming number and associated VLR if the mobile is roaming, are maintained. The HLR provides data needed to route calls to all MS-SIMs home based in its MSC area, even when they are roaming out of area or in other GSM networks. The HLR provides the current location data needed to support searching for and paging the MS-SIM for incoming calls, wherever the MS-SIM may be. The HLR is responsible for storage and provision of SIM authentication and encryption parameters needed by the MSC where the MS-SIM is operating. It obtains these parameters from the AUC. The HLR maintains record of which supplementary service each user has subscribed to and provides permission control in granting services. The HLR stores the identification of SMS gateways that have messages for the subscriber under the SMS until they can be transmitted to the subscriber and receipt is knowledge. Some data are mandatory, other data are optional. Both the HLR and the VLR can be implemented in the same equipment in an MSC (collocated). A PLMN may contain one or several HLRs.
2.5 AUTHENTICATION CENTER

The AUC stores information that is necessary to protect communication through the air interface against intrusions, to which the mobile is vulnerable. The legitimacy of the subscriber is established through authentication and ciphering, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure. Authentication information and ciphering keys are stored in a database within the AUC, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure and access. In the authentication procedure, the key Ki is never transmitted to the mobile over the air path, only a random number is sent. In order to gain access to the system, the mobile must provide the correct Signed Response (SRES) in answer to a random number (RAND) generated by AUC. Also, Ki and the cipher key Kc are never transmitted across the air interface between the BTS and the MS. Only the random challenge and the calculated response are transmitted. Thus, the value of Ki and Kc are kept secure. The cipher key, on the other hand, is transmitted on the SS7 link between the home HLR/AUC and the visited MSC, which is a point of potential 18
vulnerability. On the other hand, the random number and cipher key is supposed to change with each phone call, so finding them on one call will not benefit using them on the next call. The HLR is also responsible for the authentication of the subscriber each time he makes or receives a call. The AUC, which actually performs this function, is a separate GSM entity that will often be physically included with the HLR. Being separate, it will use separate processing equipment for the AUC database functions.
2.6 EQUIPMENT IDENTIFY REGISTER

EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The IMEI uniquely identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN. It interfaces to the various HLR in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units in the PLMN. It maintains various lists of message. The database stores the ME identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is receiving or originating call. There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database, and each group has different characteristics.
White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid MSs. This is the category of genuine equipment. Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen. Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty software, wrong make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with faults not important enough for barring.
2.7 INTERWORKING FUNCTION

GSM provided a wide range of data services to its subscribers. The GSM system interface with the various forms of public and private data networks currently available. It is the job of the IWF to provide this interfacing capability. The IWF, which in essence is a part of MSC, provides the subscriber with access to data rate and protocol conversion facilities so that data can be transmitted between GSM Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and a land-line DTE. ECHO CANCELER 19
EC is used on the PSTN side of the MSC for all voice circuits. The EC is required at the MSC PSTN interface to reduce the effect of GSM delay when the mobile is connected to the PSTN circuit. The total round-trip delay introduced by the GSM system, which is the result of speech encoding, decoding and signal processing, is of the order of 180 ms. Normally this delay would not be an annoying factor to the mobile, except when communicating to PSTN as it requires a two-wire to four-wire hybrid transformer in the circuit. This hybrid is required at the local switching office because the standard local loop is a two-wire circuit. Due to the presence of this hybrid, some of the energy at its four-wire receive side from the mobile is coupled to the fourwire transmit side and thus retransmitted to the mobile. This causes the echo, which does not effect the land subscriber but is an annoying factor to the mobile. The standard EC cancels about 70 ms of delay. During a normal PSTN (land-to-land call), no echo is apparent because the delay is too short and the land user is unable to distinguish between the echo and the normal telephone side tones However, with the GSM round-trip delay added and without the EC, the effect would be irritating to the MS subscriber. 2.7.1 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CENTER The OMC provides alarm-handling functions to report and log alarms generated by the other network entities. The maintenance personnel at the OMC can define that criticality of the alarm. Maintenance cover both technical and administrative actions to maintain and correct the system operation, or to restore normal operations after a breakdown, in the shortest possible time. The fault management functions of the OMC allow network devices to be manually or automatically removed from or restored to service. The status of network devices can be checked, and tests and diagnostics on various devices can be invoked. For example, diagnostics may be initiated remotely by the OMC. A mobile call trace facility can also be invoked. The performance management functions included collecting traffic statistics from the GSM network entities and archiving them in disk files or displaying them for analysis. Because a potential to collect large amounts of data exists, maintenance personal can select which of the detailed statistics to be collected based on personal interests and past experience. As a result of performance analysis, if necessary, an alarm can be set remotely.
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The OMC provides system change control for the software revisions and configuration data bases in the network entities or uploaded to the OMC. The OMC also keeps track of the different software versions running on different subsystem of the GSM.
2.8 GSM ESTABLISHED

The large number of different analog systems used in Europe did not represent an ideal situation from a subscriber point of view. Along with the need to accommodate an increasing number of users and to establish compatibility with the evolution of the fixed network towards digital systems, this led the Conference Europeenne des Posts et Telecommunications (CEPT) to establish a "Groupe Special Mobile" in 1982. The work of that group became the GSM system (now "Global System for Mobile communications").
2.9 GSM GROUP TASK

Task of the group was to develop a uniform standard for digital mobile radio in Europe. The result was a standard for narrowband (i.e., 200-kHz bandwidth) digital voice transmission in the 900-MHz band. A Memorandum of Understanding, pertaining to the construction of a digital mobile radio system, was signed by representatives of the telecommunication administrations in 14 European countries in 1987. These signatories, together with various European manufacturers, committed themselves to commence service in the relevant networks, or to guarantee the supply of the necessary infrastructure by mid-1991.The GSM standard is now under the control of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Originally specified as a pan-European digital cellular standard, GSM has spread much further a field. GSM networks are now operational in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Asia-Pacific region.
2.10 GSM-900 AND GSM-1800 STANDARDS

Even before the first GSM networks came into operation in 1992, it was clear that the extra capacity of GSM would still not be sufficient to meet the demand for mobile telephone services. As a result, a further set of frequencies - 75 MHz in the 1800 MHz band - were allocated for digital mobile telephone services in Europe. This was three times the bandwidth allocated for GSM (25 MHz in the 900 MHz band).
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A new standard, called GSM-1800 (Digital Cellular System), was specified for the new frequencies. GSM-1800 uses virtually all the GSM specifications which mean that GSM network components can be used in GSM-1800 networks. Only the radio base transceiver stations, and the mobile phones themselves, need a different specification.
2.11 GSM CHARACTERISTICS

TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS Main technical characteristics of the GSM system are: Radio frequency spectrum used: P-GSM-900: 890 - 915 MHz and 935 - 960 MHz E-GSM: 880 - 915 MHz and 925 - 960 MHz R-GSM: 876 - 915 MHz and 921 - 960 MHz GSM-1800: 1710 - 1785 MHz and 1805 - 1880 MHz. Note that the GSM Standards E-GSM and R-GSM bands include the primary frequencies. It depends on the current radio frequency spectrum usage in a specific area whether the extension can be used.
2.12 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

In cellular and cordless terminology the three main types of multiple access used to divide the radio frequency spectrum between the cell site radios and the mobile stations are: 2.12.1 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESSES (FDMA): Each call is carried on a separate frequency channel. In FDMA, signals from various users are assigned different frequencies. Frequency guard bands are maintained between adjacent signal spectra to minimize crosstalk between channels. 2.12.2 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA): Each frequency channel is further divided into a set of timeslots, each timeslot carries the data of a voice call. TDMA system, data from each user is conveyed in time intervals called Time slots. Several slots make up a frame . Each slot is made up of a preamble plus information bits addressed to various stations .the functions of the preamble are to provide identification and 22
incidental information and to allow synchronization of the slot at the intended receiver .Guard times are used between each users transmissions to minimize crosstalk between channels. 2.12.3 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA): A spread-spectrum technology is used, in which the radio signals associated with a call are spread across a single broad frequency spectrum (1.25 MHz). Each call in the spectrum is differentiated from other calls in that spectrum by assigning a unique code to each call's signal. At the receiving end (mobile station or cell site), the specific call's signal is isolated by decoding the full received signal using the code assigned to that call's signal.
2.13 GSM NUMBERING STRUCTURE:

MSISDN: - The real telephone number of a mobile station is the mobile subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN). It is assigned to the subscriber (his or her SIM, respectively), such that a mobile station set can have several MSISDNs depending on the SIM. - CC+NDC+SN - 12digits IMSI - Each registered user is uniquely identified by its international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI). It is stored in the subscriber identity module (SIM) .A mobile station can only be operated if a SIM with a valid IMSI is inserted into equipment with a valid IMEI. MCC (3) +MNC (2) +MSIN (10) - 15 digits
Figure 2.1 Structure of IMSI
TMSI - The VLR, which is responsible for the current location of a subscriber, can assign a temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI) which has only local significance in the area handled by the VLR. It is stored on the network side only in the VLR and is not passed to the HLR. 4 octets 23
IMEI - The international mobile station equipment identity (IMEI) uniquely identifies a mobile station internationally. It is a kind of serial number. The IMEI is allocated by the equipment manufacturer and registered by the network operator and registered by the network operator who stores it in the EIR. The IMEI number is used by the GSM network to identify valid devices and therefore can be used for stopping a stolen phone from accessing the network in that country. For example, if a mobile phone is stolen, the owner can call his or her network provider and instruct them to "blacklist" the phone using its IMEI number. By means of IMEI one recognizes obsolete, stolen or nonfunctional equipment. TAC+FAC+SNR+Spare - 15 digits LAI - Each LA of an PLMN has its own identifier. The Location Area Identifier (LAI) is also structured hierarchically and internationally unique as follows: MCC+MNC+LAC Cell Allocation (CA) is the subset of the total frequency band that is available for one BTS. It can be viewed as the total transport resource available for traffic between the BTS and its attached MSs. One Radio Frequency Channel (RFCH) of the CA is used to carry synchronization information and the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH). This can be any of the carriers in the cell and it is known as the BCCH carrier or the C0 carrier. Strong efficiency and quality requirements have resulted in a rather complex way of utilizing the frequency resource. This chapter describes the basic principles of how to use this resource from the physical resource itself to the information transport service offered by the BTS. Table 2.1 GSM Numbering Structure
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2.14 TWO BANDS ARE DEFINED

Downlink - comprises radio frequency channels (RFCHs) used by the BTS Transmitter to the MS receiver Uplink - comprises RFCHs used by the MS transmitter to the BTS receiver GSM defines two fundamental channel types: 2.14.1 PHYSICAL CHANNELS: The individual channels carried by a radio frequency carrier Each carrier comprises 8 time-separated channels Time-dependant virtual channels carried on a single physical Channel One physical channel may support one or multiple logical channels
2.14.2 LOGICAL CHANNELS:
2.15 GSM PHYSICAL CHANNELS

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Using Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) each of these carriers is divided into eight Time Slots (TS). One TS on a TDMA frame is called a physical channel, i.e. on each duplex pair of carriers there are eight physical channels.
Figure 2.2 Frames One burst of data (0.577 ms or 156.25 bit periods) is a physical channel.
2.15.1 LOGICAL CHANNELS A variety of information is transmitted between the BTS and the MS. The information is grouped into different logical channels. Each logical channel is used for a specific purpose such as paging, call set-up and speech. For example, speech is sent on the logical channel Traffic Channel (TCH). The logical channels are mapped onto the physical channels.
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Figure 2.3 Logical channels Multiframes provide a way of mapping the logical channels on to the physical channels (timeslots). A logical channel is a series of consecutive instances of a particular timeslot
FIGURE 2.4 Multi frames
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The logical channels can be separated into two categories: Traffic channels. Signaling channels.
2.15.2 TRAFFIC CHANNELS The traffic channels are used to send speech or data services. There are two types of traffic channels. They are distinguished by their transmission rates. The following traffic channels are provided: TCH/F (Traffic Channel Full rate) The TCH/F carries information at a gross bit rate of 22.8 kbit/s (after channel coding). The net (or effective) bit rate at the TCH/F is for speech 13 kbit/s and for data 12, 6 or 3.6 kbit/s (before channel coding). The transmission rates of the data services allow services which are compatible to the existing, respectively, 9.6, 4.8 and 2.4 kbit/s PSTN and ISDN service. TCH/H (Traffic Channel half rate) The TCH/H carries information at a gross bit rate of 11.4 kbit/s. The net bit rate at the TCH/H is for speech 5.6 kbit/s and for data 6 or 3.6 kbit/s. A TCH/F or a TCH/H may also be used to send signaling information (for example call forwarding and short messages). In that case a small portion of the time slot is used.
SIGNALING CHANNELS are subdivided into three categories: Broadcast Channels (BCH) Common Control Channels (CCCH) Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) The following sections describe specific channels within these categories. 2.15.3 BROADCAST CHANNELS (BCH) The information distributed over the broadcast channels helps the mobile stations to orient themselves in the mobile radio network. The broadcast channels are point-to-multipoint channels 28
which are only defined for the downlink direction (BTS to the mobile station). They are divided into: BCCH FCCH SCH CBCH 2.15.4 FREQUENCY CORRECTION CHANNEL (FCCH) On FCCH, bursts only containing zeroes are transmitted. This serves two purposes. Firstly to make sure that this is the BCCH carrier, and secondly to allow the MS to synchronize to the frequency. FCCH is transmitted on downlink only. 2.15.5 SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL (SCH) The MS needs to synchronize to the time-structure within this base station. By listening to the SCH, the MS receives information about the frame number in this cell and about BSIC of the chosen BTS. BSIC can only be decoded if the base station belongs to the GSM network. SCH is transmitted downlink only. 2.15.6 BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL (BCCH) The MS must receive some general information concerning the cell in order to start roaming, waiting for calls to arrive or making calls. The needed information is broadcast on the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) and includes the Location Area Identity (LAI), maximum output power allowed in the cell and the BCCH carriers for the neighboring cells on which the MS performs measurements. BCCH is transmitted on the downlink only. The BCCH the mobile station is informed about the system configuration parameters (for example Local Area Identification, Cell Identity and Neighbor Cells). Using this information the mobile stations can choose the best cell to attach to. 2.15.7 CELL BROADCAST CHANNEL (CBCH) CBCH is only used downlink to carry Short Message Service Cell Broadcast (SMSCB) and uses the same physical channel as the SDCCH.
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Using FCCH, SCH, and BCCH the MS tunes to a BTS and synchronized with the frame structure in that cell. The BTSs are not synchronized to each other. Therefore, every time the MS camps on another cell, it must listen to FCCH, SCH and BCCH in the new cell. 2.15.8 COMMON CONTROL CHANNELS (CCCH) Common control channels are specified as point-to-multipoint channels which only operate in one direction of transmission, either in the uplink or downlink direction. The following channels are provided: PCH AGCH RACH
2.15.9 PAGING CHANNEL (PCH) At certain time intervals the MS listens to the PCH to check if the network wants to make contact with the MS. The reason why the network may want to contact the MS could be an incoming call or an incoming short message. The information on PCH is a paging message, including the MSs identity number (IMSI) or a temporary number (TMSI). PCH is transmitted downlink only. 2.15.10 RANDOM ACCESS CHANNEL (RACH) The MS listens to the PCH to determine when it is being paged. When the MS is paged, it replies on the RACH requesting a signaling channel. RACH can also be used if the MS wants to contact the network. For example, when setting up a mobile originating call. RACH is transmitted on uplink only. The RACH is used in the uplink direction by the mobile stations for requesting a channel for a connection. It is an access channel that uses the slotted Aloha access scheme 2.15.11 ACCESS GRANT CHANNEL (AGCH) The network assigns a signaling channel (Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)) to the MS. This assignment is performed on the AGCH. AGCH is transmitted downlink only. The AGCH is also used in the downlink direction. A logical channel for a connection is allocated via the AGCH if the mobile station has requested such a channel via the RACH.
2.15.12 DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNELS (DCCH) 30
Dedicated control channels are full-duplex, point-to-point channels. They are used for signaling between the BTS and a certain mobile station. They are divided into: SACCH FACCH SDCCH 2.15.13 STAND ALONE DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNEL (SDCCH) The MS as well as the BTS switches over to the assigned SDCCH. The call set-up procedure is performed on the SDCCH, as well as the textual message transmission (short message and cell broadcast) in idle mode. SDCCH is transmitted both uplink and downlink. When call set-up is performed, the MS is told to switch to a TCH. It carries all signaling between the BTS and the mobile station when no TCH is allocated. The SDCCHs are used for service requests (for example Short Message Service), location updates, subscriber authentication, ciphering initiation, equipment validation and assignment to a TCH. The net SDCCH bit rate is about 0.8 kbit/s.
2.15.14 SLOW ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL (SACCH) The SACCH is associated with SDCCH or TCH (i.e. sent on the same physical channel). On the uplink, the MS sends averaged measurements on its own BTS (signal strength and quality) and neighboring BTSs (signal strength). On the downlink, the MS receives information concerning the transmitting power to use and instructions on the timing advance. SACCH is transmitted both uplink and downlink. The SACCH is a duplex channel which is always allocated to a TCH or SDCCH. The SACCH is used for transmission of signaling data, radio link supervision measurements, transmit power control and timing advance data. Note that the SACCH is only used for non-urgent procedures. 2.15.15 FAST ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL (FACCH ) If a handover is required the FACCH is used. FACCH works in stealing mode meaning that one 20 ms segment of speech is exchanged for signaling information necessary for the handover. Under normal conditions the subscriber does not notice the speech interruption because the speech coder repeats the previous speech block
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It is also required for every call set-up and release. During the call the FACCH data is transmitted over the allocated TCH instead of traffic data; this is marked by a flag called a stealing flag. The process of stealing a TCH for FACCH data is called pre-emption
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CHAPTER-3 GSM SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems: the network subsystem, the radio subsystem, and the operation support subsystem. In order to ensure that network operators will have several sources of cellular infrastructure equipment, GSM decided to specify not only the air interface, but also the main interfaces that identify different parts. There are three dominant interfaces, namely, an interface between MSC and the base Transceiver Station (BTS), and an Um interface between the BTS and MS.
Figure 3.1 GSM Architecture
3.2 GSM NETWORK STRUCTURE

Every telephone network needs a well-designed structure in order to route incoming called to the correct exchange and finally to the called subscriber. In a mobile network, this structure is of great importance because of the mobility of all its subscribers [1-4]. In the GSM system, the network is divided into the following partitioned areas. GSM service area; 33
PLMN service area; MSC service area; Location area; Cells. The GSM service is the total area served by the combination of all member countries where a mobile can be serviced. The next level is the PLMN service area. There can be several within a country, based on its size. The links between a GSM/PLMN network and other PSTN, ISDN, or PLMN network will be on the level of international or national transit exchange. All incoming calls for a GSM/PLMN network will be routed to a gateway MSC. A gateway MSC works as an incoming transit exchange for the GSM/PLMN. In a GSM/PLMN network, all mobile-terminated calls will be routed to a gateway MSC. Call connections between PLMNs, or to fixed networks, must be routed through certain designated MSCs called a gateway MSC. The gateway MSC contains the interworking functions to make these connections. They also route incoming calls to the proper MSC within the network. Lastly, a LA is divided into many cells. A cell is an identity served by one BTS. The MS distinguishes between cells using the Base Station Identification code (BSIC) that the cell site broadcast over the air. In one PLMN there can be several MSC/VLR service area. MSC/VLR is a role controller of calls within its jurisdiction. In order to route a call to a mobile subscriber, the path through links to the MSC in the MSC area where the subscriber is currently located. The mobile location can be uniquely identified since the MS is registered in a VLR, which is generally associated with an MS
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CHAPTER-4 EXCHANGES
Electronic exchanges are of two types:1. Tone type 2. Pulse type Tone type: in this type of exchange sine waves are used. There speed of dialing for a given number is more than that of pulse type. Pulse type: in this type of exchange square wave is used due to which the dialing speed is lesser then telephone apparatus is used for both types are different in construction. But now days both types of apparatus are integrated in single machine in which switch over can be made via a selector switch .
4.1 TONES USED IN MODERN TELEPHONY

1. DIAL TONE: when handset is picked up from the cradle , then dial tone is heard if a free line is available. This means that the instrument is ready to send the signals to exchange .when the subscriber takes up the receiver then signals are sent M.D.F then to I.D.F ,line number block and to the peripherals where in various line-cards is free then the ringer section of that peripherals generates a signal called tone this tone is a continous burble sound of400hz. modulated by 25hz.and is sent to the calling subscriber as soon as is line seizes the free line. The subscriber must not dial before receiving this tone, otherwise he is liable to get wrong connections .if he does not get this tone, he should try after some time . 2. BUSY TONE: when the called subscriber is engaged with other call, this tone is heard .it consist of a sound of 400hz. Which is regularly interrupted at equal intervals .it is generally on for 0.75sec. and off for also 0.75sec. 3. RINGING TONE: when number is dialed then telephone of called subscriber starts ringing calling subscriber should get this information and this is indicated by sending ranging of tone interrupted 400hz.supplies modulated by 25hz.
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And its duration are generally equal to the duration of ringing current, which rings the bell . it may be 0.4sec on , 0.2sec off,0.4sec on and 2 sec off and so on or it may be o.75sec on and 0.75sec off so on. when this ringing tone is received ,the calling subscriber knows that the connection is completed and that the bell of the called subscriber is ringing. 4. NUMBER UNOBTAINABLE TONE: this tone is send when the number dialed can not be obtained if any subscriber dials which is not actually connected to the exchange, this indication is send. This is also a tone of 400hz.with interuption of 200msec.every 3sec. now a days push button type telephone apparatus are used .this apparatus can be exploded into following sections: Ringer section Speech section( transmitter and receiver section ) Voltage limiter section
From telephone exchange two wires or connectors run for each number, in which one is neutral and other is main or positive. For the telephone circuits to work the necessary supply is provided by the exchange. like other circuits telephone also operates when a circuit is established between calling and called subscriber when one dials a number then the corresponding relays at exchange establish a circuit automatically, the telephone exchange supplies 40-60 volt DC. and 110/20hz.to operate this circuit this is required because of voltage drop that may creep in long transmission wires .as soon as handset is picked up this 48 volt DC supply is available at voltage limiter section , dialing pulse generator and speech section. In telephone dialing two types of frequencies are used which are: High band tone (1216hz. to1645hz.) Low band tone(701hz. To936hz.)
4.2 FREQUENCIES USED IN TELEPHONY

The numbers from 1 to 5 falls in low band and 6 to 9 ,0 falls in high band till the handset is on hook ,the ranging section of the apparatus is on to telephone line but on lifting the handset the
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ringing section becomes off , also the dialing and speech section becomes ready . on lifting the handset first the dial tone is received which is amplified by the amplifier of speech section . When a number is pressed on the key board , dialing pulses are made on and off according to the number dialed. For ex. If 5 is pressed then dialing pulses are made on and off 5 times. This process can be heard on the receiver . there is a gap of 1sec between consecutively pressed numbers .when the handset is placed on or is lifted from the instrument the switch is operated called the hook switch main function of this switch is to toggle between telephone line and ringer , dialing and speech section of telephone when the handset is on the telephone then ringer section of the telephone is on while on lifting the ringer section is disconnected and dialing section is connected.
4.3 MAKING A TELEPHONE CALL

Telephone call is characterized in two sections: 1. outgoing call:generally a voltage of 48-60volt dc.always remain on telephone line what as the handset is picked up the voltage limiter drops this voltage 9-12 volt on hearing the dial tone it is confirmed that the device is ready to work after the dialing no. ringing pulse is sent to the called party .when the calling party picks up the hand set the billing meter of the exchange becomes activated .there is counter in the exchange,which count the pulse and coverts then into calls. 2. incoming calls:these are just opposite of outgoing calls.in the incoming calls the telephone detects the ringing signals from the exchange and provides the ring . at the instant of the ringing signal , there remains a voltage of 75-110v/20hz.on the telephone.a high voltage AC is sentfrom the ringer section of the exchange to start the ringer circuit of the telephone. When the ringing signal is received it should be properly isolated as it may give a shock. This ringing is on until the handset is not picked up at the caller party.the duration of this tone , if unattented,is one minute after which engage tone is heard.after lifting the handset a circuit is established and a call is made.there are various power providing circuit available in exchange to run the circuitry.these are broadly categorized in two categories : Outside the exchange inside the exchange
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4.3.1 OUTSIDE THE EXCHANGE Since the voltage supplied in Indian subcontinent is 220volts /50hz.AC but for the normal working of exchange 46-53v of DC is required hence a rectifier circuit backed with battery array for power failures is used, this rectifier block not only rectifies the in put supplies but also work as a battery charger. this is known float rectifier cum charger. battery backup is utilized for smooth operations of the exchange during power failure. For battery backup lead acid battery is used in parallel to the supply from the rectifier block, so that the during power failure the exchange supplies are not terminated. 4.3.2 INSIDE THE EXCHANGE Inside the telephone exchange various type of power supplies are used for powering various modules for ex. (line-card ,ringer).some of them are :#-5V. 12A #+5V. 12A #+12V. 6A From M.D.F a number of cables , based on tge requirement of the place , are connected to cabinets . on the cabinet these cables are divided into cables of 20 pairs .now every 20 pair cable goes to distribution box (D.B). at the D.B these 20 pair cable is further divided in to two parts of 10 pairs each. These pairs are then connected to the subscriber ports via jumpers.the line from this ports then goes to the subscriber through single pair cable which are usually of P.V.C type these wires are connected to the instrument via rosette box.
Figure 4.1 electronic exchange 38
4.4 TELEPHONE LINES

In BHEL - Haridwar three types of telephone lines are used. they are: MAX lines EPABX lines C-DOT lines
4.4.1 MAX LINES Before MAX ex. lines are used only internal exchange. but new (CORAL)MAX Lines are used for both internal(intercom )and external communication links BHEL 4.4.2 EPABX LINES These lines are used for both internal and external communication links in BHEL if the user wants to dial outside the periphery of BHEL, he can use these lines. there are about 500 lines available here . these lines are distributed in 17 line cards with 24 line number in each. its I.D.F section has 40 tag blocks.96 number available here are connected via digital lines in which a host of facilities are provided can be access using code 69 4.4.3 CDOT LINES These lines are the direct telephone lines from CDOT the facility they provide is called DID(direct inward dialing).it has 24 lines and any BHEL number starting with digit 5 can be access using code 48.
4.5 CONNECTION TYPE

Types of connections With wires i.e. cables Wireless microwave links through satellite
CABLES : Two types cables are used they are :
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4.5.1 UNDERGROUND CABLES :-these type of cable run under the earth and basically used to connect the exchange to the subscriber distribution box (D.B).they are further of two type based upon there construction and the insulating material used. a.paper core A.T.C (armored tin cable) b.jelly filled A.T.C(armored tin cable) 4.5.2 OVERHEAD CABLE:-these type of cable are used to connect the equipments inside the exchange and to connect the peripheral devices to subscriber distribution box(D.B)they are generally of P.V.C type In exchange number of conductor pairs , following types of cables are used: Single pair cable Two pairs cable 10 pairs cable 20 pairs cable 50 pairs cable 100 pairs cable
4.6 COLOR CODING:

TYPES OF CABLE COLOR OF WIRES SINGLE PAIR:- blue white TWO PAIR CABLE:-blue-white/orange-white PAIR CABLE:-blue-white/orange-white/green-white/brown-white/grey-white 10-PAIR .
CABLE:-blue-white/orange-white/green-white/brown-white/grey-white/blue-red
/orange-red/green-red/brown-red/grey-red 20-PAIR CABLE:-blue-white/orange-white/green-white/brown-white/grey-white/blue-white-
blue/orange-white-blue/green-white-blue/brown-white-blue/grey-white-blue/blue-whiteorange/orange-white-orange. 40
100 PAIR CABLE The color coding is same as that of the above 20 pairs cable except that the mate caller is changed after each bunch of 20 pairs PAIRMATE COLOR:-first 20 pairs white 2nd 20 pairs yellow 3rd 20 pairs black 4th 20pairs violet 5th 20 pairs red.
4.7 GENERAL FAULTS OCCURING IN AN EXCHANGE

There are mainly two type of faults that often occur in the exchange. these are basically. Faults that occur from line Fault that occur from instrument Faults that occur from line:
Due to line three type of faults occur. they are characterized as under: Break fault: they are also called as disconnection fault .they can occur in the connection at home, in line or in exchange. In common they are broadly called as Telephone in dead. Loop fault: they are also called as line shorting faults .in this connectors are shorted prior the instrument forming the loop. if unattended for a long time they may cause severe damage to the exchange Earth fault: this fault may occur due to Wetting the connectors Water in rosette box Weak insulation or Oxidation of copper wire Connectors are either touch from earth ,with other connector or with any conductor(such as metallic table, frame etc) Problems that may occur due to line faults: subscriber can not dial a number 41
ring trip i.e. connection from the exchange breaks after one ring. False ring. Low speech. One sided speech Faults that occur due to instrument: These may be The number is not being dialed One way speech Receiver coil is faulty Faults that occur due to instrument: Plunger or push switch faulty .Dial tone break after two or three rings From second subscriber bell is heard to be going but at first subscriber only dial tone is heard
Instrument circuitry fault
4.8 FIBER SYSTEM

Fiber optical transmission medium is fast emerging as and alternative and strong competitor to coaxial cable in telecommunication network. Long distance data transmission in electrical cables suffers from ground loop problems the merits of optical fiber stem from the fact that the basic material used in their construction is nonmetallic and electrically non conductive. In contrast, the nonmetallic and totally dielectric fiber optical cable are immune to radio frequency another electromagnetic interference .ground loop and common mode voltage problem do not exist and data can be transmitted between points of vastly different potential in optical cables the information is transmitted by packets of photon which have no charge .there is no possibility of spark and short circuit when a fiber is cut .the bandwidth high compared to that of electrical cable .the standard RG-58coaxial cable has bandwidth distance of a typical optical fiber is about 100MHz-km. 42
Fiber cables are about the thickness of a human hair any dirt obstructing the optical port causes poor transmission. the thin dimension result in low weight for given length when compared to electrical cable. However ,being thin and somewhat brittle in nature ,fiber tend to break easily if bent beyond a certain limit a direct viewing into the optical point can be harmful to eyes.
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REFERENCES
www.google.co.in BHEL material
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Chapter-1 Bhel Introduction: 1.1 Power Generation

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Chapter-1 Bhel Introduction: 1.1 Power Generation

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Institute of Science & Technology, Klawad, 2012-13