Introduction

In 1994, Argos Europe subsidiaries were facing difficulties to create an effective communication network with their suppliers. To deal with this issue, an expatriate from Argos US subsidiary was sent by Argos International to work at Argos Europe in Zurich, Switzerland.

Bert Donaldson, who was Professor of American studies in Cairo prior to working in Argos US, is chosen by Bill Loun, the CEO and chairman of Argos International, as the qualified person to assist Frank Waterhouse, the CEO of Argos Diesel Europe. Bert Donaldson was chosen due to his success in helping Argos US in creating the cross-divisional, cross functional teams, which achieved considerable cost reductions and quality improvements.

Arising Problems
As Donaldson had been chosen to work in different country as an expatriate, he might deal with many challenges related to international expatriate manager. Before highlighting the challenges, it is necessary to define the terms of expatriate. The definition of an expatriate is an employee who have been sent by their employers to reside or work outside their home country on temporary assignment (Osland, 2008 p.20). It is also commonly viewed that expatriate assignment as the best way to develop global leaders.

Moreover, to ensure the international assignment is a success, it is important that the expatriate undergoes expatriate adjustments. There are three dimensions of adjustments (Osland, 2008 p.22): work adjustment (comfort with the assigned task or job), interaction adjustment (comfort interacting with host country nationals inside and outside of work), and general or cultural adjustment, such as general living conditions, local food, transportation, entertainment, facilities and health care services in the host country.

Using these three dimensions as the guideline of our case study, it is evident that Donaldson has not adjusted to these dimensions hence he was having trouble in adapting his family and himself in Zurich.

As an international or global manager, they need to have a global perspective. Global perspective consists of a global mind-set supported by appropriate skills and knowledge. These managers have to effectively integrate three global forces; global business, regional/country pressure, and worldwide functions. Hence, the challenges they usually face include communication, culture, and project management coordination (Kayworth & Leidner, 2000; Kedia & Mukherji, 1999).

Global Manager
There is no exact definition of a global leader. However, to simplify the idea, we are going to use the framework below as the basic definition of it.

A host countrys culture may differ from the culture at home country, thus it is vital that a global manager has the right characteristics to be able to adapt to the differences. According to Ali (1992) the requirements for being a successful global manager is not only restricted to technical or professional skills, but it also includes their personal, social, and cross-cultural skills. Moreover, Ali indicated that a global manager has to have these following qualities (1992, p.273): a) Have learned and internalized a global perspective; b) Are effective in dealing with and managing human resources; c) Have flexible attributes; d) Have achieved an adequate level of technical literary; e) They are mobile and at ease in dealing with people from different cultures; f) Have knowledge of the social, economic, and political environments of other nations; g) Creative problem solvers;

h) Attentive to change and to the importance of personal relations; i) Not self-indulgent and have shed childhood prejudices (stereotypes); j) Have conversational proficiency in two or more languages. In the case study, Bill Loun had sent Bert Donaldson to its European subsidiary to create a seamless European team to facilitate communication among the different European parts suppliers. However, gradually, Donaldsons performance did not meet Frank Waterhouses, the CEO of Argos Diesel Europe, expectations. This is because Donaldson lacked crosscultural awareness as a global manager.

Management Style
The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness) Project is a multi-phase, multi method project in which investigators spanning the world are examining the inter-relationships between societal culture, organizational culture and organizational leadership. The GLOBE has identified six global leadership dimensions of culturally endorsed implicit theories of leadership. The dimensions are charismatic, team-oriented, participative, autonomous, self-protected and humane oriented (House et al, 2004). According to the GLOBE project, Donaldson can be classified as a participative leader. Participative leadership reflects the degree to which managers involve others in making and implementing decision. In the case, Donaldson was said to be walking around where he asked questions, suggestions, solutions and ideas. To the Europeans he is an incompetent manager because he is seen as if he could not come up with all these himself. However in the US-

management context, this is seen to be a participative approach. In addition, it was clear that Donaldson failed to realize there is a different of management style in different cultures.

In the case, Argos Europe office is located in a high power-distance country, whereby power is distributed unequally. It is evident in the case where Donaldson referred to his program organizer, Bettina Schweri as a secretary and it is considered an insult to her power and status.

Cross-cultural awareness is an important factor in international business. The differences in culture are summed up in Hofstedes five-cultural dimensions (2002, p.92); Power distance: the inequality between people in any society. Large power distance- inequality is normal and desirable thing Small power distance- inequality should be avoided as much as possible Individualism vs. Collectivism: relationship between individuals within a society Individualism - everybody for him/herself Collectivism - people should remain attached to tight groups throughout life Masculinity vs. Feminity: social roles in a society related to being born as a boy/girl Masculinity - social gender roles should be maximally different Feminity - social gender roles should be maximally overlapping Uncertainty avoidance: level of anxiety in a society when it is confronted with the unknown Strong uncertainty avoidance- fear of the unknown Weak uncertainty avoidance-curious of the unknown Long-term orientation vs. Short-term orientation: time perspective in society for the gratification of peoples needs Long-term orientation - implies a stress on virtuous living in this world: thrift and persistence as key virtues Short-term orientation - seeking immediate gratification

Exhibit 1

Individualism vs. Collectivism and Feminism vs. Masculinity

Source: (Ali, 1992)

Exhibit 2

Uncertainty Avoidance vs. Power Distance

Source: (Ali, 1992

Who is at fault?
In term of who is fault in the case, it could be traced back by determining three major roles that contribute to the overall let down. First, Loun had not consulted Waterhouse or any expatriate consulting firms in deciding the Project Manager position. In addition, Loun chose someone that conducted his job following the Argos way, which is American. Donaldsons methods and approach were unacceptable to the other managers resulting in poor morale.

Furthermore, Waterhouse recognized Donaldsons incompetence in managing the team, but he was unable to effectively address the situation. Waterhouse failed to rebuke Donaldson until the negative feedbacks were flowing in thus incapable of managing the cross-cultural problems Donaldson was having. Ultimately, Donaldson acts as the pivot of the failure with his one-size-fits-all approach towards the team and inability to adapt to cross cultural learning manner. This was reflected in the case whereas Donaldson did not fully utilize the capabilities of Scherwi, his assistant, which was fluent in five languages.

In the end however, all three roles had their degree of contribution of the overall outcome. However, if their flaws were weighted, then the blame would be strongest on Donaldson. To start with, he is not able to adapt even in the second year of a three-year project. Even though he had already undergone cross-cultural training early in his assignment, he continues to neglect cultural understanding. Donaldsons mindset is frozen on the American way of thinking and doing business causing rejecting cultural integrations within the company.

Small Informal Meeting

In order to handle the meeting with Donaldson, it is better for Waterhouse to take time to meet up in small informal meeting discussing what is wrong within the company. Since Waterhouse and Donaldson are Americans, they should have same understanding about the home culture and easier for them to communicate each other. According to Hislop (2004),

small informal meeting is good at encouraging a co-operative approach to identify and solving problems. These meetings can be targeted at a certain interest group or can involve people who represent diverse interests. Moreover, in this meeting Waterhouse can help Donaldson by sharing information about his experience regarding the host countrys culture. Further, Waterhouse can clarify the differences and similarities of the American and Swiss culture to build mutual understanding and clarify misunderstanding perceptions bringing trust among the players. Also, Waterhouse could discuss the ways and approaches to bridge the gap between the two cultures by thinking locally and understanding mind-sets. Initially, Waterhouse can suggest Donaldson to review the teams managerial functions that they are willing to change. It is important to take in mind that the importance of other cultures but it does not necessarily mean that companies have to adopt the approach in full. Donaldson needs to find equilibrium between the American and Swiss culture as a medium of effective style for the managers and for the team and organizations success (Javidam, Dorfman, Sully, de Luque, and House, 2006).

Additionally, Waterhouse can ask his assistant (Lindt) and Schweri (Donaldsons assistant) to join the meeting with him and Donaldson, since they are already familiar with the situation. Furthermore, Lindt and Schweri can act as a facilitator to record and summarize the meeting as well as giving their opinion every time Waterhouse or Donaldson need it. By taking this kind of informal meeting, it is hoped that they are able addressing the arising problems and come out with such appropriate solutions.

Conclusion
Expatriate managers tend to fail in performance due to unsuccessful adaptation to cultural changes. Instead of accepting foreign behaviours and setting aside prejudice and stereotyping habits, expatriates that fail incline to be critical and not open-minded. In addition, some managers are sent on overseas assignment as expatriates, without receiving proper training concerning culture, customs, norms, business environment, of a particular host country. Even though Bert Donaldson is most qualified manager from Detroit, he did

not succeed to express cultural sensitiveness towards the Germans and Swiss that resulted in low employee morale.

Due to this failure in communication triggered by culture, causing major setbacks in time, it is suggested that Argos develops a cross cultural taskforce that acts as a platform for managers with different cultural backgrounds to discuss cultural issues within the organization minimizing cultural frictions mentioned in the case. These cross cultural task force or divisions may be affiliated to the Human Resource division with individual visions and goals.

A crucial mistake stated in the case, proof of Donaldsons cultural negligence, was the underutilized culture knowledge of Lindt and Scherwi. Scherwi, for instance, is very familiar with the local culture and fluent in five languages. If Donaldson was more aware of this and had the desire to adapt, then this could be a start as language is always a good way to understand more about a particular culture. Companies such as Argos should have training programs that include language studies not only provided in the beginning of the assignment, but throughout the expatriates assignment. If Donaldson had at least language training, his American rationale of one size-fits-all approach could be altered.