DOMAINS OF LEARNING

INTRODUCTION
One of the basic questions facing educators has always been "Where do we begin in seeking to improve human thinking?" (Houghton, 2004). This question is very pertinent to discovering the nature and basis of learning. Various answers and postulations have been provided by old and contemporary Educational Psychologists. (Houghton, 2004) offered that "One place to begin is in defining the nature of thinking. Before we can make it better, we need to know more of what it is". Notable among the Educational Psychologists that helped educators to understand and approach learning concisely is Benjamin Bloom with his classification of learning into the three popularly known domains of learning. As early as 1956 Educational Psychologist Benjamin Bloom divided what and how we learn into three separate domains of learning. Benjamin S. Bloom extensively contemplated the nature of thinking, and after an extensive work, he postulated that learning is such that is compartmentalized into three separate domains which are Cognitive, Affective and Psycho-motor domains. Each of the domains represents the different aspect of human aptitude, attitude and ability (physical). This is generally referred to as KSA, which is:
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Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge) Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Blooms Taxonomy or classification is very important to the education profession and other capacity building endeavours not only because it offers a general overview of human learning but helps the educator to determine his instructional objectives which form the basis of his evaluation of the instruction, learner and himself. So the well-known taxonomy of learning objectives is an attempt (within the behavioural paradigm) to classify forms and levels of learning. It identifies three domains of learning (as highlighted above), each of which is organized as a series of levels or pre-requisites. It is suggested that one cannot effectively or ought not try to address higher levels until those below them have been covered (it is thus effectively serial in structure). As well as providing a basic sequential model for dealing with topics in the curriculum, it also suggests a

THE THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING

1. COGNITIVE DOMAIN

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories. The most-used of the domains, refers to knowledge structures (although sheer knowing the facts is its bottom level). It can be viewed as a sequence of progressive contextualization of the material. This categorized and ordered thinking skills and objectives. Blooms taxonomy follows the thinking process and procedures. A student cannot understand a concept if he or she does not first remember it, similarly he or she cannot apply knowledge and concepts if he or she does not understand them. It is a continuum from Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) to Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). Bloom described each category as a gerund. Knowledge: Recall data or information.

Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.

Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.

Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.

Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

The arrangement of the thinking process or the cognitive domain in the increasing order, from lower order to higher order is shown in the diagram below.

However, in the 1990's, a former student of Bloom, Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl, revised Bloom's Taxonomy and published this- Bloom's Revised Taxonomy in 2001. Key to this is the use of verbs rather than nouns for each of the categories and a rearrangement of the sequence within the taxonomy. They are arranged below in increasing order, from Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) to Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS).

Each of the categories or taxonomic elements above has a number of key verbs associated with it. These are highlighted below in the lower order of thinking skills (LOTS)

Remembering - Recognising, listing, describing, identifying, retrieving, naming, locating, finding

Understanding - Interpreting, Summarising, inferring, paraphrasing, classifying, comparing, explaining, exemplifying

Applying - Implementing, carrying out, using, executing Analysing - Comparing, organising, deconstructing, Attributing, outlining, finding, structuring, integrating

Evaluating - Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, Experimenting, judging, testing, Detecting, Monitoring

Creating - designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing, devising, making (Based on Bloom, 1956)

Changes in terminology between the two versions are perhaps the most obvious differences and can also cause the most confusion. Basically, Bloom's six major categories were changed from noun to verb forms. Additionally, the lowest level of the original, knowledge was renamed and became remembering. Finally, comprehension and synthesis were retitled to understanding and creating. In an effort to minimize the confusion, comparison between the two are shown in the images below.

Source: http://www.odu.edu/educ/llschult/blooms_taxonomy.htm The graphic represents the new verb-age associated with the long familiar Bloom's Taxonomy. The change from Nouns to Verbs [e.g., Application to Applying] to describe the different levels of the taxonomy, also that the top two levels are essentially exchanged from the Old to the New version." (Schultz, 2005) (Evaluation moved from the top to Evaluating in the second from the top, Synthesis moved from second on top to the top as Creating.) A more pictorial explanation of instructional objectives verbs related to the cognitive domain is shown in the table below. Category Knowledge: Recall data or information. Key Words (verbs) Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states. Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases,

State a problem in one's own words. Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place. Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses. Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

organizational structure may discriminates, distinguishes,

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are categorized by (Bloom et al, 1973) from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The Affective domain has received less attention, and is less intuitive than the Cognitive. It is concerned with values, or more precisely perhaps with perception of value issues, and ranges from mere awareness (Receiving), through to being able to distinguish implicit values through analysis. (Kratwohl, Bloom and Masia (1964)). The diagrams below show the chronological order of the affective domain in response to leaning n instruction.

Examples of related instructional objectives verbs and key words in the affective domain are also shown in the table below.

Category

Example and Key Words (verbs) Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the

Receiving Phenomena:

name of newly introduced people.

Awareness, willingness to hear, Key Words: asks, chooses, selected attention. describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses. Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them. Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

Valuing: The worth or value a Examples: Demonstrates belief in person attaches to a particular the democratic process. Is sensitive object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from complex state of commitment. Valuing is based towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through

simple acceptance to the more the ability to solve

on the internalization of a set of with commitment. Informs specified values, while clues to management on matters that one these values are expressed in feels strongly about. the learner's overt behavior and Key Words: completes, are often identifiable. demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates,

invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works. Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes. Internalizing values system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns Examples: Shows self-reliance independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what (characterization): Has a value when working

of adjustment (personal, social, they are, not how they look.

Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, emotional). modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

3.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed below from the simplest behavior to the most complex: Example and Key Words (verbs) Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates,

Category Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.

relates, selects. Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the Responding to phenomena subdivision of the Affective domain. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers. Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds Mechanism: This is the complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements Key Words: assembles, Examples: Use a personal Drive a car.

intermediate stage in learning a computer. Repair a leaking faucet.

calibrates, constructs, dismantles, can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce. Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc. Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.

the new task). Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies. Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates. comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine.

Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies

Bloom never completed work on the psychomotor domain, and there have been several attempts to complete it. One of the simplest versions has been suggested by Dave (1975): it fits with the model of developing skill put forward by Reynolds (1965), and it also draws attention to the fundamental role of imitation in skill acquisition. Dave (1975) and Harrows (1972) hierarchical version of Psycho-motor domain of learning is explained and also shown below in diagrams.

Dave's (1975):
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Imitation Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.

Manipulation Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.

Precision Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be just right.

Articulation Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.

Naturalization Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's (1972):
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Reflex movements Reactions that are not learned. Fundamental movements Basic movements such as walking, or grasping.

Perception Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.

Physical abilities Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility.

Skilled movements Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.

No discursive communication Effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.

Other psychomotor domain taxonomies e.g Simpsons psychomotor domain exists but much preference is given to Daves taxonomy.

CONCLUSON
The whole essence of understanding human thinking is to assist the learner in acquiring knowledge in a manner that covers the whole genre of learning domains. It is pertinent to say that a conscientious teacher must consider an integration of all the three domains of learning when deciding on instructional objectives and also in planning the lesson. This is necessary as the objectives of continuous assessment cannot be totally achieved with only the cognitive domain variables been considered for instruction and evaluation. A general web of the Blooms research and giving on the three domains of learning as useful to the integrated instruction and evaluation is depicted below.

REFERENCES
Atherton J S (2011) Learning and Teaching; Bloom's taxonomy [On-line: UK] retrieved 10 February 2012 from http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives. (R. J. Armstrong, ed.). Tucson, Arizona: Educational Innovators Press. Harrow, A. (1972) A Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for Developing Behavioral Objectives. New York: David McKay. Houghton, R.S. (2004). Communities Resolving Our Problems (C.R.O.P.): the basic idea: Bloom's Taxonomy - Overview. Retrieved February 12, 2012 from http://www.ceap.wcu.edu/Houghton/Learner/think/bloomsTaxonomy.html http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/Bloom's+Digital+Taxonomy Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc. Pohl, M. (2000). Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn: Models and Strategies to Develop a Classroom Culture of Thinking. Cheltenham, Vic.: Hawker Brownlow. Simpson E. J. (1972). The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.