Chapter 1: Cell Structure

Learning checklist:
Describe and interpret drawings and photographs of typical animal and plant cells as seen using the light microscope; Make microscopical measurements; Explain the meanings of, and distinguish between, the terms resolution and magnification; Calculate the linear magnification of drawings; Describe and interpret drawings and photographs of typical animal and plant cells as seen using the electron microscope, recognising rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, chloroplasts, plasma membrane, centrioles, cilia and the nucleus, including the nuclear envelope and nucleolus; Outline the functions of the following structures: rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, chloroplasts, plasma membrane, centrioles, cilia and the nucleus, including the nuclear envelope and nucleolus; Describe the structure of a prokaryotic cell, and compare and contrast the structure of prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells; Explain how cells are organised into tissues and organs with reference to a transverse section of a dicotyledonous leaf. In 1665 Robert Hook wrote a book containing a diagram showing a drawing of cork cells examines by this English scientist in the early days of microscopy. He called "pore-like" regular structures "cells" and each cell appeared to be an empty box surrounded by a wall. In 19th century a general cell theory emerged from the work of two German scientists. In 1838 Schleiden, a botanist, suggested that all plants are made of cells, and a year later Schwann, a zoologist, suggested the same for animals. The cell theory states that the basic unit of structure and function of all living organisms is the cell. Virchow's theory of 1855 states that all cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division. The thin membrane which surrounds all cells is essential in controlling exchange between the cell and its environment. The membrane is described as partially permeable because it allows a controlled traffic of materials across it in both directions. If it were freely permeable, chemicals of the cells would simply mix with the surrounding chemicals by diffusion.

Cell biology and microscopy

Cell biology is an important branch of biology that studies cells. There are two fundamentally different types of microscope now in use: the light microscope and the electron microscope. Both use a form of radiation in order to create an image of the specimen being examined. The light microscope uses light as a source of radiation, while the electron microscope uses electrons. Cytology is the branch of biology concerned with the structure and function of plant and animal cells.

Animal and plant cells have features in common

In animals and plants each cell is surrounded by a very thin, plasma (cell surface) membrane. Many of the cell contents are colourless and transparent so they have to be stained to be seen. Each cell has a nucleus. The deeply staining material in the nucleus is called chromatin and is a mass of loosely coiled threads. This material collects together to form visible separate chromosomes during nuclear divisions. It contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), a molecule which contains the instructions that control the activities of the cell. Within the nucleus there is a nucleolus, which is made of loops of DNA from several chromosomes. The material between the nucleus and the plasma membrane is known as cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is an aqueous material. Many small structures known as organelles can be seen within it. Organelle is a functionally and structurally distinct part of a cell. Organelles themselves are often surrounded by membranes so that their activities can be separated from the surrounding cytoplasm. This is described as compartmentalisation. Since each type of organelle has its own function, the cell is said to show division of labour (a sharing of the work between different specialised organelles). The most numerous organelles seen with the light microscope are usually mitochondria. It has been shown that they can
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The most numerous organelles seen with the light microscope are usually mitochondria. It has been shown that they can move about, change shape and divide. They are specialised to carry out aerobic respiration. The Golgi apparatus was first seen by Camillo Golgi and it is a part of a complex internal sorting and distribution system within the cell.

Differences between animal and plant cell

The only structure commonly found in animal cells which is absent from plant cells is the centriole. It is a small structure close to the nucleus involved in nuclear division. Animal cells are relatively smaller in size than plant cells. Animal cells also have irregular shape their vacuole is small o r absent. They use glycogen as food storage (plant cells use starch). In plant cells nucleus is usually found near the cell wal l.

Units of measurement in cell studies

The SI unit for length is metre, symbol m. Additional units can be created larger or smaller, using standard prefixes: Fraction of a metre 1/1000 = 0.001 = 10-3 1/1 000 000 = 0.000001 = 10 -6 1/1 000 000 000 = 0.000 000 001 = 10 -9 Unit millimetre micrometre nanometre Symbol mm m nm

Measuring cells
Cells and organelles can be measured with a microscope by means of an eye-piece graticule which is a transparent scale (usually with 100 divisions) which is placed in the microscope eyepiece so that it can be seen at the same time as the object to be measured. Calibrating the eyepiece graticule scale is done by placing a miniature transparent ruler called a stage-micrometre scale on the microscope stage and focusing on it. The images of the two scales can the be superimposed and hence, the value of each eyepiece graticule can be calculated.

Electron microscopes
There was a limit to how much could ever be seen using light. Magnification and resolution Magnification is the number of times larger an image is compared with the real size of the object.

Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two separate points. If the two points are not resolved, they will be seen as one point. With a microscope, magnification up to the limit of resolution can reveal further detail, but any further magnification increases blurring as well as the size of the picture. The general rule is that the limit of resolution is about one half the wavelength of the radiation used to view the specimen. The electron microscope Electrons are negatively charged particles which orbit the nucleus of an atom. Free electrons behave like electromagnetic radiation. They have a very short wavelength: the greater the energy, the shorter the wavelength. Electrons are a very suitable form of radiation for microscopy because: 1) Their wavelength is very short; 2) Because they are negatively charged they can be focused easily using electromagnets. The transmission electron microscope was the type originally developed. Here the beam of electrons is passed through the specimen before being viewed. Only those electrons that are transmitted are seen. This allows us to see this sections of the
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specimen before being viewed. Only those electrons that are transmitted are seen. This allows us to see this sections of the specimens, and thus to see inside cells. In the scanning electron microscope the electron beam is used to scan the surfaces of structures, and only the reflected beam is observed. This allows surface structures to be seen. Great depth of field is obtained so that much of the specimen is in f ocus at the same time. It cannot, however, achieve the same resolution as a transmission electron microscope. It is not possible to see an electron beam, so to make the image visible the electron beam has to be projected onto a fluorescent screen. The stains used to improve the contrast of biological specimens cannot be used in electron microscopy because the contain heavy metal which stop the passage of electrons. The electron beam, the specimen and the fluorescent screen must be in vacuum. All specimens must be dehydrated before being placed in the microscope. This means that only dead materials can be examined.

Ultrastructure of an animal cell

Ultrastructure of a cell is its "fine" (detailed) structure revealed by the electron microscope. Structure and functions of organelles

Nucleus It is the largest cell organelle. It is surrounded by two membranes known as the nuclear envelope. The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmatic reticulum. The nuclear envelope is continuously perforated by the nuclear pores. These allow exchange between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, e.g. mRNA and ribosomes leave the nucleus and some hormones and nutrients enter the nucleus through the pores. Within the nucleus, the chromosomes are in loosely coiled state known as chromatin (except during nuclear division). Chromosomes contain DNA which is organised into functional units called genes. Genes control the activities of the cell and inheritance; thus the nucleus controls the cell's activities. The nucleolus within the nucleus manufactures ribosomes, using the information in its own DNA. Centrioles Two centrioles are located just outside the nucleus (using a light microscope you can only see one). They lie close together and at right-angles to each other. They are made of microtubules, arranged in a circular pattern, about 0.4m long, which are used to grow the spindle fibres for nucleur division.
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used to grow the spindle fibres for nucleur division. Endoplasmatic reticulum and ribosomes Endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) is an extensive system of membranes running through the cytoplasm. Attached to the surface of much of the ER are many tiny organelles known as ribosomes which consist of two parts, a smaller and a larger subunit. In some areas of the cell, the ER lacks ribosomes and appears smooth - this is called smooth ER and it has a different function from rough ER (ribosome-covered ER). The membranes form a system of flattened sacs, like sheets, which are called cisternae which can go on to form the Golgi apparatus. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They are found free in the cytoplasm as well as on the rough ER. They are 22nm in diameter and are made of RNA and protein (these proteins are transported throughout the cell by the rough ER). The smooth ER makes lipids and steroids (e.g. cholesterol and reproductive hormones). Golgi apparatus Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened sacs (cisternae). If the proteins are to be processed or exported from the cell, the growing chains of amino acids move into the cisternae of the RER as they are made. The cisternae then break off to form littl e vesicles that travel to the Golgi apparatus . It collects, processes and sorts molecules (particularly proteins from the rough ER), ready for transport in Golgi vesicles e ither to other parts of the cell or out of the cell (secretion). Golgi vesicles are also used to form lysosomes.

Lysosomes Lysosomes are spherical sacs, surrounded by a single membrane and having no internal structure. They are commonly 0.1 -0.5 m in diameter. They contain digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes. Lysosomes re responsible for the breakdown of unwanted structures. In white blood cells they are used to digest bacteria. Enzymes are sometimes released outside of the cell.
Mitochondria Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes (an envelope). The inner of these is folded to form finger -like cristae which project into the interior solution, or matrix. The main function of mitochondria is to carry out the later stages of aerobic respiration. As a result, they make ATP, the universal energy carrier in cells. They are also involved in synthesis of lipids. Plasma membrane The plasma membrane is 7nm thin. It has three layers (trilaminar appearance). This consists of two dark lines (heavily stained) either side of a narrow pale interior. The membrane is partially permeable, controlling the exchange between the cell and its environment. Cilia Some cells have long, thin extensions that can move in a wave-like manner. If there are just a few of these extensions, and they are relatively long, they they are called Flagella. If there are many of them, and they are relatively short, then they are called cilia. A cilium is usually 3-4m long. It is covered with an extension of the plasma membrane, and it contains microtubules that extend throughout its length. These arise from a structure called a basal body (of similar structure to centrioles), in the cytoplasm. The microtubules are arranged in an outer cylinder of 9 pairs, surrounding two central microtubules.

Ultrastructure of a plant cell

All the structures found in animal cells are also found in plant cells, except centrioles and, except very rarely, cilia. Plant cells are usually larger than animal cells and they are surrounded by a cell wall outside the plasma membrane. The cell wall gives the cell a definite shape. It prevents the cell from bursting when water enters by osmosis, allowing large pressur es to develop inside the cell. Plant cells are linked to neighbouring cells by means of fine strands of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata which pass thorugh pore-like structures in the walls of the neighbouring cells. Mature plant cells differ from animal cells in often possessing a large central vacuole and (if the cell carries out photosynthesis) in containing chloroplasts. The vacuole is surrounded by a membrane, the tonoplast, which controls the exchange between the vacuole and the cytoplasm. The fluid in the vacuole is a solution of mineral salts, sugars, oxygen, carbon dioxide, pigments, enzymes and other organic compounds as well as some waste products. Vacuoles help to regulate the osmotic properties of cell (the flow of water inwards and outwards) as well as having other functions, e.g. having the pigments which colour the petals of certain flowers. Chloroplasts are green in colour due to the presence of chlorophyll. Their background material is called the stroma, and it contains many paired membranes called thylakoids. In places, these form stacks called grana. The grana contain chlorophyll,
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contains many paired membranes called thylakoids. In places, these form stacks called grana. The grana contain chlorophyll, which absorbs energy from sunlight. Chloroplasts often contain starch grains. Chloroplasts can be found in the green parts of the plant, mainly in leaves.

Two fundamentally different types of cell

There are two fundamentally different types of cell. One possesses a nucleus and the other does not. Organism that lack nuclei are called prokaryotes which are all now referred to as bacteria, but prokaryotic cells are also found in archaea. They are 1000 to 10 000 times smaller in volume and also simpler in structure than cells with nuclei. Their DNA lies free in cytoplasm and they have no membrane-bound organelles.

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Organisms whose cells have nuclei are called eukaryotes. Their DNA lies in the nucleus. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protoctists (containing most of the unicellular eukaryotes). Feature Prokaryotic cells Animal cell Always present Never present Always present Contain several chromosomes, each made of a linear DNA molecule associated with histones Usually present Never present Plant cell Always present Always present, made up of cellulose Always present Contain several chromosomes, each made of a linear DNA molecule associated with histones Usually present Sometimes present

Plasma membrane Always present Cell wall Always present, made up of peptidoglycans Nucleus and nuclear Never present envelope Chromosomes "bacterial chromosomes" - a circular molecule of DNA not associated with histones; bacteria may also contain smaller circles of DNA called plasmids Mitochondria Never present Chloroplasts Never present; some do contain chlorophyll or other photosynthetic pigments (prokaryotic algae)

Rough and smooth ER Never present and Golgi apparatus

Ribosomes Present, about 18nm diameter Centrioles Never present

Usually present
Present, about 22nm diameter Usually present

Usually present
Present, about 22nm diameter Never present

Tissues and organs

In multicellular organisms, it is usual for the functions of organism to be divided among groups of cells which become specialised, both structurally and functionally, for particular roles. Specialised cells show division of labour by being gro uped into tissues, then into organs, and organs into systems. A tissue is a collection of cells together with any intercellular secretion produced by them, that is specialised to perform one or more particular functions. The cells may be same or of mixed type. The study of tissues is called histology. An organ is a part of the body which forms a structural and functional unit and is composed of more than one tissue. A system is a collection of organs with a particular function.

Plan diagrams
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Plan diagrams
An organ usually contains many different types of cells. They are arranged in a particular pattern characteristic of the orga n, with cells of a similar type found together, forming distinctive tissues. The purpose of a plan diagram is to show the outline of the various tissues in an organ - no individual cells are drawn.

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