Evidences of organic evolution

Evidences are largely drawn from Paleontology Comparative morphology & Anatomy Embryology Cell Biology and Biochemistry Geographical distribution of organisms Paleontology Fossil: In past geological periods, plants & animals embedded in a dug out of the superficial deposits (sedimentary rocks)is known as fossilgives an insight into the structure, traits and behavior of organisms, nature of environment in that period Paleontology: The study of fossil Fossilization: The process of preservation of living beings or their parts in the form of fossils Process of fossilization: 2 theories Replacement theory: The replacement of the molecules of original substances of theorganism one by one by the molecules of minerals in the soil solution due to hydrolysis or weathering of the organic substances present in the body. Infiltration theory: Fossilization occurs as a result of infiltration and precipitation of minerals through the cell membrane such as --------after burial, the plants or animal bodies Undergo partial disintegration Free C released in this process Forms carbonate reacting with Ca, Mg etc. (Perfectness of fossil depends on the duration and intensity of destructive forces existed before or during the fossilization process) Types of fossil: 5 types 1. petrifaction: Both internal & external structure are preserved Perfectly distended, as if living Formed by replacement theory Rare Most suitable for study Example-bones, shells, teeth or tree trunk 2. Compression: (common type) Form of a carboniferous layer in between the sediments Compressions do not show the structural details of the cells Largely used for the study of external morphology of plants

3. Incrustation: (common type) External form of the plant is preserved as a cast, but internal structures are destroyed Deposition of sediments occurs in the form of a hard cast around the whole plant body or parts Precipitation of minerals, like carbonates on the plant surfaces Devoid of cellular details Suitable for study of morphology of plants 4. Impression: Do not contain organic materials as in compression Impressions are formed when an organism or its parts come in contact with a soft clay Darker in color than the rock surface when they contain some organic materials Useful in study of external features of organisms 5. Coal balls: Petrified plant organs of roughly spherical shape Formed by infiltration of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, iron sulphide, etc.in buried plant parts These substances prevent the conversion of plant organs into coal and result in petrifaction Provide information regarding plant community of geological past Computation of the age of a fossil: Calculated by finding out the geological time of the strum of earths surface in which the fossils of that organism are found. Analyzing the radioactive substances present in the rock, e.g. one million g of uranium produce 17,600g of lead in one year (if Pb present in the rock) Transformation of radioactive potassium to argon and rubidium to strontium----------used for dating fossil bearing rocks Wearing of the rocks by water falls over which they tumble By counting the annual deposits of clay on the bottom of ponds or lakes Mass extinctions: Permanent loss of all members of species Examples:--------- dinosaurs, saber-toothed tigers and dodo ( Extinction of dinosaur: About 60 million years ago the earth was hit by a comet or meteorite. This resulted mass extinction of dinosaurs--------- this event is supported by the presence of high concentration of iridium as a thin layer below the surface soil. This metal is rare, but is present in large quantities in meteorites) Cause-------------- adaptations become irrelevant under the extreme of environmental stress To clear the way for the evolution of new and opportunistic groups Geological time scale: Covers the whole span of the earths history to correlate the events in a proper sequence. Radioactive dating techniques have revealed that the earth is 350 million years (approximately) old. Geological history of the earth has been divided into 5 eras Archaeozoic Proterozoic Palaeozoic Mesozoic coenozoic (Each era includes several periods and each period is further divided into epoch)

Significance of organic evolution: Fossil series of horse: 1. Eohippus: First fossil, ancestral horse, Era= Cenozoic, epoch=lower Eocene, features= 30 cm height, 4 digits in fore limb & 3 in the hind limb, 1st & 5th toes of the hind legs were short and did not touch the ground 2. Mesohippus: epoch= Oligocene, features= 60 cm height, 3 digits in each leg, weight of the body was supported chiefly by the middle (3rd) digit 3. Merychippus: epoch= Miocene, features=100 cm height (like a small pony), only 3 digits in each leg of which the middle one reached the ground 4. Equus: epoch= Pleistocene (like modern horse), features= 150-165 cm height, single digit in each limb 5. Modern horse: features= height increased by 135 cm in 60 million years, head & neck were lengthened, limbs were reduced to one digit, ulna & fibula were reduced, change in the length of cheek teeth are used for grazing, while they were used for eating shrubs & leaves. Modern horse is intelligent and adapted to run in dry grassland with long leg. Cause of this evolution=changing environment from lush vegetation to dry grasslands Missing links: fossil records provide missing links between two groups of organisms. Example: Archaeopteryx lithographica--------lived in the Jurassic period (170 million years ago) Shares the features of both reptiles & birds Reptilian features=presence of teeth in jaws, a long tail with caudal vertebrae and a weak & keel-less sternum Avian features=presence of feathers on the body, fore limbs modified into wings and toes in foot adapted for perching This suggests that the birds have evolved from reptilian ancestors. Evidences from Morphology & Anatomy Called Tectology Homology & homologous organs: Homologous organs: organs Different in functions But simple embrygenic origin Having similar relationships with adjacent organs Homology: This phenomenon of having homologous organs is known as homology. It indicates relationships between their possessors. Examples: 1. Arm of a man (grasping), leg of a horse (running), wing of a bird or a bat (flying), flipper of a seal (swimming): Different from one another in structure and function But they are built on one basic plan (pentadactyl plan), i.e. same number of bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels arranged in the same pattern and have the same mode of development Differences of these are due to adaptation to special conditions

2. Legs of all insects are composed of same 5 parts, i.e. coax, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus. Adaptive changes are-------- Grasshopper has simple type iof walking legs (1st & 2nd), but the hind legs are modified for jumping Fore limbs of a mole cricket are modified for digging The legs of hair louse are adapted for clinging to hair The legs of a diving beetle are constructed for swimming 3. Mouth parts of insects have the similar structural pattern Adaptive changes are------------------ mouths part of houseflies are adapted for licking in ants for cutting in cockroaches for chewing in mosquitoes for sucking 4. Vertebrae of mammals; All vertebrates from fish to man, have a dorsal vertebral column consisting of a number of vertebral joints. They have 7 cervical vertebras In rabbit with average neck In a whale with no neck In a giraffe with a very long neck Evidences indicate that the animals having homologous structures must have arisen from common ancestors through successive generations over million of years. 5. homologous structures in plants Phylloclade of Opuntia and cladode of Ruscus are homologous organs. Both are modified stem to perform photosynthesis Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Passiflora are also homologous. Both arise in axillary positions and are thus a modification of the branch 6. Homology in molecular level protein present in the blood of man and ape are similar Analogy and analogous organs Analogous organs: Organs which performs the same function, have superficial resembles to one another, but are of different origin Analogy: This phenomenon of having organs of same function and having superficial resembles to one another, but having different origin is known as Analogy. Examples: 1. Wings of insects, birds, pterodactyls (extinct flying reptiles) and bats perform the same function---flying and possess superficial resembles, but their basic structure is entirely different. 2. Fins of fish and the flippers of aquatic mammals (whales & seals) perform the same function and also have a close superficial resembles, but structurally they are different. 3. The gills of fish and crustacean are analogous.

4. The shape of the body of the fish and whale is analogous. 5. The stings of honey bee and scorpion perform similar function and look alike, but they are analogous structure because the sting of the honey bee is a modification of ovipositor and that of scorpion of the last abdominal segment. 6. The leaves of plant and cladodes of Ruscus or Asparagus are analogous structures as they look alike and carry on the function on photosynthesis, but morphologically they are different structure. 7. the tendrils of vine (vitis) and pea (Pisum) are structurally and functionally similar but are morphologically different structures. The former is of stem nature and the latter of leaf nature. Vestigial organs: Organs which are non- functional in the possessor but were functional in their ancestors and in related animals provides evidence for organic evolution yet linger on in a reduced form Examples: 1. splint bones in the feet of the horse 2. index finger in the birds wings 3. functionless eyes of many burrowing animals 4. rudimentary pelvis and traces of limbs in some snakes (e.g. python) 5. rudimentary wings in kiwi and ostrich 6. in human---------nictitating membrane in the eye, vermiform appendix at the end of caecum, coccyx (tail vertebrae) and tail muscles, non-functional muscles of the pinna, wisdom teeth (3rd molars), segmental muscles of abdomen and nipples in males were no longer necessary in environment and thus gradually reduced to the vestige. 7. both pairs of limbs are present in the embryo of whale, but later the posterior pair disappears 8. the embryo of whale is densely covered with hairs which disappears in the adult 9. scale leaves of Ruscus and underground stems (tubers, rhizomes, corns, etc. ) are excellent examples of vestigial structures among plants Connecting links: The living animals which possess characters of two different groups of animals are known as connecting links. Such animals establish continuity in the series by providing that of one group has evolved from the other. Examples: 1. The lung fish (e.g. Protopterus) is a connecting link between fish and amphibians. The lung fish possesses like other fish The lung fish possesses like amphibians paired fins, internal nares dermal scales 3-chambered heart gills and also possesses, and lungs for breathing air like amphibians (. The lung fish thus provides a stage through which amphibians could evolve) 2. The egg-laying mammals like spiny ant-eater (e.g. Tachyglossus) and duck-billed platypus (e.g. Ornithorhynchus) provide a link between mammals and reptiles. Platypus possess like mammals Platypus possess like reptiles hairs, a large coracoid in the pectoral girdle mammary glands, lay large eggs (oviparous) with yolk diaphragm and shell (polylecithal eggs)

 single aortic arch have cloaca 3. Rabbit fish (Chimaera) a connecting link between cartilage and bony fish 4. Peripatus between annelids and arthropods 5. Neopilina between annelids and mollusks. Atavism: (known as reversion) sudden appearance of a certain ancestral but not parental structure which has either completely disappeared or greatly reduced. Examples: In man 1. occurrence of rudimentary tail in new-borne babies 2. power of moving pinna. 3. large canines 4. very long and dense hair 5. additional mammae ( The reappearance of such features favors evolution) Evidences from Embryology Embryology: The study of the development of an organism from egg to adult, also provides evidences for the organic evolution. A comparative study shows------- the embryos of different vertebrates resemble more closely than their adults the embryos of higher groups resemble the adults of lower groups Examples: The embryos of fish, salamander, turtle, bird, dog, or human at the same stage resemble so closely that it is difficult to distinguish between them. Similarity in embryonic development indicates evolution of vertebrates from a common ancestor. Every chordate begins life from a single cell, Zygote A series of mitotic divisions Produces a multicellular blastula Gives rise to a two-layered gastrula stage Diversified in different groups of animals ----------------------------------------------------------------Embryos of all vertebrates Develop notochord and gill-clefts Notochord is partly or fully replaced by vertebral column in adults of all vertebrates Gill-clefts close in the adults of some amphibians and all reptiles, birds and mammals Fish (2-chambered heart) amphibians (3-chambered heart) reptiles (incompletely 4-chambered heart)

This suggests that the development of heart in birds and mammals passes through 2-chambered and 3chambered stages before becoming 4-chambered. So both birds and mammals have originated from fish. This indicates their common ancestry.