BIOLOGY: ENZYMES Nutrition: the taking in of nutrients which include organic substances and inorganic ions, containing raw

materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, and then absorbing and assimilating them. Making the use of nutrients is a process known as assimilation. Some organisms are autotrophic: they make their own organic nutrients using inorganic ones. Heterotrophic: they depend on plants or other animals to obtain their organic nutrients. Foods are complex and need to be broken down into simpler nutrients which the body can use. Enzymes are needed for breaking down the food into simpler nutrients. Enzymes: Enzymes are biological catalysts made up of proteins that alter (fasten or reduce) the rate of chemical reactions, without themselves being changed. Characteristics of Enzymes: They remain unchanged: Enzymes alter chemical reactions but they themselves remain unchanged. Hence enzymes can be used again. They are required in very small quantities: Since the enzymes remain unaltered after a chemical reaction, they can be used again and hence they are required in very small quantities and excess production is not required. They are specific: Enzymes are made up of proteins. Proteins have a three dimensional structure which has a spot in it called the active spot. The substance on which the enzyme acts called the substrate has to fit in the active spot to form the enzyme substrate complex. The shape of the substrate should be the same as that of the active spot. Hence enzymes are specific to their substrates. Classification of enzymes: Enzymes that work on carbohydrates are known as carbohydrases. Enzymes that work on proteins are known as proteases. Enzymes that work on fats are known as lipases. Carbohydrases Amylase - Starch Sucrase - Sucrose Maltase - Maltose Cellulase - Cellulose Proteases Pepsin Trysin Rehnin Lipases Steapsin

Catalase is a enzyme that works on Hydrogen Peroxide. H2O2 is a waste product of several different metabolic reactions that take place in the cell. It Is very toxic and needs to be broken down immediately. Catalase breaks it into water and oxygen. It is found in liver cells, germinating seeds and potato tubers.

Factors affecting enzyme activity: Temperature: As temperature increases by 100 enzyme activity doubles. The temperature at which an enzyme works best is known as its optimum temperature. Humans ( 400 ) , Plants ( 250 ) some bacteria ( 700) At lower temperatures, the enzyme and substrate molecules are moving very slowly. As the temperature increases, their kinetic energy increases and they move faster. The higher the temperature, the faster they move around and the more they collide. Also when they collide, they possess more energy and hence the reaction occurs faster. Hence increase in temperature increases enzyme activity. But above optimum, it decreases because the enzyme becomes denatured. ( DENATURATION is a process when the enzyme loses its protein structure and the active site is lost) pH: Every enzyme has an optimum ph at which it works best. Enzymes have a very low range of working ph. drastic changes in ph, denaturizes the enzyme. Pepsin a protein digesting enzyme that works in the stomach has a ph of 2. Here ph is very low because the stomach walls secrete HCl. Amylase an enzyme that works on starch. Found in mouth and duodenum. It has a ph of around 7 and above. Enzyme concentration: The amount of enzyme available as compared to the substrate. Increase in enzyme concentration increases rate of product formation if there are enough substrates to work on. When enzyme concentration increases but substrate remains constant, then rate of product formation becomes constant as not enough substrates are available and some of the enzymes are left free. Substrate concentration: The amount of substrate available as compared to the enzyme. Increase in substrate concentration increases rate of product formation provided there are enough enzymes available. IF the substrate concentration increases and the amount of enzymes remain the same then the rate of product formation becomes constant because all the active sites of enzymes will be occupied and no additional enzyme substrate complex can be formed. A seed has an embryo plant and a food store on which the embryo relies for the first few days called cotyledon. When the seed germinates, the enzyme amylase is secreted. It breaks the starch into maltose (a disaccharide containing two molecules of glucose). The maltose is absorbed by the growing embryo which breaks it into glucose. This glucose is used to provide energy, make cellulose to build cell wall etc. Use of enzymes in washing powders: Washing powders contain detergents which remove dirt and grease from clothes.

Some stains such as blood stains, egg yolk stains etc. are not grease. To remove these some kinds of washing powder contain enzymes. These washing powders are called biological washing powders. They contain enzymes like Trypsin which breaks down the protein molecules into amino acids that are colorless and washed away with water. Enzymes having high optimum temperatures are suitable because this allows the clothes to be washed at fairly high temperatures.. Lipase This breaks down grease molecules into glycerol and fatty acids both of which are soluble. Enzymes in food industry: Pectinase When fruits are squeezed to remove juice, this enzyme is added. Pectinase breaks down Pectin ( a substance which holds the cell walls of apple cells together). This makes it easier to squeeze more juice. Pectinase also helps to break down the substance that makes apple juice look cloudy. Lactase Milk contains carbohydrates in the form of lactose. Some people cannot digest lactose. So lactase is added to milk. It breaks lactose into galactose and glucose. The milk is then called lactose reduced milk. Making penicillin: Penicillin is an antibiotic. Antibiotics are substances that kill bacteria with harming human cells. Most antibiotics are made from fungi and Penicillin is made from a fungus called Penicillium. Microorganism is grown in a fermenter in a liquid called the medium. The medium contains substances requied for growth of organism. Penicillium needs: Oxygen for respiration Source of carbohydrates such as sugar or starch Source of nitrogen such as ammonium phosphate Suitable temperature.

Metabolic reaction releases heat so fermenter is enclosed in a water filled jacket to regulate temperature. Also a stirrer is used to keep the contents in constant motion and to regulate the ph. The liquid around the microorganisms is collected and the enzymes in the liquid are separated from the liquid and purified before use.