Exploration methods II

Geochemical Exploration
I Wayan Warmada Laboratorium Bahan Galian Jurusan Teknik Geologi, FT UGM Jl. Grafika No. 2 Bulaksumur Yogyakarta 55281 Indonesia

Geochemical exploration

Geochemical prospecting is based on: an envelope of primary mineralization is likely to occur around a mineral deposit, and a secondary dispersal pattern of chemical elements is often created during the weathering and erosion of the deposit. The primary envelope and the secondary pattern form geochemical anomalies that result in larger guides to mineralization. The secondary dispersal pattern, or secondary geochemical halo, contains remnants of ore mineralization.

Anomalies, background

Secondary geochemical halo may be recognizable in rock, soil, sediment, and water samples taken at distances of meters to tens of kilometers from the source. NEITHER geophysics NOR geochemistry locates orebodies; messages and signatures are provided, and these are interpretable in terms of a suspected orebody or in terms of a geologic setting favorable to orebodies. Anomalies are measured in numbers that can be separated from a larger groups of numbers constituting the geochemical or geophysical background.

Sequences of geoch. expl.

Selection of methods, elements to be sought, sensitivity and precision to be required, sampling pattern. Preliminary field sampling program Sample analysis, in the field (where suitable) and in the laboratory, with check analyses made by several methods. Statistical treatment and geologic evaluation of the data, always in connection with available geologic and geophysical data. Confirmation of apparent anomalies; follow-up sampling; closer sampling intervals and additional geoch methods. Target investigation

Basic characteristics

Halos associated with epigenetic mineralization are referred to as diffusion aureoles or enveloping halos if they occur in the wall rock adjacent to a deposit, and leakage halos if they extend upward into barren preore rock. Geologic factor that control the intensity and pattern of wallrock anomalies and leakage anomalies are the same as those that control hydrothermal alteration around orebody. Two additional terms are basic to geochemical prospecting: target element and pathfinder element.

Dispersion pattern

The geochemical response at the surface depends on the type of terrain and especially on the type of material covering the deposit. The response in an area of two meters of overburden is very different from that of an area with 100m deep cover.

Methods and applications

Table 1: Examples, target and pathfinder elements Ore association
Porphyrycopper Preciousmetalveins Skarndeposits Uranium(sandstone) Uranium(vein) Ultramaficorebodies Fluosparveins

Targets
Cu,Mo Au,Ag Mo,Zn,Cu U U Pt,Cr,Ni F

Pathfinders
Zn,Au,Re,Ag,As,F Hg,As,S(asSO4),Sb,Se,Cd,Ba,F,Bi As,Sb,Te,Mn,Hg,I,F,Bi,Co,Se,Tl B,Au,Ag,Fe,Be Se,Mo,V,Rn,He,Cu,Pb Cu,Bi,As,Co,Mo,Ni,Pb,F Cu,Co,Pd Y,Zn,Rb,Hg,Ba

Sulfideorecomplexes Zn,Cu,Ag,Au

Major methods in Expl. Geoch.

Sample source
Streamsediments Soil Rock

Causes of anomalies
Dispersion Heavymineralaccumulation Residualconcentration Syngeneticconcentration Wallrockdiffusion Leakage Postmineralizationdispersion Gossan Oxidationofore Radioactivedecay Selectiveconcentration

Vapor Vegetation

Stream sediments

The most widely used reconnaissance technique in residual areas undergoing active weathering. The active sediment in the bed of a river forms as a result of the passage of elements in solution. Thus, a sample can be regarded as an integral of the element fluxes. Interpretation of stream sediment data is carried out on an empirical basis by comparing catchments, as there is only a poorly defined relationship between the chemistry of the stream sediment and the catchment from which it is derived.

Stream sediments

In stream sediment sampling the whole stream sediment or a particular grain size or mineralogical fraction of the sediment, such as a heavy mineral concentrate, can be collected. In temperate terrains maximum anomaly/background contrast for trace metals is obtained in the fine fraction of the sediments as this contains the majority of the organic material, clays and iron and manganese oxides. The coarser fractions including pebbles are generally of more local origin and depleted in trace elements. Usually the size cut-off is taken at 80 mesh (80 holes per inch or <190 m).

Stream sediments

For base metal analysis and geochemical mapping a 0.5 kg sample is sufficient but a much larger sample is required for gold analysis due to the very erratic distribution of gold particles. A number of authors have collected 10 kg of -2 mm material and carefully sub-sampled this. The most common sample collection method is to take a grab sample of active stream sediment at the chosen location. This is best achieved by taking a number of sub-samples over 2030 m along the stream and 1015 cm depth.

Stage of panning a concentrate

Stage of panning a concentrate

Stage of panning a concentrate

The stages of panning a concentrate from sediment. Often the sediment is sieved to -2 mm although this may eliminate any large nugget. Note the importance of mixing the sediment well so that the heavy minerals stay at the bottom of the pan. For an experienced panner the operation will take about 20 minutes.

Panning a concentrate

Panned concentrate sampling in northern Pakistan. The water is glacial so edge of river sampling is essential.

Soil sampling

The simplest sampling scheme is to take near surface soil samples. The major problem is to decide which layer of the soil to sample, as the differences between the layers are often greater than that between sites. The type of soil reflects the surface processes but in general the most effective samples are from a zone at around 30 cm depth formed by the downward movement of clays, organic material and iron oxides, the B horizon, or the near surface organic material (A horizon). The different sampled horizon will reflect a different result.

Soil sampling
Soil profile showing the effect of sample texture and soil horizons on copper content. Note the bedrock copper content of 0.15% Cu. Letters refer to soil horizons and sub-divisions, from the top L, A, B, C and R (rock). (From Hoffman, 1987)

Soil sampling

Effect of sampling differing soil horizons with very different metals contents during a soil traverse

Soil sampling

Typical surface soil sampling in temperate terrains using hand augers over the Coed-y-Brenin copper prospect, Wales. This allows sampling to a depth of the order of 1 m, although normally samples are taken from around 30 cm and masses of around 100200 g collected for base metal exploration.

Dispersion through overburden along the soil traverse in previous page. Note the different mobilities of W, Cu, and As.

Soil traverse across the mineralized dike. Note the sharp cut-off upslope and dispersion downslope.

Rock sampling

Rock sampling is included in the technique for follow-up because although it has been applied with some success in regional reconnaissance, it is really in detailed work, where there is good outcrop or where there is drill core. The bulk rock samples sould be as big as 1 kg samples for base metal exploration, but precious metal determi-nation requires larger samples, perhaps as large as 5 kg. Surface weathering products should be removed with a steel brush. Rock geochemistry depends on multi-element interpretaion and computer based interpretaion with careful subdivision.

Sampling techniques

In areas where soil cover is thin, the location and testing of bedrock mineralization is made relatively straight-forward by the examination and sampling of outcrops. In locations of thick cover, the testing involve a deep sampling programme, such as: Pitting with mechanical excavator, depths of 3 to 4 m or up to 30 m. It depends on the condition of location. Trenching usually completed at right angles, across a mineralized zone. Drilling either auger drilling, rotary drilling or percussion drilling.

Analytical methods