A discrete-time signal can be expressed using graphical, functional or sequence representations.

Given the functional representation of for 0 = 2 for 3 0 otherwise as 4 1

Discrete-Time Signal

the sequence representation is

and the graphical representation is

= ,0,2,2,2,0,1,2,3,4,0,

The above is an infinite-duration sequence which has infinite number of samples. For a finite-duration sequence, , its representation is

Unit sample sequence is defined as

= ,0,0,1,0,0, . Unit step function is defined as = ,0,0,1,1,1, .

Elementary Signal

= 2,2,2,0,1,2,3,4 .

Unit ramp function is defined as

= ,0,0,1,2,3,4, .

The exponential sequence is defined as

for all .

is shifted in time by k units, we express the Time shifting: if a signal shifted signal as . If > 0, is delayed by k units, whereas if < 0, is advanced by k units.

Manipulation of Signal

Folding: is reflected over the Folding: if a signal reflected folded signal as .

= 0 axis, we express the

Scaling: Time Scaling: if a signal time scaled signal as

is time scaled by a factor of k, we express the

Scaling: Amplitude Scaling: y Signals: Sum of Signals: y Signals: Product of Signals: y

= =

Adder: Adder: y

Block Diagram of Discrete-Time Systems

= +

Multiplier: Constant Multiplier: y Multiplier: Signal Multiplier: y

Delay: Unit Delay: y

Advance: Unit Advance: y

+1

Z transform is the discrete-time counterpart of the Laplace transform. Z transform allows insight into the transient behavior, steady-state response, and the stability of digital filters and systems. If we take samples of the continuous-time signal, , at discrete-time instants, we convert into a discrete-time signal expressed as where is an integer, and is the time interval between successive samples, called the sampling interval. The Laplace transform of as
=

Z Transform

Using the definition of the Laplace transform, can derive the Z transform expression as follows. = , <

, we

<

now becomes the Z transform of

given

Substituting = and extending form of Z transform: =

to yields the bilateral and general = .

In many cases, the infinite series for expression.

The Z transform, , of any discrete-time function, , is an infinite power series. Hence, the Z transform exists only for those values of for which the power series converges. These values of form the region of convergence ROC of . The Z transform of a discrete-time function, , is therefore represented by a power series along with its ROC.

can be written in a closed-form

The Z transform of Let = = =

then,

=1+ =1 = =

= + +

0 +

Hence, Finally,

lim

The ROC can also be determined using the root test. For a power series to converge, | | < 1. Hence, it must satisfy lim lim

ROC: | | > | |.

for | | < 1

+ +

=1+

for for

0 is <0 +

+ +

| <1

If

= 1, we have

1 1

ROC: | | > 1.
9

| |>| |

<1

The Z transform of Since then, = = =

= =1+ =

Hence,

1 = + +

Note that the functions and 1 have identical closed-form expression for the Z transform. This implies that the ROC, along with the closedform expression, must be stated to uniquely specify the Z transform of a signal.

ROC: | | < | |.

+=

for for

0 is <0

+=

for | | < 1

for | | < 1

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+ Linearity: intersection of the ROC of Proof: Time Shifting: Given that =

= and

Properties
= , then = . +

. The overall ROC is the = . . = .

Proof: Proof:

z-domain: Scaling in the z-domain: Given that Reversal: Time Reversal: Given that = = =

= =

, then =

, then

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Proof:

z-domain: Differentiation in the z-domain: If = = =

, then

Proof:

Convolution: Convolution: Given that =

= = = = =

, then

12

The convolution of two discrete-time functions, = =

Convolution

The process of computing the convolution of two finite sequences, and , involves the following three steps: 1. Fold either or over the = 0 axis to obtain or . 2. Shift or by units to the right if > 0 left if < 0 to obtain or . 3. Sum the product sequence or to obtain . For the convolution of two infinite sequences, we generally use the mathematical form of the convolution formula directly.

and

, is given by

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For example, given that = = Let = = =

and

then

2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + + 2 2 = = =2 1

Hence,

Finally,

2 =

2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + + 2 + 2 2 1

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We can also compute the convolution of two discrete-time functions, and , using the convolution property of the Z transform. The process involves the following steps: 1. Determine 2. Determine the product = and = = . .

3. Determine the inverse Z transform of

Computing the convolution using the above procedure requires the notion of inverse Z transform, which is discussed below.

to obtain

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The three methods that are often used for the evaluation of inverse Z transform are 1. direct application of the inverse Z transform formula, = ; 2. 3. Here, we focus on the third method. In this method, we use partial fraction to express as a sum of fractions so that we can use the linearity property to determine After performing the partial fraction expansion, If = 1 for all , repeated poles. = + = + + + power series expansion; partial fraction expansion.

Inverse Z Transform

+ +

has the form

contains distinct poles. If

, where

is the pole of the fraction, > 1 for any ,

for 1

generally
contains .

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For the case in which where = for < 0, and signal since = 1

contains distinct poles, =

Having determined

is referred to as a causal signal since =0 = 1 is referred to as an anticausal = 0 for 0. for all , = .

for ROC: | | > | | 1 for ROC: | | < | |

The above notion can be generalized to the case in which contains can be obtained using the differentiation repeated poles. In this case, in the z-domain property. For instance, when = 2 and ROC: | | > | | , 1 = 1 1 =

17

Given that

= = 2

if ROC is | | > 1 , if ROC is | | < , = if ROC is <| |<1,

=2 1 = 2 1 2 = 2 1

1 + 1

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Having learnt the concept of inverse Z transform, we can now apply the Z transform convolution property to determine the response of a given system to a given input signal. Given the system Since = the response to the input, 1 + = 1 = 2 + 1 as follows:

Finding the Response of a System

, we can determine

= =

= =
19

Hence, the response is