Runninghead:ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA

IlluminatingtheAuraofNostalgia:PerceptionsofTime,Place,andIdentity

AnastasiaPlatoff

BenningtonCollege


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IlluminatingtheAuraofNostalgia:PerceptionsofTime,Place,andIdentity

Thepresentinvestigationisformulated,inpart,onthepresuppositionthatones

perceptionofselfcontinuityisthecoreofpersonalidentity,andthatthissenseoftemporal

coherenceisexperienceddiachronicallyandisthuslargelydependentonmemory(Davis,1979

Kandel,2006Lampinenetal.,2004Sedikidesetal.,2008James1890/1950).Nostalgiafits

withinthisframeworkasatransientcognitiveandaffectivestatethatinvolvesremembranceof

vivid,emotionallyladenmemoriesfromoneshistoryitisawaytobringthepastandpresent

intoamentallandscapethatisexemptfromconcernsoftime.Theaimofthisresearchisto

analyzenostalgiaasbothauniversalandparticularexperience,andtosubsequentlyexplorethe

potentialfunctionsofnostalgiaastheyrelatetoperceptionsofselfcontinuityovertime.The

meaningoneascribestoanygivenexperienceofnostalgiawillbeidiosyncratic,butacareful

investigationofwhatcharacterizesnostalgiaasasensoryandcognitive,albeitelusive,

phenomenonwillhelptoclarifyitsinclusiveimplicationsforselfcontinuity.

HistoricalPerceptionsofNostalgia

Thereisnopainsogreatasthememoryofjoyinpresentgrief
Aeschylus

Theconceptofnostalgiahasweatheredalonghistoryoftheoreticaldispute,regarding

bothitsdefinitionalandpsychologicalimplications.Nostalgiaisauniversalexperience,but

becauseitsaffectiveimpactisoftenmarkedbyfeelingsofambivalence,thephenomenonhas

alwaysbeendifficulttoanalyzeinconcreteterms.ThewordnostalgiaisofGreekorigina

nostos
hybridderivedfromthewords algos
and theformermeaningtoreturnhome,the

lattermeaningpainorsuffering.Thus,nostalgia,byitsliteraldefinition,isthesufferingcaused

bythedesiretoreturnhome(Sedikidesetal.,2011).Firstintroducedin1688bySwissphysician

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JohannesHofer,thetermwasusedinanosologicalsensetodescribetheconditionofchronic

homesickness,particularlyinsoldiers.Thus,thefirstlinguisticuseofnostalgiahad

connotationsofmentaldisease.Bytheendoftheeighteenthcentury,nostalgiahadbecomewell

establishedinmedicaldiscourseasacontagiousandpotentiallyfatalcondition,withamyriadof

somaticsymptomsincluding:convulsions,afunnyemptyfeelinginthestomach,highblood

pressure,andalumpinthethroat(Naqvi,2007).Theknownremedywasrepatriation,but

treatmentsforacutecasesofnostalgiarangedfromthreateningaredhotirontotheabdomen

toadministeringhighdosesofopium(Cointe,1790Larrey,1888).

ByWorldWarII,Westernculturehadbecomeimmersedinthepsychoanalyticfieldand

anadditionaletiologyofnostalgiawasborn.Initiallyformulatedunderthenameofcryptic

nostalgia,thisformofnostalgiahadmanifestsymptomsofinattention,excessiveemotionality,

anddisobedienceconsequencesofamansfailuretorenouncehisinfantileloveforhismother.

(Fodor,1950).Theoriginofthenostalgicafflictionhadevolvedfromapathologicalyearningfor

oneshomeornationduringwartimetotheunconscioushomeofonesconceptionand

libidinalcathexis(i.e.,thewombandthemother,respectively).Ineithercase,thenostalgic

suffererwasdistinguishedbyhisanxious,childishbehaviorthesoldierwasdeemedacoward

ormalingerer,theanalysandacompulsiveneurotic.Theimplicationherewasthathome,the

focalpointofnostalgia,wasafixedplaceinthepastandthat,inthecourseofnormal

development,thisplaceissupposedtobeabandoned.Thepresenceofnostalgia,then,would

suggestthattheprocessofmaturationwasincompletelyexecutedthattherewasafailureof

renunciation,andafailuretoallowtimetomoveforward.

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Astheconceptofnostalgiacontinuedtodevelopinthepsychiatricdomain,itsdisease

connotationsexperiencedaconcurrentdecline.Forexample,Werman(1977)depictedthe

medicalviewofnostalgiaasobsolete,andinsteadattemptedtoclarifynormalfrom

pathologicalnostalgia,drawingonthemodestamountofpsychiatricliteraturethathadbeen

publishedinthe1950sand1960s.Hisfirstpointofcontentionwastheperennialuseof

nostalgiaasasynonymforhomesicknessacomparisonthatreducednostalgiatointense

feelingsofsadnessandstrangebehavior,andthereforeneglecteditsnuancedcognitiveand

affectivefeatures.Wermanalsoemphasizedthattheubiquityofthenostalgicexperience

indicatesitsnormality,andthatpathologyexistsonlywhennostalgiahasdominatedallfunctions

ofthepsyche.Hethenaddressedtheunwarrantedcomparisonbetweennostalgiaandfantasy.

Theroleoffantasy,inpsychoanalysis,istoreviveanearlyexperienceofgratificationthatcan

substituteforthefulfillmentofapresent,unconsciouswish.Bycontrast,nostalgiacallsfortha

favorablepastexperience,notasasubstituteforawish,butforitself.Whilebothphenomena

involvepositiveremembrance,Werman(1977)notesthatnostalgiadoesnotnecessitateawish,

foritispossibletotreasureapastexperiencewithoutachingtoreturntoit.

Theepidemiologicalinterestinnostalgiaseemsephemeralincomparisontoitsperennial

andwidespreadexistenceasaliterarytheme.Beforetherewasevenawordforit,themotifof

Odyssey
nostalgiareverberatedthroughoutHomers(1921) Odysseus,farfromhiswifeand

homeinIthaca,isdesperatetoreturn.Thisperceivedlossofcentralitycausesadeficitinhis

personalsolidarity.Hegrievesoverthisdistance,buthismemoriesnurturehisvitalityandserve

asacopingagentinhispunishingcircumstances.

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Oneofthemostpopularandevocativedescriptionsofpersonalnostalgiaistheepisodeof

SwannsWay
themadeleinein ,thefirstvolumeofMarcelProusts(1913)
Remembranceof

ThingsPast
.Inthisillustrationofinvoluntarymemory,thenarratorsitsdownforacupoftea

andpetitemadeleines.Hedipsthecookieintohistea,bringsittohismouth,andhissensesare

flooded:

No sooner had the warm liquid mixed with the crumbs touched my palate than a shudder ran
through me and I stopped, intent upon the extraordinary thing that was happening to me. An
exquisite pleasure had invaded my senses, something isolated, detached, with no suggestion of
its origin. And at once the vicissitudes of life had become indifferent to me, its disasters
innocuous,itsbrevityillusorythisnewsensationhavinghadonmetheeffectwhichlovehasof
this essence was not in meitwasme
filling me with a precious essence or rather [myitalics]...
Whence did it come? What did it mean? How could I seize and apprehend it? ... And suddenly
the memory revealed itself. The taste was that of the little piece of madeleine which onSunday
mornings at Combray ... when I went to say good morning to her in her bedroom, my aunt
Lonie used to give me, dipping it first in her own cup of tea or tisane. The sight of the little
madeleine had recalled nothing to my mind before I tasted it. And all from my cup of tea.
(Proust,1913,p.48)

Thispassageisexceptionallycompellinginitsilluminationofaphenomenonthatis

seldomexperiencedbutalwaysrecognized.WhereasOdysseuswillfullyharnessesnostalgiaasa

meanstosustainhimself,thenarratorinthisinstanceisreflexivelytriggeredbyaformerly

unconsciousrelicofhispersonalhistory.First,hissensoryfacultiesarestruckbysomeproperty

anovelsensation,yetonethatseemstoembodyhistotalperson.Uponsearchingforitssource,a

chapterfromthepasteffortlesslyrelocatesitselfinthepresent,inthenarratorsconscious

memory.Thetasteofthemadeleinebringswithitasenseoftemporalcontinuityitisthesame

madeleinenowasiteverwasand,accordingly,thenarratorofthepastandthenarratorofthe

presentbecomeontologicallyunitedinatransientspacewheretimeappearstobeimmaterial.

Thereisaparadoxinthismeetingofselves.Thememoryofthemadeleineis,likeany

othermemory,fixedinaparticularepisodeofthetemporalpast(Trigg,2007).However,this

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memoryseemscapableofmovementitemergesfromtheunconsciousandrevealsitselfinthe

consciousminditmigratesfromtherealmofthelosttothatoftherecovered.Nostalgia

maintainsthecentralityofafixedpoint,againstwhichtimeandmemoryrevolve...the

convergenceofhomogeneousspace,togetherwithfeel,sound,andsmelloflostplace,brings

aboutamomentofprecariousequilibrium.(Trigg,2007).Triggsreasoningisembeddedinthe

metaphysical,buthisideasarerelevanttobothneurobiologicalandmorepractical

considerationsofnostalgiaandmemory.

Onanexperientiallevel,thespontaneousrecollectionofadetailedanddiscretememory,

suchasthatofthepetitemadeleine,isshockingtoitshumansubject,andnaturallysparksmany

selfdirectedquestions.Thememoryseemstosurfaceautomatically,buttheinterpretationis

dependentontheconscioussubject.Giventhesensoryexcitationandthenewyetfamiliar

qualityofthememory,itsretrievalandcontentarerecognizedaspersonallyimportantthatis,

ithasselfreferentialimplications.Thus,itwouldbeunderstandableifthesubjectdistinguished

thispastepisodeasasalientfeatureinhisdiachronicidentity,andsubsequentlyincludeditin

whatWilliamJameswoulddeemtheaggregateofthepronounIforwhywouldithavebeen

resurrectedwithsuchaffectivepotencyifitwerenotessentialtotheperson?Thenarratorlived

thispast,andthispastisstillinhimhecanseehimselfinthisplace,justashecanseehimselfin

thepresent.

Thediscursivehistoryofnostalgiaisnotlimitedtoitsprominenceasadiseaseentityand

aliteraryconceptsincethe1970s,nostalgiahasbecomeinfluentialinthefieldsofsociology

andconsumerresearch.Intermsofthelatter,studieshaveconsistentlyrevealedtheadvantages

ofdeployingthenostalgicexperienceasmarketingandadvertisingtool(Holbrook&

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Schindler,1989).Inthemarketplace,nostalgiamaybeconveyedeitherthroughimplicitor

explicitreferencestoapasterathatthetargetconsumershaveexperienced,orthrough

advertisementsfeaturingnostalgiabasedproductsorstimuli(Havlena&Hovak,1991).The

successofthenostalgiaenterprisewouldsuggestthatpeoplearelookingtoreturntoapastthat

seemsmoreidealthanthepresent.Vintageandretrostyleclothingsongsandimages

evocativeofaspecifictimeorplaceproductsclaimedtohavebeenmadeinanauthentic,

ancestraltraditiontheseareexamplesofobjectsattractivetoapastorientedpublic.Empirical

laboratoryresearchhashelpedconsumerresearchinthiswaysincesociologistshavebegunto

studycommonaspectsofnostalgicreverieinpeopleofacertainage,lifestage,andgeneration,

advertisingexecutiveshavebeenabletocashinonthepublicscurrentappetite.

Forexample,Batcho(1995)foundthatnostalgiahasageneralagepattern,with

adolescents/youngadults(ages18to21)asthegroupthatwillinglyengagesinnostalgiamost

frequently.Theresultsofthisstudyrevealedcommontargetsoftheseyoungadultsnostalgia,

including:notknowingsadorevilthingsnothavingtoworryhavingsomeonetodependon

homeheroesfriendsandthewaypeoplewere.Fromadevelopmentalperspective,these

individualsrepresentthefifthofEriksonseightstagesofpsychosocialdevelopment
Identity

vs.RoleConfusion
(Erikson,1963).Underthepressuretochooseonesrolesinsociety,commit

toalastingideology,andultimatelyfosterastablesenseofidentity,theinclinationtoward

nostalgiaislikelyrelentless.Additionally,thephysicalrelocationtoacollegecampusornew

residencechallengesmanyyoungadultsperceptionsofselfcontinuity.Thesedevelopmental

upheavalsgivethepastanewtenorofmeaning:fortheadolescent,itisthestagebeforethings

becamecomplicatedandbefores/hewasconfrontedwiththeawarenessthatthings
could

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becomecomplicated.Continuousthreadsoflifessimplicitythenbecomesymbolsofcomfort.

Earlierthisyear,theNickelodeontelevisionnetworkannouncedtheirdecisiontorebroadcast

thebelovedshowsthatyoungadultsweredevotedtoaschildreninthe1990sthisisaprime

exampleofapracticalbusinessexploitationofadolescentsunendingsearchforhalcyon

days.

ContemporaryResearchonNostalgia

Themostdramaticchangeinthediscourseonnostalgiahasbeentherecentsocial

psychologicalresearchthatcollectivelyatteststoitsmultiplicityofpsychologicalbenefits.For

nearlytwocenturies,nostalgiawasclassifiedasmaladaptive.However,withinthelasttenyears,

aprofusionofstudieshavereportedthatnostalgiamayactasabufferorcopingdevicefor

variousstressorsinlife.Forexample,nostalgiahasrecentlybeenclaimedto:counteract

loneliness(Zhouetal.,2010),enableselfcontinuity(Milligan,2003Sedikidesetal.,2008

Davis,1979),aidtheprocessofindividuation(Batchoetal.,2008),functionasanexistential

resource(Routledgeetal.,2011Sedikidesetal.,2004),reinstatemeaninginoneslife

(Wildschutetal.,2006),andserveasarepositoryofsocialconnectedness(Wildschutetal.,

2009).

Inthesecases,nostalgiaissaidtoplaytheroleofamediatorbetweenadesiredpastand

unfavorablepresent.Centraltothisresearchistheimplicitassumptionthatnostalgia,becauseit

isauniversalphenomenon,mustservesomesortofadaptivefunction.Itshouldbenoted,

however,thatthesestudiesareexperimentaland,forthisreason,resultsthatshowconsistency

withanyrespectivehypothesesarebasedonnostalgicmemoriesthathavebeeninduced.Inother

words,theparticipantsinanostalgiacondition(asopposedtoacontrolcondition)have

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activelysiftedthroughtheirexplicitmemoriestofindananapplicableexperiencetothe

experimentalconditions.Thus,thememoriesthattheseresearchersanalyzearenotnewor

unfamiliartotheparticipantstheyaremostlikelyconscious,recursiveepisodesthathavebeen

frequentlyrehearsedandperhapsevenvocalizedinothersocialsettings.Withthisknowledge,it

maybeinferredthatthenostalgicmemoriesproducedintheexperimentalcontexthaveretained

enoughoftheirinitialemotionalvalencetobetemporallysituatedwithinthefabricofones

autobiographicalmemory.

Themajorityofnewresearchonnostalgiahasbeenconductedbysocialpsychologists

ConstantineSedikidesandTimWildschutandtheircolleaguesattheUniversityofSouthampton

inHampshire,England.Althoughtheircollectivefindingsarevastandintriguing,thestudies

outlinedinthisworkwillbelimitedtothosepertainingtothecentralaimsofthepresent

investigationfirstly,thepursuitofinclusivefactorsinthenostalgicexperience,andsecondly,

theeffectsthesefactorsmayhaveonindividualsperceptionsofselfcontinuityovertime.An

appropriatestartingpointisarecentpaperthathaspropoundedaprototypicalstructureofthe

nostalgicexperience.

Sedikidesetal.(2011)arguethattheevidencesuggestingthatnostalgiaservespositive

psychologicalfunctions,thoughpromising,remainequivocalbecausethemechanismsand

propertiesoftheactualexperiencehavenotbeenadequatelydelineated.Moreover,they

emphasizethefactthattherestillexistsnocoherentdefinitionofnostalgiaonethatgetstothe

substanceofthefeeling,ratherthantheprocess.Toresolvethisproblem,theseresearchers

recruitedagroupof232laypeopletolistallthefeaturesthat,intheiropinion,distinguished

nostalgia.Theythenclassifiedtheseresponsesintoseparateexemplarsofmeaningintotal,35

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descriptivefeaturesofnostalgiaweregenerated.Fromthis,itwaspossibletoarrangethese

featureshierarchicallyaccordingtotheirfrequency.Amediansplitdeterminedthehighest18

featuresascentraltonostalgiaandthelowest17asperipheralfeatures.Thecentral

featuresrelatedtofond,rosetinted,andpersonallymeaningfulmemoriesofchildhoodand

relationships.Althoughthecentralfeaturesfocusedmainlyonpositiveemotions,theyalso

containedsomerelevantnegativefeelingtones,suchasmissingandlonging.Theperipheral

featureshadfeelingtonesofgriefanddepression.

Thereliabilityofthisprototypewastestedwithanothergroupofparticipants,who

characterizedtheirownnostalgicevents.Theresultsexhibitedaconsensus,withthecentral

featuresofnostalgiaappearingmostfrequentlyinparticipantsnarrativesofexperience.In

athirdstudy,nostalgiawasinducedinacentralprototypegroup,aperipheralprototype

group,andanostalgiceventgroup.Forthetwoformerconditions,theexperimenters

inducednostalgiabypresentingparticipantswithalistofeithercentralorperipheral

features,askingthemtorecallaneventcharacterizedbythosefeatures.Theydidnotusethe

wordnostalgiaintheseconditions.Inthenostalgiceventcondition,theexperimentersasked

participantstoreflectonanostalgicevent.Inlinewiththeirpredictions,participantsreported

higherlevelsofstatenostalgiainthecentralprototypeandnostalgiceventconditions

thanintheperipheralprototypecondition.Additionally,thewordsusedbyparticipantsin

thenostalgiceventconditiontoconveytheirexperiencesmostoftenbelongedtothelist

ofcentralfeatures,andweretypicallyusedpriortoanyperipheralfeatures.Together,these

findingsdemonstratedaprototypicalstructureofnostalgiathatwasfarmorecompatiblewithits

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Homericmeaningi.e.,asanelicitedsourceofvitalityatatimeofirresolution,ratherthanthe

historicalunderstandingofnostalgiaaspsychologicallydestructive.

Whilethisstudyoutlinessomethematiccontentofthenostalgicexperience,thereare

manyotherfacetsofmeaninginnostalgiathatexistoutsideofitsemotionaltones(e.g.

bittersweetlonging)anditstargetsorobjects(e.g.familyvacations).Forexample,Davis(1979)

hasnotedthat,acrossalltheoriesofnostalgia,thereisagreementthatitissomethinginthe

present
situationthatpromptsreflectionofthepast,andforthisreason,nostalgiatellsusmore

aboutpresentmoodsthanpastrealities(p.10).Withthisviewinmind,anexaminationofthe

farreachingmotifsofnostalgiamaysupportoursearchforthemotivatingforcesbehindits

emergence,and,reciprocally,aninvestigationofthetriggersofnostalgiamayhaveabearingon

thequalitiesthatareconsideredemblematicofthenostalgicexperience.

Inaseriesofstudies,Wildschutandhiscolleaguesperformedcontentanalysesof42

autobiographicalnarrativesonnostalgia.Thiswasafruitfulmethodofcompilingmaterial,forit

didnotrelyonthelaboratorycontext,whichposesmethodologicalconstraintsthatareoften

incompatiblewiththeassessmentofanaturalphenomenon.Whentheauthorsperusedthe

collectionofnarratives,theydiscoveredsomenotable,unifyingelementsamongthe

descriptions.Typically,thesenarrativesfeaturedtheselfastheprotagonist,eitherininteractions

withcloseothersorinmomentousevents,andencompassedmoreexpressionsofpositivethan

negativeaffect(Wildschutetal.,2006).Onenewlydiscernedpatternwasthattheprotagonistsin

thesenarrativesfrequentlyillustratedredemption(asopposedtocontamination)sequences,in

whichtheselfprogressedfromanegativeconditiontoafavorable,triumphantone.Insum,these

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narrativescharacterizednostalgiaasaselfrelevantandpositiveemotion,commonlycentered

aroundmemoriesofmeaningfulsocialinteractions.

Todeterminethemajortriggersofnostalgia,theauthorssolicitedagroupof172

universitystudentstoprovidedescriptionsoftheconditionsunderwhichnostalgiahasoccurred

foreachoftheminthepast.Theseresultswerethencodedintocategoriesandorganizedby

prevalenceasfollows:negativeaffectsocialinteractionssensoryinputs(e.g.smellsandmusic)

tangibles(e.g.,relics)similareventsinertiapositiveaffectanniversariesandsettings(e.g.

oneshometown).38%oftheparticipantslistedanegativeaffectivestateasaprecipitantof

nostalgiaacategorythatincludeddescriptionsofbothdiscreteaffectivestates(e.g.,lonely)

andgenerally

negativemoods(e.g.,sad).Thisfindingisespeciallyinterestingwhenoneconsiderstheaffective

impactofengaginginnostalgicrecollection.Theauthorsfoundthat,despitenostalgiabeing

triggeredbynegativeaffect,thefinalaffectivestateofparticipantswascharacterizedby

increasedpositivity,positiveselfregard,andaperceivedstrengtheningofsocialbonds.In

contrast,theparticipantsinthecontrolcondition,whowereaskedtorecallanddescribean

ordinaryevent,didnotexperiencetheseshiftsinaffect.

Theauthorsusedtheirobservationstoexplorethebroaderimplicationsofnostalgiaasa

mechanismforpsychologicalwellbeing.Theirresultssuggestthatnostalgicreveriecanprovide

therapeuticbenefitswhenoneisfeelingdisillusionedbypresentcircumstances.Thepositive

augmentationofparticipantsemotions,perceptionsofcontinuity,andfeelingsofsocial

connectednessobservedinthisstudyarepromising,andshouldbeexploredfurtherinfuture

research.

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WhatMakesNostalgicMemoryDifferent?

Aprincipalquestionthathasyettobeaddressedishownostalgiadiffersfromordinary

recollectionofalivedpast.Althoughthetriggers,content,andfunctionsofnostalgicmemories

havebeenconsidered,theseelementsdonotconveytheparticularfeelingoftheexperience,like

thatwhichwereadinProust.Infact,theexplicittriggersandcontentappeartooccupythe

peripheralregionsofthiscognitiveandemotionalconstellationthatis,untiltheyare

contemplatedandsubsequentlyascribedwithpersonalmeaning.

Aninitialepisodeofnostalgicremembranceisawakenedinvoluntarily,butthereafter

maybeconsciouslyharnessedtosuitaparticularpurpose,suchastorelaythememoryto

anotherpersonorgroup,toreinterpretitsmeaning,ortoassessthedegreeofresemblanceor

incongruitybetweenonesperceivedpastandpresentselves.Butcouldwenotclaimthat

thisistrueforalltypesofmemory?Itisentirelypossibletorecallageneralmemoryofthe

past,communicateittoothers,andawarditaplaceinonesinternalautobiography.Self

relevantmemoriesneednotpromptvisceralreactionstobedeemedpertinenttooneslifestory.

However,inthesemusingsonthesimilaritiesbetweennostalgiaandremembrance,wecansee

thedifferenceswithgreaterclarity.Totakeanappreciativestancetowardcertainpasteventsand

tofeelasenseofsamenessovertimeisincommensuratewithnostalgiaafeelingthatcomprises

thewarmthoffamiliarityandthevestigialpangofloss,whichcoalesceandimbueuswitha

something
nebulousyetdistinctive thatcanonlybesupplementedwithanexplanationoncethe

individualcreatesone.

Memoryisessentialfortheconstructionandmaintenanceofacontinuoussenseof

identityovertime(see,e.g.,James,1950/1890Schacter,1996Wilson&Ross,2003).However,

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allmemoriesarenotcreatedequal.Studiesincognitionandneurosciencehaveprovideda

tremendousamountofinsightintothenatureofmemorywhat,why,andhowpeopleremember

theirpastsarenolongerinsolublequestionsthatmustbeaddressedwithspeculation.Inthecase

ofnostalgia,weknowthatthisexperiencehascognitiveandaffectivecomponents:thecognitive

functionisemployedintheactofrecallandourperceptionworkstoelaboratetherecollection

(e.g.,whentheeventtookplace,howoldonewas,whowaspresent,andwhatitmeans).The

affectiveelementsofnostalgiadetailhowonefeltduringthispastepisode,aswellashowoneis

feelingatthetimeofrecall.Duetothestrongemotionaltonesandsensoryawarenessthatare

oftenactivated,itisalsoclearthattheneuralmechanismsofnostalgiaaredistinctfromthe

neurologyofothermemoryencoding,storage,andretrievalprocesses.Ourperceptionsof

nostalgicmemorieshaveauniquesalience,andarethusidentifiedinourbrainsasqualitatively

differentfromothermemoriesofthepast.Theoriginofthesedifferenceslieincognitiveand

neurologicalmemorysystems,andthedynamicsofthesecerebralinteractionsarecrucialtoour

understandingoftherelationshipbetweennostalgiaandperceptionsoftemporalcontinuity.

Cognitive,Affective,andMotivationalAspectsofNostalgia

Anumberofvariablesmaybeconsideredwhenreflectingonanostalgicmemory.Atthe

timeofretrieval,wemaynotetheaffectivestateormoodthatwewereinbeforeoratthe

momentthememorywastriggered,aswellashowwefeltduringandafterthisremembrance

occurred.Iftheaffectivestatetransformsuponmemoryrecall,onewillnaturallysearchforthe

reasonbehindthisshiftwhataboutthisspecificmemoryengenderedsuchaprofoundchange?

First,wemaythinkaboutthepossiblemotivesforthisretrieval.WilsonandRoss(2003)

arguethatthereisatwostepprocessinvolvedintherecollectionofautobiographicalmemories:

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Becausepresentattributesandfeelingsarefrequentlymoreaccessiblethanpastones,

individualsstartthisprocesswithcurrentselfappraisals,e.g.,
HowdoIfeelaboutXtoday?

Next,peopleinvokeimplicittheoriesaboutthestabilityoftheirownattributesandfeelingsto

constructapastthatissimilartoordifferentfromthepresent(Wilson&Ross,2003).This

lattersteptendstoinvolveaconsistencybias,inwhichoneunconsciouslyreshapesthepastto

makeitconsistentwithpresentthoughts,feelings,andbeliefs(Schacter,2003Wilson&Ross,

2002).Studieshaveshowntheinfluentialroleoftheselfintheencodingandretrievalof

episodicmemorieswheninformationisencodedinrelationtoourselves,itisusually

rememberedbetterandretrievedmoreeasilythanothertypesofsemanticmemory(Brown&

Kulik,1977Schacter,2002).

WilliamJames(1890/1950)positedthatperceptionsofcontinuityovertimearenecessary

forindividualstomaintainasenseofcogentidentity.Peoplearemotivatedtofeelandpresent

themselvesasstableandconsistent,andtoberecognizedassuch.Weknowthatcontinuity

cannotexistwithoutchangeprogressionsintime,space,age,anddevelopmentaretheproducts

ofcontinualsuccessionsofchanges.However,becausethesemovementsareslightandoccurin

sequence,weperceivethesechangesascontinuous.Thisisneitheranillusionnoralie,but

ratherthenatureofhumanperception.Exaggerationsorinferencesofcontinuityaregenerally

theproductsofpassive,unconsciousmotivation.Insomecases,recollectionsofthepastare

fabricatedandinaccurate,dependingonthecurrentgoaloneistryingtoaccomplish,butthis

shouldnotbejudgedasanactiveattempttoalterorerasethepast.Instead,hisimplicit

motivationshouldbeviewedasapotentiallyadaptiveforceifanindividualperceivespast

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attitudesandtraitsasharmoniouswithcurrentones,thisbringsalevelofselfpredictionand

selfpossessiontoanotherwiseincongruousself.

WilsonandRoss(2003)alsodiscussthemotivationforselfenhancement,which

necessitatesaperceptionofchangeovertime:Bydepreciatingtheirformersatisfactionlevels,

individualscreatetheillusionofimprovementeveninthefaceofactualdecline.Withregardto

nostalgia,thislattercritiquemaynotbeapplicable,sinceengaginginnostalgicreverieusually

comprisesanidealizationofthepast.Nevertheless,thefeelingofdiscrepancybetweencurrent

andformerselvescertainlyholdsaninfluentialpositionwhenoneconsiderstheeffectsof

nostalgiaonperceptionsofcontinuity.Formostpeople,recentselvesarediscernedasmore

pertinentandfamiliarthanselvesofadistantpast,whichmaysometimesfeellikestrangers

(WilsonandRoss,2003vanderKolketal.,1991Bell,1997).Thismotivationfordistance,like

themotivationforcloseness,mayserveanadaptivefunction,especiallyasitrelatestotraumaor

majortransitions.Bydissociatingthepastselffromthecurrentself,individualsmitigatethreats

toidentitybyfacilitatingasenseoftemporalandspatialdistancetheymayfeelasthoughtheir

liveshavefollowedatrajectoryofcontinualimprovementduetoorinspiteofcertainchanges.

Inthesemanipulationsofsubjectivefamiliarityanddistance,changesbetweenthepastand

presentcaneitherbejustified(e.g.XmademewhoIamtoday)orestranged(e.g.Thatwasthe

oldme,WhenXhappened,Iwasntmyself).WilsonandRoss(2003)emphasizethatthese

actsofrememberingattendtopersonalbenefit,ratherthanveracity.Theyareactivefunctionsof

identitymaintenance,andthegoalisnottorecapturethetruthofapastevent,buttorevisepast

andpresentappraisals(althoughthetwoarenotmutuallyexclusive).Thebidirectionallink

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betweenmemoryandidentityisdemonstratedherecurrentselfviewsinfluencerecollection,

butarealsoinfluencedbywhatandhowweremember.

Inaddressingthequestionofwhyacertainpasteventoccurred,peoplerecognizepast

eventseitherasconnectedtoorseparatedfromtheircurrentidentity,basedpartlyonhowthe

specificmemoryfitspresentselfrepresentations.Additionally,individualsmayeitherdecideto

makesenseofpasteventsandincorporatethemintoabroader,cohesivenarrativeortoleave

theseeventsunexplained,remote,andanomalous.NigroandNeisser(1983)refertothelatter

asobserverorthirdpersonmemory,inwhichindividualsreflectonearlyexperiencesfroma

detachedperspective,seeingthemasobjectivecircumstances.

Theantithesisofthistypeofretrospectionisreferredtoasfieldmemory,whichis

experiencedasthrougheyesoftheindividual.Peoplesfieldmemoriesareoftenmoreemotional

andvividthanobservermemories,soonewouldpresumethatmostnostalgicmemoriesfitinto

thiscategory.Whetheranindividualremembersapasteventfromafieldoranobserver

perspectivedependsonmotivationatthetimeofattemptedrecall(Schacter,1996).Apowerful

stimulusinthepresent,suchasanintenseemotionormeaningfulartifact,willlikelyprovoke

memoriesexperiencedfromafieldposition.Fieldmemoriesareanindicationofenduringtiesto

thepasttheremembererisusingthesameeyestoreminisceonthisepisodeass/hedidwhenthe

eventwasoriginallyexperienced,andtheemotionsofthispastarefeltinthepresent.Inthis

way,thememoryseemstohavepreserveditsauthenticity,aswellasitsassociationwiththe

presentself.

Anothercognitivecomponentofnostalgiarelatestojudgmentandaffectonceanostalgic

memoryhasbeenrecalled.LeboeandAnsons(2006)executedaninvestigationintothecognitive

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
17

rootsofnostalgia,andbasedontheirresults,theyclaimedthatthesubjectiveexperienceof

nostalgiaisamisattributionofpositiveaffectandvividimagerytheyarecausedbytheactof

successfulrecall,butareattributedtothecontentofthememory:Recollectionsthatarerichin

meaningareuniqueintheircapacitytoproduceapositiveaffectiveresponse...mentally

transportapersontosomepriorcircumstance,givingthemthesubjectiveimpressionthatthey

arerelivingthepast(LeboeandAnsons,2006,p.607).

Recollectionswithsuchevocativepoweraregenerallyinfluencedbyperceptual

fluencyatermusedtodescribethespeedandeasewithwhichstimuliarecognitively

processed.Stimulithathavehighfluencywillbequicklyrecognized,conveyingtotheindividual

afeelingoffamiliarity.Thesubsequentperceptionisthatthisstimulusbelongstosomeaspectof

thepersonspast.Evenstimulithatelicitambiguousfeelingsoffamiliaritywillpromptthe

controlledsearchforamemorywithanepisodicrepresentationofthestimulus,inorderto

mitigatethesefeelingsofuncertainty(Jacobyetal.,1985).Oncethisrecollectionrushesinto

consciousness,aburstofpositiveaffectwillaccompanythememoryastheresultofsuccessful

recall.

Ahostofstudieshavedemonstratedthelinksbetweenperceptualcognitiveprocesses

andaffectiveresponse(e.g.Bornstein,1999JacobyKihlstrom,1987LeDoux,2002Schacter,

1996).Oneofthemostgroundbreakingfindings,strikinginitssimilaritytoFreudshypothesis,

hasbeentheobservedexistenceofthecognitivenonconscious.Itisnowwidelyacknowledged

thatsubliminalperceptionandimplicitmemory(whatFreudreferredtoastheunconscious)can

affectmentalfunctionswithoutbeingconsciouslyperceivedorremembered.Forexample,Reber

etal.s(2004)researchonperceptualfluencyandjudgmentsofaestheticbeautyrevealthat

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
18

stimuliwithhighprocessingcapability(i.e.,stimulithatareeasilyprocessedinthebrain)have

anintrinsichedonicmarking,whichnaturallyelicitsaperceptionoffamiliarityandevaluative

judgmentsofpleasantnessandattraction.Visualstimuliwithcertainobjectivefeatures,suchas

symmetry,alargeamountofinformation,figuregroundcontrast,andclarity,areeasily

processedbyindividuals,andhavebeenshowntoresultinaconscious,positiveaffect.Itisnot,

however,theperceptualorprocessingfluencythatfacilitatesthesejudgmentsandpreferences,

sincefluencyisoftenexperiencedwithoutconsciousawareness.Instead,thepositiveaffective

reactiontotheseprocessesiswhattheobserverconsciouslyinterpretsandmisattributestothe

contentoftheobjectitself.

Nostalgicmemoriesareoftenvivid,stronginemotionalvalence,andcontainaspecific

spatiotemporalorientation.Ifthesecontextualelementsremainintactuponrecall,wecanassume

thatmoststimulifornostalgiahaveaninnatehedonicmarkingthatallowsforfluencyin

processingandretrieval.Inthisway,theperceivedsparkoffamiliarityinanobjectorexperience

willprompttheconsciousself,theactiverememberer,totakeupaheuristicsearchforan

episodethatconformswiththefeelingsinducedbythestimulusandsatisfiescurrentself

representations(Bornstein,1999).Whenweperceiveanevent,weactivatefragmentsof

preexistingknowledgestoredinmemorywhenweattendtotheevent,thecorresponding

mentalrepresentationbecomespartofourworkingmemory(Kihlstrom,1992,pp.6768).This

recreationofmemoryparallelsWilsonandRoss(2002)propositionthatmotivatedperceptions

ofspatiotemporalorientation(closenessordistance)haveabidirectionallinkwithmotivated

selfappraisalsofeithercontinuityorchangeovertime.

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
19

Sinceperceptual,processing,andretrievalfluencyareusuallyhighinmemoriesand

artifactsthatinducenostalgia,thisnotonlyexplainsourtendencytoaugmentthepastasmore

favorableandrosetinted,butalsomakesthepreviouslyunaccountablefeelingofwarmth

moreintelligibleasaphenomenon.LeboeandAnsons(2006)argumentmaybetrueinthis

casethatthesepositivefeelingsaremisattributionsofcognitiveefficiencytothecontentofthe

recollection.Additionally,itispossiblethategocentricandconsistencybiasesareconcurrent

forcesinthistypeofretrospection,allowingustorememberthepastinawaythatsupportsour

currentself(Schacter,2002,p.234).

Intheinvestigationofcognitive,affective,andmotivationalmechanismsbehind

nostalgia,wehaveconcretizedsomeoftheelusiveaspectsofthenostalgicexperience.When

presentedintheirtechnicalform,thesetreasured,poignantsensationsareseenastheoutcomes

ofcognitiveerrors.Dothesescientifictruthsdamageourappreciativeimpressionsofnostalgia?

Shouldtheyhavebeenkeptambiguous?Thatisallamatterofsubjectivejudgment.Takinga

favorablestancetowardonespastmaynotalwaysbereflectiveofreality,buttheconstructionof

suchanillusionhasproventobeanadaptivestrategyinitscapacitytoreviveselfrelevant,

temporalassociationsandimproveonespresentaffectivestate.

Itmustalsobeacknowledgedthat,nomatterwhaterrors,biases,andimaginingswe

instillinthememoriesthatmakeusnostalgic,nostalgiaisarealfeelingonethatsatisfiesour

needforatangiblepastthatcaninhabitourpresent.AsT.S.Eliotwrites,thissenseofmobile

historygratifiesnotonlythepastnessofthepast,butofitspresence...asenseofthetimeless

aswellasofthetemporalandofthetimelessandofthetemporaltogether(Eliot,1932,p.21).

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
20

Theabstractpowerofthissensationshouldnotbeoverlooked,norshouldtheformal,technical

meansofitsemergence.

TheNeurobiologyofNostalgia

Emotionalmemoriesaredistinctivelyencoded,consolidated,andactivatedinthebrain,

andthereforeelicituniquesubjectiveexperiencesofthem.Beginninginthe1980s,the

developmentofbrainimagingtechnologyenabledneuroscientiststolookinsidethehumanbrain

andwatchactivityinvariousregionsaspeopleengagedinhighermentalfunctions,suchas

perception,action,language,andplanning(Kandel,2006).Inparticular,twobrainstructures,

locateddeepwithinthecerebralcortex,havebeenshowntoplaycrucialrolesintheprocessing

andregulationofaffectivememories.Thefirstistheamygdala,asmall,almondshaped

formationthatisactivatedattheonsetofemotionalarousal.Theamygdalalearnsandmodulates

theemotionalcontentofevents,sothatthesameemotionallychargedstimuli,ifencountered

again,willimplicitlyprompttheappropriatebehavioralandaffectiveresponses.

Thesecondsignificantformation,locatednexttotheamygdala,isthehippocampus.This

structureisconcernedwiththedetailsofepisodicmemory,includingthespatialandtemporal

contextinwhichtheeventoccurred.Thehippocampusisalsoinfluentialinconvertingshort

termmemoriestolongtermmemories,aprocessknownaslongtermpotentiation,which

developsthroughmechanismsofprolongedsynapticplasticityandtransmission(Kandel,2006).

Thishippocampalprocessmarkscommonsemanticfeaturesamongdifferentepisodessothat

theyareidentifiedandgroupedinourmemorythroughassociativelinks.

Amygdalahippocampalinteractionshavebeendemonstratedtosupporttheenhancement

ofepisodicmemoryforemotionallysignificantevents(Andersonetal.,2006).Inturn,greater

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
21

recollectionforemotionaleventscausesthemtobemorerichlyexperiencedinmemory(Todd&

Anderson,2009).Whiletheamygdalaisresponsibleforprocessingandstrengtheningthegeneral

affectivetoneoftheinitialeventandmoderatingtheemotionalresponsetoitssubsequent

retrievals(aformofprocedurallearning),thehippocampusrecordsthecontextualelementsand

mnemonicfeaturesthatcorrespondwiththisglobalemotionalrepresentation,buildinga

localizedneuralsubstrateforemotionalbehaviorthatcanbeidentifiedbytheindividualand

expressedasdeclarativeknowledge.

Earlymodelsofaffectiveneuroscienceunderstoodemotionasaninstinctivelyelicited

responsetotheconsciousperceptionofamomentouscircumstance.Thisconsciousrecognition

wasthoughttotriggerunconscious,reflexive,andautonomicreactionsinthebody(Kandel,

2006).Inhisseminalandhighlydebatedpaper,WhatisEmotion?,WilliamJames(1884)

challengedthisprevailinghypothesis,arguingthatthephysiologicalexpressionofemotion

precedesanyassociatedcognitiveexperience.Thisprinciplebecamethebasisforwhatisknown

resultfrom
astheJamesLangetheory,whichadvancesthenotionthatemotions aphysiological

reaction(e.g.anincreaseordecreaseinbloodpressure,heartrate,andmusculartension)toan

emotionalstimulus,ratherthantheotherwayaround.Inthisprocess,sensationsareturnedinto

perceptions,thoughts,andmemories(Dalgleish,2004).

Theautobiographicaleventsthatlingerinourmemorypossessapotentaffectivevalence,

firstactivatedatthetimeoftheevent,whichwasencodedandreceivedprolongedstrengthening

overtime.Uponevocation,thesememoriescontinuetoberichlyexperienced,bothcognitively

andphysiologically.Therepresentationofamemoryinthebrainotherwiseknownasthe

engramhasapowerfulinfluenceonhowwesubjectivelyexperiencememoriesofalivedpast.

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
22

DanielSchacter(1996)haseloquentlydefinedtheengramanditsfunctions:

Engrams are the transient or enduring changes in our brains that result from
encoding an experience the brain records an event by strengthening the
connections between groups of neurons that participate in encoding the
experience. A typical incident in our everyday lives consists of numerous sights,
sounds, actions, and words. Different areas of the brain analyze these varied
aspects of an event. As a result, neurons in the different regions become more
strongly connected to one another. Thenewpatternofconnectionsconstitutesthe
brains record oftheevent:theengram...Thesepatternsofconnectionshavethe
potential to enter awareness, tocontributetoexplicitrememberingundertheright
circumstances, but at any one instant most of them lie dormant (Schacter, 1996,
pp.5859).

Whethertheemergenceofnostalgiaisdeliberateorspontaneous,thenavigationthrough

associatedgroupsofneuronsthatallowforretrievaloftherespectiveepisodeproceedsina

similarway.Returningourthoughtstotheepisodeofthemadeleine,itwasnotedthatthecookie

actedasthesensorystimulusandretrievalcue,provokingachainreactionofcognitiveand

affectiveprocesses,whichbeganwithphysiologicalexcitation,followedbyavivid

reexperiencingofthepast,andendedwithajudgmentoftheepisodeassalient.

Amomentofrecollectioninvolvesconcomitantworkingsfromperceptual,sensory,

affective,motivational,andcognitivenetworksinthenervoussystem.Thedramaticflashof

involuntaryremembrancearisesfromthemutuallyenhancingeffectsofgreatersympathetic

arousal,amygdalarecruitment,increasedattention,andamplifiedperceptualprocessing,known

togetherasmotivatedattention(Todd&Anderson,2009,p.1).Amygdalaactivityfacilitates

theinductionandexpressionofhippocampallongtermpotentiation.Thus,thedegreeof

amygdalaarousalcorrelateswiththeeaseofsubsequentrecall,whichmayexplainwhynostalgic

memoriesremaindetailed,evocative,andeasilyretrievedaftertheirfirstrecollection(Ochsner,

2000McGaugh,2004).

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
23

Theneurobiologyofemotionalmemoryclarifiesthequestionofwhytheseartifacts,

places,andscenesscarcelyleaveus,whensomanyotheraspectsofourpastsseemtodecayor

becomemutedovertime.Althoughtheinitialimpactofanostalgicepisodeisusuallycontext

and/orstatedependent,indicativeofassociativeretrievalprocesses,deliberatereminiscenceisa

laboredactofstrategicretrieval,whichoftendrawsfrommnemonicsencodedatthetimeofthe

episodesoccurrence.Visualimagerymnemonicsi.e.,forminganimageandconnectingittoa

mentallocationoranaffectivestatecontributetothelucidityandeaseofrecollectionand

cultivateathreadofsemanticselfknowledgethatweavesautobiographicalmemoriestogether

(Schacter,1996).Weareintermittentlyconfrontedwiththeknowledgeofourownforgotten

paststhepeople,topography,beliefs,andimagesofourhistoriesbecomemarkedlyuncertain.

Bycontrast,theobjectsofournostalgiadonotappeartosufferthisfatetheseemotive

memoriesremainbrightandredolentofourenduringidentities,owinginparttothewaysour

brainsrespondstothesefragmentsofexperienceandlinksthemtogether.

Bythispoint,wehaveexploredvariousphenomenologicalfacetsofnostalgia.Another

vitalcomponentofthisanalysis,whichhasbeenmentionedbutnotexplicitlyaddressed,isthe

socialdimensionofthenostalgicexperience.StudiesfromBatcho(1995),Sedikidesetal.

(2011),andWildschutetal.(2006)haveillustratedthesocialfeaturesthatexistinthethematic

contentofnostalgicmemoriestheseinvestigatorsobservedthatmostnostalgicmemories

comprisetherememberedpresenceoffriends,family,andlovedones.However,thisresearch

hasnotexaminednostalgiaasacollectiveorinteractiveengagement.Whenwethinkabouttime,

place,heritage,andmemory,thecollectivepasthasnolesssignificancethanthepersonal.In

contextsofrendezvousandritual,suchasweddings,funerals,andhighschoolreunions,the

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
24

membersofatimeorplacebasedcollectiverehashsharedmemoriestonotethesimilaritiesand

differencesbetweenthemutualpastandpersonalpresent.

Theprivate,reflectivepastispredicatedontheexistenceofapastsharedbyones

communitypersonalhistoryisimprintedwiththeassociations,symbols,andvaluesinherited

andcreatedbythecultureofwhichoneispart.Socialupheavalsaffectthepersonandthegroup,

whichposesamultifariousthreattoselfcontinuitywecommonlyrelyoncertainothersto

reassureourperceptionsofcontinuousidentity,totellusthatwearethesame,thatwehavent

changed,thatwearestillourselves.However,inatimeofculturaldisruption,individuals

areconfrontedwithakindofdiscontinuitythattranscendspersonalconcerns.Nostalgiain

thesecircumstancescanbeinfusedwiththeemotionsofthousandsofpeople,allofwhom

haveliterallyandsymbolicallylosttheirpersonal,cultural,andnationalhomes.Isitpossible

forcollectivenostalgiatoprovidesolaceincasesofsuchfracturedcontinuity?Ifnot,what

implicationsdothesebreacheshaveforindividualandcollectiveperceptionsofidentity?

CollectiveNostalgia:ReconstructingTimeandPlaceWithMemory

Icantthrowabridgebetweenthepresentandthepast,andtherefore[I]cantmake
timemove(EvaHoffman,1989,pp.116117).

Tosomeextent,individualscansealpastexperiencesthroughoverdeterminismwemay

deducethatXoccurredasadirectresultofhowwewererearedbyourcaregivers,our

enculturationandacquisitionofknowledge,andahostofotherbiographicaleventsthatpreceded

andeffectuallycausedX(e.g.Robinson,1977).Weimposeorderonourlivesbysituating

meaningfulexperienceswithinaspatialandtemporalframeworkofcausality,creatingamental

landscapeofcontinuitybetweenthoughts,feelings,andactions.Wereifyandshelterthese

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
25

sacredspacesfromtheforcesoffragmentationsothatwemayfeelasthoughtheyareensured

againstpotentialloss.Thepretenseoforderthatwecreateforourselveshasamajorcaveatin

thatwebecomeheedlesstounbiddenchance.Theunknowabletherealmthatweareeternally

incapableofreachingcaninfiltrateourconditionalnetworksofselfunderstandingand

suddenlyundothetiesofidentitythatwebelievedweresecure.Precipitantsofsuchdisturbance

mayexistonanindividualandacollectivescale,buttheresultingprivationsofthelatterare

oftenofgreaterconsequence.

Withinacultureespeciallyonethatfacesprejudicethesharedcategoriesof

understandingthatseemimmutable,suchaslanguage,symbolism,legacy,andtopography,can

beerodedbythehandsofcommandingforces.Whensubjugatedorotherwisevictimizedgroups

ofpeopleareforcedtoreconstructtheirlivesfromthefragmentsofruin,thesurroundingsocial

frameworkshapestheremembrance,communication,andinterpretationoftheselosses.The

collectivepastmaytransformintomemoriesthatbecomerepressed,haunted,idealized,or

publiclysilenced.Apfelbaum(2000)maintainsthatvictimsneedtotelltheirstorieswithina

widersocialforuminordertomakesenseoftheirlivedtraumaticevents.Otherwise,these

memoriesareentombed,receivingnolegitimationexceptwhensharedwithfellowsufferers,

whichengendersadissociationbetweenindividualsprivateandpubliclives.

Nostalgiathatsubsumespersonalexperiencewithinanindividualsfallenculturalmilieu

andhistoryembodiesakindoftranspersonalremembranceastrivetoconvalesceanow

indivisibleduoofcollectiveandpersonalselfhood.Onecouldexpectthatthistypeofnostalgiais

mostinfluentialandenlighteningwhensharedwithothers,especiallythosewhohave

experiencedthesameloss.Inalllikelihood,individualswithindisruptedcollectivesarestirred

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
26

byasimilarfeelingofnostalgia,fortheypossessthesameacuteperceptionofthetemporal,

spatial,collective,andpersonaldiscontinuitiesthathavebrokenallpastnotionsofcoherence.

Collectiveuprootinghassweepingimplicationsforidentity,andApfelbaumarguesthat

theattempttorationalizethecausesbehindsucheventsisanineffectualapproachto

psychologicalrecovery.Instead,shebelievesweneedatheoreticalframeworkthatrealizes

theimportanceofsocioculturalcontextsandthefactthatpeopleareenmeshedingenealogical

filiationsasmembersofafamilyhistory,aswellasinabroadersocietyshistoryandits

changingrepresentations(Apfelbaum,2000,p.1010).Withoutapublicoutletforexpression,

silencebecomesinevitableasspeechisrenderedimpossible.Consequently,thechildrenoffuture

generationsarebornbereftoftheirorigins,butarenonethelessforcedtobeartheweightofa

culturalpastthatisabstract,misapprehended,orunintelligible.Anarrativeofpersonal

experience,framedwithinasubstantive,collectivechronicle,isparamountforvictimsandtheir

childrentoreclaimthepast.Initself,thepastdoesnotmakethepresentmeaningfulitisthe

internallyrecognized,collectivelyunderstood,andopenlyexpressedrepresentationofthepast

thatbringsmeaningtothepresent.Apluralityofvoices,publiclyacknowledgedand

memorialized...canbeabeneficialtriggerforadelayedmorning,aswellasfora

reconstructionofbrokenidentities(Apfelbaum,2000,p.1011).

~~~

Inthesunsetofdissolution,everythingisilluminatedbytheauraofnostalgia
(MilanKundera,1984,p.4)

Theexperienceofnostalgia,wehavelearned,isbothuniversalandparticular.The

universalityofthefeelings,thoughts,events,andplacesthatfilluswithnostalgiashouldnotbe

interpretedasadenialofdifferences.Wemaypossessarationalunderstandingofthenostalgic

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
27

memoriesthatourfriendsandfamilyholdasmeaningfultracesofidentity,becausewe

feeling
understandandappreciatethepeoplewhoviewthemassuch.However,the ofnostalgia,

thecruxoftheexperience,isparticulartotheindividualandreliesonthewarmsenseof

familiaritythatarisesfromtherecollectionofalivedandlivinghistory.Inreadingfictionand

poetry,wecanlocateevocativepassagesthatremindusofhownostalgiaisaphenomenonof

samenessanddifference.Proustsepisodeofthemadeleinecapturestheuniversalinthe

particularwesimultaneouslyknowanddonotknowtheessenceofthisexperience.

Similarly,thenatureofcontinuityencompassesthedualityofsamenessanddifference.

Atonemomentanindividualmayrecognizehis/herunitytheunbrokenconduitofidentity,

carryingexperiencesthatcanbebeperceivedastemporallyfixedpointsonatrajectoryoras

symbolicofthetrajectoryitself.Inthisunitedwhole,werecognizethedifferencesinitsparts,

forcontinuitycannotberealizedwithoutthepreliminaryawarenessofitsexistenceasa

frameworkthatconstantlyassimilateschangeovertime.Withnostalgia,weuncoverthis

principleofcontinuitythroughmemory:inlookingbackonabeforebeforeautonomy,

see
beforesuffering,beforediscernment,beforewrongdoing,we theinnocenceofwhatwasand

feel
nowisnot,andalso theinnocencethathassurvivedwithinus.Wecanrecapturethe

samenesswithinthedifference:thisisourenigmaticabilitytomaketimemove.

Thephenomenologicalexplanationsofnostalgiathathavebeengarneredthroughoutthis

workarenotintendedtocapturethenatureoftheexperience,forsuchanambitionwouldbe

fruitless.Themattersaddressedinthisexplorationofnostalgiaaremeanttoillustratethe

flexibilityofourrelationshipwithtimeandplaceandhow,throughmemory,ournostalgiafor

thatwhichislostcanbeassuagedbyoursymbolicreturnhome.

ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
28

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