Authorized By: Vishal Sharma

Chapter II
Basics Of Optical Fiber
Electromagnetic Waves
In optical fiber communication, we use light as a carrier that propagates within the optical
fiber. The light is an electromagnetic wave and its properties are well defined by a set of
four equations known as Maxwells equations. In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell a Scottish
born professor of experimental physics at Cambridge gave the theoretical explainations
of well established experiments facts on electromagnetic that known as Maxwell Theory.
Einstein produced his spectral theory of relativity in 1905; about 200 years after
Newtons Law were predicted and about 40 years after Maxwells equations. However,
Newtons law had to be drastically modified for few cases like when the relative velocity
of a particle approached to the velocity of light. But the Maxwells equations were totally
consistent with the special theory of relativity.
Maxwells equations describe all the properties of the electromagnetic field. The four set
equations explicitly show sour ces of the field and implicitly tell how an electromagnetic
field propagates within a medium. Some properties of em waves are:
-
EM waves are propagated in the form of electric and magnetic fields in such a
way that both the fields are at right angles to e ach other and also to the direction
of propagation of waves. In other words we can say em waves are transverse in
nature.
-
EM waves in free space or vacuum moves with velocity, which is mathematically
calculated as
0 0
1
c
, s
= ...2.1
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Where
c =
Velocity of wave in free space
8
3 10 / sec m =
0
,
= Magnetic permeabity of free space =
7
4 10 / H m t

0
s =
Electric permitivity of free space
12
8.854 10 / F m

=
-
EM waves of different frequencies exists in nature and all such waves
frequently propagate with the speed of light
-
No particles move within EM waves like in sound waves, water waves etc. i.e.
why light can travel through the vacuum but sound waves cannot do so.
-
EM waves obey the law of superposition i.e. when two disturbances are
superimposed at any instant, the resultant electric or magnetic field is the
vector sum of the individual field.
Maxwells Equations
Maxwells theory is based on a set of four equations, known as Maxwells equations and
these equations are the basis for the description of the light propagation within a estricted
medium like optical fiber. Maxwells equation in differential as well as integral form can
be expressed as
Differential Form Integral Form
1.
2.
3.
4.
Where the meaning different terms associated wioth the above Maxwells equations are
as follows:
1.
A
is a nabla operator which is defined as
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x y z
e e e
x y z
c c c
A = + +
c c c
e
x
,e
y
,e
z
= unit vectors of x,y and z axis respectively of Cartesian coordinate system
2.
t
c
c
is the partial derivative w.r.t. time.
3.
v
p
= Volume charge density measured in C/m
3
4.
E

=
Electric field intensity measured in V/m and defined as the electrostatic force, F
produced by electric field per unit charge i.e. q and is given by
E qF =

...2.2
E is often known as strength of the electric field and is related with D (Electric flux
density) or electric displacement as follows
0
E D s =

2.3
0
s
= Electric permitivity of free space
5. J = current density measured in A/m
2
and is related with E as
D
J E
t
o
o
o
= =


2.4
Where
o
= electric conductivity of the medium in A/vm
6. H = Magnetic field intensity measured in A/m and B = Magnetic flux density
measured in H/m and both are relate d with each other through the permeability of the
medium i.e. m which is illustrated as
B H , =

2.5
Both m and e are the universal constant helps in calculating the speed of light as
0 0
1
c
, s
= = 3

10
8
m/sec
Interpretation of Maxwells Equations
1. Maxwells First Equation: The first equation in differential form represents the
Gausss law of electrostatic that expresses the idea that the divergence of the electric flux
density, D is equal to the volume charge density
v
p
as
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.
v
D p A =

2.6
Taking volume integral on both sides of the equation 2.7
0 s
Q
Eds
s
=
}
2.7
where
v
v
dv Q p =
}
2.8
According to divergence theorem, we have
.
v s
Ddv Dds A =
} }

2.9
Therefore, the equation 2.8 becomes
s
Dds Q =
}
Or
0 s
Q
Eds
s
=
}
2.10
Equation 2.10 is the integral form of the Maxwells first equation that represents the
Gausss law of electrostatic, which states that the total electric flux, D through any closed
surface, S is equal to the total charge, Q bounded by that closed surface. Hence, both the
differential and integral form of Maxwells equatio n represents the same idea.
2. Maxwells Second Equation: Maxwells second equation in differential form
describes the idea that there is no magnetic source or sink of magnetic field or there is no
free magnetic charge in nature. By following the same tech nique as in Maxwells first
equation, we can compute the integral form of the Maxwells second equation as
0
s
Bds =
}
2.11
Equation 2.12 states that the net magnetic flux, B through any closed surface, S is zero
that means that the number of magnetic lines entering a closed surface is equal to the
number of magnetic lines leaving that closed surface. It also implies that monopoles do
not exist in nature.
3. Maxwells Third Equation: The differential form of Maxwell third equation
describes the faradays law of electromagnetic induction which implies that vortex source
of an electric field is a time varying magnetic field and is expressed mathematically as
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B
E
t
o
o
A =


2.12
Taking surface integral on both si de
.
c d
l
H dl I I = +
}

2.13
According to Stokes theorem
.
s l
Eds E dl A =
} }

2.14
And also
B
s s
d B d
ds Bds
t dt dt
| o
o
= =
} }

= Magnetic Flux (by definition) 2.15

Where the partial derivation can be replaced by the deriva tive as the integration of
magnetic flux density over a closed surface makes it independent of space.
Therefore, the equation 2.13 becomes
. . .
B
l
d
e m f e E dl
dt
|
= = =
}

2.16
The equation 2.16describes the integral form of Maxwells third equation, wh ich states
that the line integral of electric field, E around any closed path is equal to the magnetic
flux through any surface bounded by that. It also implies that a time varying magnetic
flux crossing a conductive closed loop generates an e.m.f, e in th at loop.
4. Maxwells Fourth Equation: The differential form of fourth equation is given as
D
H J
t
o
o
A = +


2.17
This equation implies that the vortex source of time varying magnetic field is the time
varying density of conduction and displacement current.
Where
J

= Conduction current density

D
t
o
o

= Displacement current density

Taking surface integral on both side of equation 2.17
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
s s
D
Hds J ds
t
o
o
|
A = +
|
|
'
} }


2.18
By applying Stokes theorem on L.H.S of 2.19, we get
s l
Hds Hdl A =
} }

2.19
Now, there are two terms on R.H.S of 2.19. The first term is
c
s
Jds I =
}

(by definition) 2.20
Thus, the first term of the time varying magnetic field is conduction current.
The second term is
d
s
D
ds I
t
o
o
=
}

2.21
This is the displacement current that is responsible for the flow of ac current through a
capacitor. This term predicts the existence of the em field even without the presenc e of
conduction or it implies that an e.m field can exist in free space.
By inserting equation 2.19, 2.20 and 2.21 in equation 2.18, we get
.
c d
l
H dl I I = +
}

2.22
This equation describes that the circulation of magnetic field intensity, H around a closed
loop, L is equal to the sum of conduction current and the displacement current.
Wave Equation And Propagation In Free Space
Maxwells equation not only describes the sources of an em field but also helps in
obtaining wave equations descr ibing the propagation of em ewaves. For obtaining wave
equations, let us consider plan transverse electro magnetic (TEM) waves traveling in free
space
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
Figure 2.1
The term plan means that the waves are polarized in one plane. In figure 2.1, electric
field, E is polarized in x-z plane and magnetic field; H is polarized in y -z plane. In other
words we can say E is x-polarized and H is y- polarized.
The term transverse means both vectors E and H are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of z-axis.
Further, we assume that TEM waves are traveling in free space such that J = 0 and
o
= 0. Then plane TEM waves can be expressed as
, )
, )
,
,
x x
y y
E e E z t
H e H z t
=

=

]
2.23
Equation 2.23 shows that plane TEM waves change w.r. t. Space (z-axis) and time (t)
simultaneously
Step1
Now, according to Maxwells fourth equation, we have
D
H J
t
o
o
A = +


2.23
But for free space case, J = 0, therefore
0
D E
H
t t
o o
s
o o
A = =


2.24
Where
0
s
= Electric permitivity of free space
For our plane TM wave,
H A

is calculated as
y
x
H
H e
x
o
o
A =

2.25
Insert the values of E from equation2.23 and equation2.25 in 2.24, we get
0
( , )
( , )
y
x
H z t
E z t
z z
o
o
s
o o
=

2.26
Step2
According to Maxwells 3
rd
equation
B
E
t
o
o
A =


2.27
For our plane TE wave
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
x
y
E
E e
t
o
o
A =


2.28
Insert equation2.28 and the value of H from equation 2.23 in equation2.27
0
( , )
( , )
y
x
H z t
E z t
z t
o
o
,
o o
=

2.29
Step 3
Take partial derivative of equation2.26, we get
2
0 2
( , )
( , )
y
x
H z t
E z t
t z t
o
o o
s
o o o

=

]

2.30
As z and t are independent variable so the equation 2.30 can be written as
2
0 2
( , )
( , )
y
x
H z t
E z t
z t t
o
o o
s
o o o

=

]

2.31
Now, calculate the value of
( , )
y
H z t
t
o
o

from equation2.29, we get

0
( , )
( , ) 1
y
x
H z t
E z t
t z
o
o
o , o
=

2.32
On Inserting equation 2.32 in equation2.31, we will get the wave equation For Electric
component of TEM wave as
2 2
2 2
0 0
( , ) ( , ) 1
0
x x
E z t E z t
t z
o o
o s , o
=

2.33
Similarly, the wave equation for magnetic component of plane TEM wave is calculated
as
2 2
2 2
0 0
( , ) ( , )
1
0
y y
H z t H z t
t z
o o
o s , o
=

2.34
The solution to equations 2.33 and 2.34, is can be computed as
, )
, )
0
0
cos
cos
x x
y y
E E z t
H H z t
| e
| e
= +

= +
]
2.35
Where
0
x
E
,
0
y
H
= Amplitude of electric and magnetic field simultaneously
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2t
|

= =
Phase constant or propagation constant
2
2 kv c f
t
e t

|
= = = =
|
'
Angular frequency
k
= Wave number or propagation number
Wave Propagation In Lossy Medium
The time harmonic electric and magnetic fields can be depicted in phasor form for our
plane TEM waves as
j t
x x x
j t
y y y
E e E e
H e H e
e
e
=

=

]
2.36
Let us assume TEM waves are traveling through a Lossy med ium having
; ; J E D E B H o s , = = =

Where
o
,
s
,
,
= conductivity, permitivity and permeability of the medium respectively
Now, according to Maxwells 4
th
equation
D
H J
t
o
o
A = +


2.37
Step 1
Take L.H.S. of the above equation
( )
j t
y y
H e H z e
e
A = A

( )
y j t
x
H z
H e e
z
e
o
o
A =

2.38
Step2
Take first term of R.H.S of above equation
( )
j t
x x
J E e E z e
e
o o = =

{From 2.36} 2.39
Step 3
Take second term of R.H.S of the 2.37, we get
( )
j t
x x
D E e
e E z
t t x
e
o o o
s s
o o o
= =

( )
j t
x x
j e E z e
e
es =
{From 2.36} 2.40
Step 4
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
Insert equations 2.38, 2.39 and 2.40 in 2.37, we get
j
( )
( )
y
x
H z
E z j
x
o
o es
o
= +
2.41
Now, according to Maxwells 3
rd
equation We have
B H
E
t t
o o
,
o o
A = =

2.42
Step 1
Consider the L.H.S of the above equation
( )
( )
j t j t x
x x y
E z
E e E z e e e
z
e e
o
o
A = A =

2.43
Step 2
Now, take the R.H.S of the equation 2.42
H
t
o
,
o
( )
j t
y y
j e H z e
e
e, =
2.44
Step3
Insert 2.43 and 2.44 in 2.42, we get
( )
( )
j t x
y y
E z
j e H z e
z
e
o
e,
o
=
Differentiate both sides w.r.t z, we get
2
2
( )
( ) 1
y
x
dH z
E z
dz j z
o
e, o
=
2.45
Step 4
Insert 2.45 in equation 2.41, we get
2
2
2
( )
( ) 0
x
x
d E z
E z
dz
=
2.46
Where
j j j , e o es = + =
Propagation constant
j o | = +
Where
o
= Attenuation constant
|
= Phase or propagation constant
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The solution of wave equation 2.46 of electric component of TEM wave in Lossy
medium computed as
0
( )
( , )
z j t z
x x
E z t E e e
o e |
= 2.47
The real part of this equation is expressed as
, )
0
( , ) cos
z
x x
E z t E e t z
o
e |

= 2.48
Similarly, for magnetic component of TEM wave in Lossy medium is
, )
0
( , ) cos
z
y y
H z t H e t z
o
e |

=
2.49
From equation 2.48 and 2.49, it is evident that an em field propagates in a Lossy medium
in the form of damping waves. How a question arises, how much an em wave da mps in a
medium. This depends upon the attenuation i.e.
o
and propagation i.e.
|
parameters of
the medium. Further
o
and
|
depends upon
, , and o s , e
and these parameters depends
upon frequency. Hence, the medium behaves differently with waves of different
frequency .The glass behaves as a dielectric for low frequency ac current but the same
glass acts as a conductor for light, a wave with hig h frequency in order of 100THz.
Wave Propagation Within Waveguide
So far, we have considered EM wave propagation in free medium (unbounded medium),
but in practical a light pulse carrying information travels in a bounded media i.e. optical
fiber. So, it is required to study the behavior of EM wave inside a waveguide structure.
Let us assume a rectangular waveguide whose walls are made from perfect conductor and
filled with loss less dielectric. Let a and b be the width and depth of the rectangular
waveguide respectively and the thickness of the walls is assumed to be negligible as
shown in the figure.
Figure
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
The wave equation derived from Maxwells equation for this rectangular waveguide is
depicted as
2 2
0
xy
E h E A + =
2.50
Where
2
xy
A
= Three-dimensional Laplacian operator for the cross -sectional Cartesian
coordinates.
, )
2 2 2
; h k j o | = + = + =
Propagation constant in unbounded media
The solution to this equation 2.50 exists only the discrete va lues of h called Eigen values.
The Eigen values for the rectangular waveguide is given as
2 2
2
l m
h
a b
t t | |
= +
| |
' '
2.51
Where
l
, and m are the integers describe the number of half cycles that EM waves makes
across the waveguide. The situation for TE
10
--- a transverse electric wave making a half
cycle along the y-axis and a zero half cycle long the x-axis.
The solution to the equation 2.50 is calculated as
0
0 2
( , ) cos cos
( , ) cos sin
z
x
l x m y
H x y H
b a
j m l x m y
E x y H
h a b a
t t
e, t t t
| |
=
| |
' '

| |
=
| |
' ' ]
2.52
From this solution, we can draw following two important conclusions:
-
Em waves propagate along the waveguide in stable patterns called modes.
-
Not every harmonic wave can exist inside the waveguide. It will supports only
those can fulfill the resonant condition according to which the half of the wave
must fit the wave guides width and depth an integral numbers of times.
From equation 2.51 and
, )
2 2 2
h k = +
Propagation constant,

of unbounded media can

be defined as
2 2
2
l m
a b
t t
e s ,
| |
= +
| |
' '
2.53
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
Also, we have,
j o | = +
,
Here
o
is the attenuation constant and
|
is the propagation or phase constant. When the
EM field frequency is low,

is the real number and thus the EM wave will damp. When
the EM field frequency is high,

becomes imaginary number and EM waves will
propagate in the form of harmonic waves without attenuation. This implies that
attenuation originates from the property of waveguide itself. The lower the frequency,
longer will be the wavelength. Eventually, the wavelength becomes so long that it cannot
meet resonance conditions and so the waveguide can no longer support the propagation
of this wave. This wavelength is called cut -off (critical) wavelength given as
2 2
2
c
l m
a b
t

t t
=
| |
+
| |
' '
2.54
And the cut-off (critical) frequency is given as
2 2
1
2
c
l m
f
a b
t t
t , s
| |
= +
| |
' '
2.55
Now, depending upon the type of media, there are followin g three types of wavelengths
For unbounded media
Unbounded wavelength =
v
f
=
c
f
=
2.56
Where
v
= Velocity of light in unbounded medium
1
, s
=
For bounded (guided) media
Bounded (guided) wavelength =
2
2
1
g
c
f
f
t

|
= =
|
|
|
|
|
'
'
2.57
Cut-off (critical) wavelength =
2 2
2
c
l m
a b
t

t t
=
| |
+
| |
' '
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
Types of Modes & Mode Theory
An optical Fiber can support the following three types of modes:
Guided or Natural Modes
It is clear from the discussion of EM wave propagation through a waveguide that em
wave can propagate within a light guide structure as a set of discrete and stable fields
patterns known as modes. These modes can be completely transverse (TE/TM) or may
have longitudinal components (HE and EH). For Example TE
lm
transverse electric mode
where l describes the mode order and m tells about radial mode number.
For transverse mode; l=0. Hence, all the TE and TM modes are denoted as TE
0m
and
Tm
0m
. e.g. the transverse electric mode is represented as TE
0m
and has a longitudinal
magnetic component while transverse magnetic mode as represented as TM
0m
and has a
longitudinal electric component.
The hybrid modes HE
1m
and EH
1m
have both longitudinal magnetic and elect ric
components but EH
0m
and HE
0m
do not exist, as l cannot be equal to 0 for hybrid modes.
According to the weakly guided mode approximation under the condition (n
1
-n
2
)<<1,
these natural modes are combine into linear polarized modes that exist in optical f ibers.
The figure 4.9 and 4.10 describes the field lines of natural modes and the composition of
linear polarized modes LP
11
.
Radiation Modes
These are the group of modes those do not make stable patterns or do not experience total
internal reflection and propagate outside the fiber core. These modes propagate partially
inside the core and partially inside the cladding area. The radiation modes those are
refracted into the cladding area are either reflected back into the cladding or core area
after they strike the cladding-coating interface. On reflecting back into the core, they
couple with the highest order guided mode and cause power loss.
To avoid this, the coating material should be lossy enough to avoid reflection of the
radiation modes back into the core after they strike the cladding-core interface.
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Leaky Modes
Such modes do not make stable patterns are unstable with respect to space. Most o0f the
modes disappear very shortly after being excited while a few of them propagate over a
significant distance causes power loss.
Basically, numerical aperture is number, which describes the ability of a specifically
optical fiber to gather light. Greater the NA, easier is to direct the light in to the fiber and
save it inside fiber. But as we increases the NA, no of modes inside the fiber also
increases.
These modes are differentiated by their propagating angles. Smaller the modes
propagating angle, the lower the order of the mode. Thus, the mode traveling precisely
along the central axis of the fiber is calle d fundamental mode or zero order modes and the
mode traveling at the critical propagation angle in the highest order mode possible for a
specific fiber.
Many numbers of modes can exist inside a fiber and it depends upon the optical and
geometrical characteristics of a fiber. Basically, as it is expected that the number of
modes depends upon the following three parameters
1.Core-diameter
2.Numerical Aperture
3.Wavelength
Mathematically,
2
c
dn
V
t
= A
2.58
Where V = V-parameter or characteristic waveguide parameter or V- number or
normalized cut-off frequency
From above discussion it is evident that the number of modes that a specific fiber can
exist is directly proportional to core diameter and inversely proportional to wavelength of
light. That is why we are trying to increase the operating wavelength light from 300nm to
800nm and from 1560nm to 1610 just to minimize the dispersion. The number of modes
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
for step index fiber (discussed later) can be calculated as
N=V
2
/2 and for Graded-Index fiber is N=V
2
/4.
Limiting The Number Of Modes
More the number of modes in a fiber, larger will be the value of dispersion parameter for
that fiber and causes interchannel cross talk. Hence, our motive is to reduce the
dispersion effect in the fiber that can be achieved by reducing the number of modes in a
fiber. From the above equations we concludes that the number of modes can be reduced
By reducing the diameter of the fiber. The reduction of this parameter to a large
extent makes difficult to maintain the integrity of the optical fiber.
By increasing the wavelength. As we know that greater the wavelength of the
light, greater will be the propagation angle and hence, smaller will be the
incidental angle. The wavelength or the frequency at which the incident angle
reaches the critical value is termed as cut -off frequency or the cut -off wavelength,
which is calculated from the wave propagation equation of light within a
rectangular waveguide as
2
c
dn
V
t
= A
2.59
By calculating the value of V parameter from figure 4.15 we can calculate the cut -
off wavelength
Figure 4.15 page no. 113
By controlling the n
1
-n
2
or decreasing the value of
A.
Conditions for Existing of Different Modes inside a Fiber
As we discussed above, an optical fiber does not supports all the modes or field patterns.
The physical reason behind this is that a wave propagating inside an optical fiber must
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
meet the boundary condition according to which the tangential compon ents of electric
and magnetic field intensities must be same on both sides of the boundary of two lossless
dielectrics.
Let us assume that on the first time, the wave meet this requirement when strikes the core
cladding interface. To meet this condition fo r all the times when that wave strikes on
different points of core cladding interface, its phase i.e.
, ) t z e |
must equal to
2 k t
at
the same distance between the two zigzags. i.e.
, ) 2 t z k e | t = 2.60
Where
K = an integer
B = propagation constant
Z = direction of propagation
EM wave that meets this requirement exists as a stable pattern or mode and those do not
meet this, will not appear. That is why optical fiber supports only those EM wav es that
make stable modes
Why does a continuous light outside the fiber convert into discrete modes inside the
fiber?
Because of two reasons:
The phases at which specific waves are different and meet with the core -cladding
interface depend upon the distance traveled by the waves. But the distance
traveled by a wave inside the fiber is determined by the propagation angle. Hence,
different waves have different propagation angles travels different distances and
so has different phase angles.
A wave when reflected back inside the core experiences a phase shift. This phase
shift also depends upon the propagation angle. Thus different waves have
different phase shifts.
Types Of Optical Fibers
Depending upon the mode theory, optical fibers are basically divided into three
categories, which are discussed below:
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Step-Index multimode Fiber
Graded Index Fiber
Single Mode Fiber
Step-Index Multimode Fiber (SIMF)
An optical fiber is a thin, transparent, flexible strand made up of silica. An optical fiber
consists of basically three layers as
1. Core
2. Cladding
3. Coating
The core and cladding are made up of same material i.e. silica but with different
refractive index. Basically, the refractive index of core portion is kept higher as
compare to the cladding portion to achieve the total internal reflection, which is the
basic principal of optical fiber. The basic structure of optical fiber is shown in figure
Figure Basic structure of Step Index fiber
To achieve total internal reflection, following conditions must be satisf ied:
1. Light must be transmitted from denser medium to lighter medium i.e. Why core
has higher refractive index than that of cladding i.e. (n
1
>n
2
).The refractive index
is measure of how much a light is bent when it penetrates through one medium
into another.
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2. The incident light must strike the core cladding boundary such that incident
angle,
i
0
must be greater than that of the critical angle,
c
0
i.e.
i
0
>
c
0
Where
i
0
= Incident angle
r
0
= Angle of refraction
R
0
= Angle of refraction
According to Snells law, we have
i
0
=
R
0
; n
1
sin
c
0
= n
2
sin
R
0
2.61
At critical condition,
i
0
=
c
0
And
R
0
=
90

n
1
sin
c
0
= n
2
sin
c
0
=
2
1
n
n
|
|
'

1 2
1
sin
c
n
n
0

|
=
|
'
Total internal reflection keeps the light inside the core of the fiber. If a say travels from
a medium with higher refractive index to a medium with lower refractive index and it
strikes the boundary at more than the critical angle, the ray will be totally reflected inside
the incident medium.
To avoid the fiber from external stress that usually we face during installation of fiber
under different environmental act application conditions, a third layer - a coating- is
applied over the cladding to protect the entire fiber. The coating is made of a different
material from that of the core or cladding. It acts as a first line o f security to the core-
cladding structure. This three-layer fiber is also known as bare optical fiber. A bare fiber
is very sensitive to the damages and to protect it from any possible damage, it is put into
an enclosure. The process of putting a bare fib er into an enclosure is known as cabling.
1. First of all, a bare fiber is put into a plastic buffer tube called buffer to provide
protection against mechanical stresses and moisture.
2. The second secondary layer is strength member used to release the fiber f rom
mechanical stress during installation and operation.
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3. The third security layer is an outer jacket that assembles the entire construction
and shields it from an adverse environment.
To sum up, a bare fiber, a buffer, a strength element and an outer jack et are the
components of an optical fiber cable.
Figure Optical fiber cable
Critical Angle, Propagation Angle and Acceptance Angle
In optical fiber communication, light acts cats as a carrier over which the original
information to be transmitted is modulated. It is very important to keep the light inside
the fiber core. A beam strikes the core -cladding boundary millions and millions of times
while traveling through the fiber. Therefore, if even a microscopic portion at the beam is
lost every time because of refraction, the beam will be lost after covering a short distance.
Thus, to save the light inside the fiber, the most necessary condition is to maintain Total
Internal Reflection. To make a beam to abbey this condition, the beam must incident at or
more than the critical angle. The critical angle
c
0
is the angle that a beam makes with the
line perpendicular to the optical boundary between core and cladding.
The critical propagation angle is the angle that the beam makes w ith the central axis of
the optical fiber. To save the light within the core or to achieve critical angle condition or
to achieve total internal reflection, the light must be incident at or less that the critical
propagation angle.
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
Figure: Different angles of light pulse entering into fiber
From equation 3.2, we have
2
1
sin
c
n
n
0 =
2.62
But, from right angle triangle ACB, we have
90
c c
0 o =

, Hence, we get,
, )
2 2
1 1
sin 90 cos
c c
n n
n n
o o = = =

As we know,
2
2 2
1
sin 1 cos 1
c c
n
n
o o
|
= =
|
'
2
1 2
1
sin 1
c
n
n
o

|
=
|
'
2.63
Now, a question arises here, how top maintain the critical angle and critical propagation
angle inside a core of a fiber having core diameter in the range of microns. The answer is
that these two angles depend upon a third angle known as acceptance angle,
c
0
as shown
in figure. The light beam is incident at this angle,
c
0
from the outer light source having a
gap as shown in figure. Let n
a
is the refractive index of gap fiber interface then according
to Snells law, we get
1
sin sin
a a c
n n 0 o =
2.64
If gap between light source and fiber is air then n
a
= 1
1
sin sin
a c
n 0 o =
2.65
From above equation it is clear that to provide to tal internal reflection or to achieve the
critical conditions for
c
0
and
c
o
the light beam must directed inside the fiber at or less
that the acceptance angle.
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Numerical Aperture
Basically, we dont see any angle but we just connect a light source to an optical fiber.
All these three angles are integrated into one parameter known as numerical aperture. The
NA is a number that we can find in the optical fiber data sheets which describes the
ability of a fiber together light from a light source. Mathematically,
1
sin sin
a c
NA n 0 o = =
2.66
But,
2
2 2
1
sin 1 cos 1
c c
n
n
o o
|
= =
|
'
Therefore,
2 2
1 2
NA n n =
2.67
Depending upon different applications, fibers can have different NA number .
If
A =
Relative difference of the refractive index
1 2
n n
n

=
Where
n = average refractive index =
1 2
n n
n
+
Then, equation 2.67 is reduced to
2 NA n = A
2.68
This equation implies that for different application we can design fibers with different
numerical aperture by varying n and
n A
.
NA can also defined in terms of power. Firstly, measure the power of light immediately
after it is radiated by an LED, which gives P
o
. Now again measure the power of light by
placing a short piece of giber between LED/LD and a power meter, it gives P
in
. The NA
can be calculated as
0
in
P
NA
P
= 2.69
Graded Index Multimode Fiber (GRIN)
The refractive index of core in the GRIN fiber is not constant but decreases continuously
with increases the distance from the central axis of the fiber. The refractive index of the
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cladding is generally kept constant. Within a core, the zero -order or fundamental mode
travels along the central axis and the highest order mode travels the longest distance
inside the fiber. Thus, the beam cover different distances inside the fiber with the same
velocity and hence arrives at fiber end at different times causing di spersion. Also. The
velocity of light within a material is defined by its refractive index and is given as
c
v
n
=
; Where, c = speed of light in vacuum
To minimize dispersion problem, the refractive index is designed in such a way that it is
highest at the center of the core and decreases smoothly and continuously with distance
towards the cladding. Thus, the beam traveling the farthest distance travels with the
highest velocity that the beam travels the smallest distance so that the bo th beams arrives
almost at the same time at the receiver end.
Figure
Grin fibers are
Costly
Difficult to design
Used in short and intermediate distance networks.
Single Mode Fiber (SMF)
The SMF is one, which supports only one mode. It implies that a light beam travels
through a single path or mode i.e. why it is known as single mode fiber. The single mode
condition can be derived from Mode theory (discussed later) and is given by
2.405 V s
SMF fibers are
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Difficult to manufacture and maintain
Expensive
Prone to macro- and micro bending losses
Difficult to couple with light source because of having small core diameter
Comparison Of Different Fibers
S.NO PARAMETER SIMF GRIN SMF
1 DATA RATE SLOW HIGHER HIGHEST
2 COUPLING
EFFICIENCY
HIGH MEDIUM LOWEST
3 INDEX
VARIATION A
1 2
n n
n

=
2 2
1 2
2
1
2
n n
n

A =
A
1 2
n n
n

=
4 NUMERICAL
APERTURE
SAME
Changing continuously
with distance from fiber
axis
SAME
5 PULSE
SPREADING
HIGHEST LESS LOWEST
6 ATTENUATION 0.34DB/KM 0.6-1DB/KM 0.025DB/KM
7 LIGHT SOURCE LED LED.LASER LASER
8 APPLICATIONS LAN LAN, MAN LAN, MAN,
WAN
Fresnel reflection
On a point of pronunciation, the s in Fresnel is silent. When a ray of light strikes a change
of refractive index and is approaching at an angle close to the normal, most of the light
passes straight through as we saw in a previous chapter.
Most of the light but not all. A very small proportion is reflected back off the oundary.
We have seen this effect with normal window glass. Looking at a clean window we can
see two images. We can see the scene in front of us and we can also see a faint reflection
of what is behind us. Light therefore is passing through the windo w and is also being
reflected off the surface.
We are most concerned about this loss when considering the light leaving the end of the
fiber as shown in Figure 6.2. At this point, we have a sudden transition between the
refractive index of the core and tha t of the surrounding air. The effect happens in the
other direction as well. The same small proportion of light attempting to enter the fiber is
reflected out again as in Figure 6.3. The actual proportion of the light is determined by
the amount by which t he refractive index changes at the boundary and is given by the
formula:
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
To see how bad it can worst case situation a core of refractive index 1.5 and the air
1.0.
It may be worth mentioning in passing, that if we try to squirt light from one f iber into
another, we suffer this 0.177 dB loss once as the light leaves the first fiber and then again
as the light attempts to enter the other fiber. Remember that these figures are worst case.
We get up to all sorts of tricks to improve matters as we sh all see when we look at ways
of connecting lengths of optic fibers together.
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
Making use of Fresnel reflection
The return of the Fresnel reflection from the end of a fiber gives us a convenient and
accurate method of measuring its length. Imagine a situat ion in which we have a drum of
fiber optic cable marked 5 km. Does the drum actually contain 5 km? or 4.5 km? or is it
in five separate lengths of 1 km? It is inconvenient, to say the least, to uncoil and measure
all fiber as it is delivered.
The solution is to make use of Fresnel reflection that will occur from the far end. We
send a short pulse of light along the fiber and wait for the reflection to bounce back.
Since we can calculate how fast the light is traveling and can measure the time interval,
the length is easily established. This magic is performed for us by an instrument called an
optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR).
This instrument is connected to one end of any fiber optic system up to 250 km in length.
Within a few seconds, we are able to measure the overall loss, or the loss of any part of a
system, the overall length of the fiber and the distance between any points of interest. Its
really quite amazing. The OTDR can continuously measure the returned power level and
hence deduce the losses encountered on the fiber. Any additional losses such as
connectors and fusion splices have the effect of suddenly reducing the transmitted power
on the fiber and hence causing a corresponding change in backscatter power. The position
and the degree of the losses can be ascertained. The OTDR uses a system rather like a
radar set. It sends out a pulse of light and listens for echoes from the fiber. If it knows
the speed of the light and can measure the time taken for the light to travel along the
fiber, it is an easy job to calculate the length of the fiber.
Assuming the refractive index of the core is 1.5, the infrared light travels at a speed of:
Authorized By: Vishal Sharma
The 280 meters is the total distance traveled by the light and is the there and back
distance. The length of the fiber is therefore only 140 m. This adjustment is performed
automatically by the OTDR it just displays the final result of 140 m.
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