1

University of Cape Town

Department of Physics
PHY2014F
Vibrations and Waves
Andy Buffler
Department of Physics
University of Cape Town
andy.buffler@uct.ac.za
Part 1
Simple harmonic oscillators
Damped oscillators
Driven oscillators
Resonance
covering (more or less)
French Chapters 1, 3 & 4
2
Prescribed textbook:
with significant acknowledgment to the notes of Steve
Driver, who was brilliant for decades
the animated gifs are from Dr. Daniel A. Russell,
Kettering University (http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/)
PHY2014F
3
What to do in this course:
1. Read the relevant sections in the textbook the course
notes will guide you.
2. Do all homework and problem sets.
3. Get help early from AB, the course tutor,
4. As in PHY1004W, there are no shortcuts put effort in to
understand things
PHY2014F
4
Problem-solving and homework
Each week you will be given a take-home problem set to
complete and hand in for marks ...
In addition to this, you need to work through the following
problems in French, in you own time, at home. You will not be
asked to hand these in for marks. Get help from you friends, the
course tutor, lecturer, ... Do not take shortcuts.
Mastering these problems is a fundamental aspect of this course.
The problems associated with Part 1 are:
1-8, 1-11, 1-12, 2-1, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-8, 3-9, 3-11, 3-14,
3-15, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, 4-10, 4-11, 4-12, 4-13, 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, 4-17
You might find these tougher: 3-7, 3-10, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 4-8, 4-9
5
Some useful (?) trigonometric identities
2 2
sin cos 1 A A + = ( )
sin 2 cos A A =
( )
sin sin A A =
( )
cos cos A A =
( )
tan tan A A =
( )
sin sin cos cos sin A B A B A B =
( )
cos cos cos sin sin A B A B A B = )
( )
tan tan
tan
1 tan tan
A B
A B
A B

=
)
( )
sin 2 2sin cos A A A =
( )
2 2 2
cos 2 cos sin 1 2sin A A A A = =
( )
2
2tan
tan 2
1 tan
A
A
A
=

6
More useful (?) trigonometric identities
sin sin 2sin cos
2 2
A B A B
A B
+
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
sin sin 2cos sin
2 2
A B A B
A B
+
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
cos cos 2cos cos
2 2
A B A B
A B
+
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
cos cos 2sin sin
2 2
A B A B
A B
+
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( )
1
2
sin sin cos cos A B A B A B ( = +

( ) ( )
1
2
cos cos cos cos A B A B A B ( = + +

( ) ( )
1
2
sin cos sin sin A B A B A B ( = + +

( ) ( )
1
2
cos sin sin sin A B A B A B ( = +

7
Oscillatory Phenomena
observed in many physical systems
from the very small(e.g. dipole resonance in nuclei)
to the very large (earthquake waves, stars,)
Mechanical systems
to lasers
from violin strings
to electrical systems
All periodic phenomena can be represented as the sum of
sine and cosine functions:
( ) ( cos sin )
n n
x t a n t b n t = +

useful to study the simple harmonic oscillator

8
Consider the function
2 T = where T : period (s)
: angular frequency (rad s
-1
)
1
f
T
=
( ) cos( ) x t A t = +
A
A
0
t
2

3 2
2
4
T
where f : frequency (Hz)
A : Amplitude
: phase angle, initial phase or phase constant
some books
use
9
Mass-spring oscillator
Hookes Law:
Restoring force,
For horizontal forces on the mass:
Start with the
momentum principle:
2
2
d x k
x
dt m
=
restore
k = F x
,
,
0
= x x x
, , ,
where
and k is the spring constant
[N m
-1
]
or
x
x
x
unstretched
compessed
extended
external
F
,
external
F
,
restore
F
,
0
x
,
x
,
x
,
restore
F
,
k
m
net
d
dt
=
p
F
,
,
x
dp
kx
dt
=
( )
x
d mv
kx
dt
=
d dx
m kx
dt dt
| |
=
|
\ .
10
2
2
( )
( )
d x t k
x t
dt m

=
... a second order differential equation
... we know that if we displace a mass-spring
system from its rest position and then release it,
it will perform SHM ...
Guess a trial solution:
( ) cos( ) x t A t = +
2
2
2
cos( )
d x
A t
dt
= + then
and substitute into our DE:
2
cos( ) cos( )
k
A t A t
m
+ = +
... which is true provided
2
k
m
=
Mass-spring oscillator ...2
( ) cos( ) x t A t = + Therefore our solution is where
k
m
=
11
We will write a particular value of as , as the natural
angular frequency of the oscillator the frequency that it wants
to oscillate at.
0

Mass-spring system:
0
k
m
=
and 2
m
T
k
=
System parameters: m, k
0

(Note that is independent of A)

Initial conditions:

Mass-spring oscillator ...3
A,
0

12
0
( ) cos( ) x t A t = +
0 0
( )
( ) sin( )
dx t
v t A t
dt
= = +
acceleration = (constant) . (displacement)
=
=
Phase difference between acceleration and displacement is
Phase difference between v and x (and v & a ) is
2
0 0
cos( ) A t +
2
0 0
cos( ) A t + +

2
2
0 0
2
( ) ( )
( ) cos( )
d x t dv t
a t A t
dt dt
= = = +
Simple harmonic oscillator
French
page 5
13
t
t
t
0
( ) cos( ) x t A t = +
0 0
( ) sin( ) v t A t = +
2
0 0
( ) cos( ) a t A t = +
A
0
0
0
0
A
2
0
A
14
At t = 0, write x = x
0
and v = v
0
.
0
cos( ) x A =
0 0
sin( ) v A =
0
0 0
tan
v
x

=
and
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
0
0
cos ( ) sin ( )
v
x A A A

| |
+ = + =
|
\ .
2
2
0
0
0
v
A x

| |
= +
|
\ .
Simple harmonic oscillator
Then at t = 0 :
15
Mass-spring oscillator: an energy approach
Equilibrium
x
Suppose that the mass
has a speed v when it
has displacement x
v
m
m
Kinetic energy of mass =
Potential energy of spring =
2
1
2
mv
' 2
1
2
0 0
' '
x x
Fdx kx dx kx = =

There are no dissipative mechanisms in our model (no friction).
the total energy of the mass-spring system is conserved.
2 2
1 1
2 2
constant mv kx + =
16
Mass-spring oscillator: an energy approach 2
2 2
1 1
2 2
constant mv kx + =
For our mass-spring system:
( )
2 2
1 1
2 2
0
d
mv kx
dt
+ =
0
dv dx
mv kx
dt dt
+ =
0
dv
mv kxv
dt
+ =
0
dv
m kx
dt
+ =
2
2
d x k
x
dt m
=
as before
17
For the mass-spring system:
0
cos( ) x A t = +
Potential energy =
2 2 2
1 1
0 2 2
cos ( ) kx kA t = +
k.e. =
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 2 2 2
[ sin( )] sin ( ) mv m A t mA t = + = +
Total energy = p.e. + k.e
2
1
2
kA =
2 2
1
0 2
( ) m A =
2
( ) E A
Mass-spring oscillator: an energy approach 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
0 0 0 2 2
cos ( ) sin ( ) kA t mA t = + + +
We can now write:
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
kx mv kA + =
2 2
( )
k
v A x
m
=
2 2
0
( ) v x A x = or
(useful)
French
page 42
18
t
t
t
t
0
0
0
0
2 2
1
0 2
p.e. cos ( ) kA t = +
2 2 2
1
0 0 2
k.e. sin ( ) mA t = +
2
1
2
total energy kA =
0
cos( ) x A t = +
Energy of the mass-spring simple harmonic oscillator
19
Mass suspended from a light spring
0
( ) k L L mg =
0
( ) k L L kx = +
mg kx = +
Net force on mass: ( ) mg mg kx kx + =
2
2
d x
m kx
dt
=
(Same equation as for horizontal case)
0
L
x
unstretched
equilibrium
displaced
L
Equilibrium:
(downwards)
Displaced:
Force on mass due to spring:
(upwards)
20
21
The pendulum: general case
Static
equilibrium:
frictionless
pivot
centre of mass
L
L

Displaced:
In displaced position, centre of mass is above the
equilibrium position.
cos L L
Recall
2 4
cos 1 ...
2! 4!

= + For small angles,
2
cos 1
2

Gravitational potential energy =
2
(1 cos )
2
mgL mgL

=
L
French
page 51
22
The pendulum: general case 2
Gravitational potential energy =
2
1
2
mgL
Kinetic energy =
2
1
2
d
I
dt

| |
|
\ .
Total energy =
2
2
1 1
2 2
d
I mgL
dt

| |
+
|
\ .
= constant
2
2
0
d d d
I mgL
dt dt dt

+ =
true for all
d
dt

2
2
0
2
d mgL
dt I

= = where
0
mgL
I
=
Equation of SHM
23
The pendulum: general case 3
Sometimes we need the moment of inertia about an axis parallel to
the axis through the centre of mass (which might be easier to
calculate).
Then by the parallel axis theorem:
2
CM
I I mL = +
... where I is the moment of inertia a distance L from the centre
of mass, under the condition that the two axes of rotation are
parallel.
0
2
CM
mgL
I mL
=
+
Then for the pendulum:
... where k is the radius of gyration
write:
2
CM
I mk =
Then and
0
2 2
gL
k L
=
+
2 2
2
k L
T
gL

+
=
24
In general, to show SHM
. get an equation of motion of the form:
2
2
0
2
d
dt

=
Simple harmonic systems
Look at French pages 45-59
very carefully:
Elasticity and Youngs modulus
Floating objects
Pendulums
Water in a U-tube
Torsional oscillations
The spring of air
Also useful to consider conservation of energy:
2
2
1
2
2
(*) (#)
d x
E x
dt
= +
then:
0
2#
*
k
m
= =
2
1
2
( ) E mv mgh = +
2
1
2
kx
25
The simple pendulum
m
L
0
2
mgL g
mL L
= =
2
I mL =
2
L
T
g
=
The oscillating hoop
radius a, mass m
pivot
0
2
g
a
=
26
The oscillating rod
L
d
pivot
com
2
2
12
md
I mL = +
0
2 2 2
1
12
12
mgL g
md mL d L L
= =
+ +
The wooden cylinder bouncing (vertically) in water
d
l
radius a, mass m
c

can show that

( )
2
w
ma a g x =
0
g
l
=
get
mass m
27
Elasticity
L
L + x
F F
stress
strain
= constant for small stretching
Write
F A
Y
x L
=
Y: Youngs modulus
= constant for a particular material
Elastic oscillations
F
m
Here F is restoring force in wire
AYx
ma
L
=
Hence
0
AY
mL
=
and
A
French
page 45
28
Ball bearing bouncing (vertically) in a cylinder of air
P, V
If pressure change in flask is adiabatic:
ball radius a, mass m, density
b

constant PV

=
where
P
V
C
C
=
0
3
4
b
Pa
V

=
Water sloshing in a U-tube
U-tube radius a
Water volume V
use conservation
of energy
2
0
2g a
V

=
29
Water sloshing in a rectangular pan
tough ?
h
2L
use conservation of energy
0
2
3gh
L
=
Rocking solid hemisphere
tough ?
use conservation of energy
radius a, mass m
0
15
26
g
a
=
30
Oscillations involving massive springs
k, M
m
unstretched
3 l 3 l 3 l
m
stretched
(x depends on
distance s from
fixed end)
3 x
x
2 3 x
k.e. of element of spring lying between s and ds =
s
2
1
2
M s dx
ds
l l dt
| || |
| |
\ .\ .
Total kinetic energy of spring =
2 2
2
3
0 2 6
l
M dx M dx
s ds
l dt dt
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

Total energy of mass-spring system =

2 2
2
1 1
2 2 6
dx M dx
m kx
dt dt
| | | |
+ +
| |
\ . \ .
giving
0
3
k
m M
=
+
French
page 60
31
Complex numbers
Consider a vector of
length r which rotates with
angular velocity
O
P
r
t
y
x
The point P has coordinates
cos x r t =
sin y r t =
We see that the x coordinate of P, or the projection of
onto the x-axis, executes SHM
Can also introduce the unit vectors and
O
P

x i

y j
r
,
and write

j

x y = + r i j
,
French
page 10
OP
,
OP
,
32
Modify our notation to z x jy = +
... where x means a displacement
in the x-direction and jy means a
displacement in the y-direction
z
a
b
z = a + jb
We can also think of j as a rotation through anticlockwise
2

b j
2
b
jb
Hence j
2
= 1
... really talking about
vectors in the complex
number plane:
z
a
b
z = a + jb
Imaginary
Real
Complex numbers 2
33
From Taylors theorem:
2 3
1 ...
2! 3!
x
x x
e x = + + + +
therefore
2 3 4
1 ...
2! 3! 4!
j
j
e j

= + + +
and
2 4
cos 1 ...
2! 4!

= + + and
3
sin ...
3!
j
j j

= +
Hence
cos sin
j
e j

= +
Euler relation
z = a + jb
z
Imaginary
Real

cos a z =
sin b z =
Then
j
z e

=
where
2 2
z a b = +
tan
b
a
=
Complex numbers 3
34
0
1
j
e =
2
1
j
e

= 1
j
e

=
4 1 1
2 2
j
e j

= +
4

2
j
e j

=
35
For our rotating vectors:
z = x + jy
cos sin A t jA t = +
A
Imaginary
Real
t
x
y
( )
cos sin A t j t = +
j t
Ae

=
Now write:
( )
cos( ) sin( )
j t
Ae A t jA t


+
= + + +
... and remember that the physical quantity x (e.g. a
displacement) is the real part of z :
i.e. x = Re[z]
Complex numbers 4
36
SHM using complex numbers
2
2
0
2
0
d x
x
dt
+ =
Using z = x + jy
2
2
0
2
0
d z
z
dt
+ =
becomes
Try
( ) j t
z Ae
+
=
2 ( ) 2 ( )
( ) 0
j t j t
A j e Ae


+ +
+ =
Therefore
( ) j t
z Ae
+
=
is the most general solution
A and are determined from the initial conditions.
Take real part of z:
x = Re[z] =
0
cos( ) A t +

French
page 14
37
SHM using complex numbers
0
cos( ) x A t = +
( ) j t
z Ae
+
=
x = Re[z]
0 0
sin( )
dx
A t
dt
= +
( ) j t
dz
j Ae j z
dt


+
= =
Re
dx dz
dt dt
(
=
(

2
2
0 0
2
cos( )
d x
A t
dt
= +
( )
2
2
( ) 2
2
j t
d z
j Ae z
dt


+
= =
2 2
2 2
Re
d x d z
dt dt
(
=
(

38
Solving
2
2
0
2
( )
( ) 0
d x t
x t
dt
+ =
Let
pt
x Be =
Then
pt
dx
Bpe
dt
=
and
2
2
2
pt
d x
Bp e
dt
=
Substituting into DE:
2 2
0
0
pt pt
Bp e B e + =
This holds true for all t if and only if or
2 2
0
p =
0
p j =
0 0
1 2
j t j t
x Be B e

= +
How to get and ?
1
B
2
B
need to know the initial conditions
but consider
0 0
0 1 0 2
j t j t
dx
v j Be j B e
dt



= =
39
0 0
0 1 0 2
j t j t
dx
v j Be j B e
dt



= =
At t = 0,
1 0 2
(0) v j B j B =
Choose (0) 0 v =
Since v must be real, then
1 2
B B B = =
0 0
j t j t
x Be Be

= +
i.e.
0
2 cos B t =
0
cos x A t =
[ with a little more effort we could have got
the more general solution ]
( )
0
cos x A t = +
Solving continued
2
2
0
2
( )
( ) 0
d x t
x t
dt
+ =
40
Example: 3-phase current
Large scale electrical power transmission makes use of 3 phases
1
I
2
I
3
I
1
V
2
V
3
V
long transmission line
Return current
1 2 3
I I I + +
1
R
2
R
3
R
The three voltages are 120 out of phase with each other
1 0
cos( ) V V t =
2 0
cos( 2 3) V V t = +
3 0
cos( 4 3) V V t = +
41
Use complex numbers:
( 2 3)
2 0
j t
V V e
+
=
( 4 3)
3 0
j t
V V e
+
=
1 0
j t
V V e

=
0
j t
V e

( 2 3)
0
j t
V e
+
( 4 3)
0
j t
V e
+
0
0
0
t
t
t
3 t =
3-phase current 2
42
The currents are given by:
1 1 1
I V R =
3 3
3
I V R =
2 2 2
I V R =
Consider important case where
1 2 3
R R R R = = =
( 2 3)
0
2
j t
V
I e
R
+
=
( 4 3)
0
3
j t
V
I e
R
+
=
0
1
j t
V
I e
R

=
Then
Return current
1 2 3
I I I I = + +
{ }
2 3 4 3
0
1
j t j j
V
e e e
R

= + +
= 0
Why is this useful ? ... and cost-saving?
1
2 3 j
e

4 3 j
e

3-phase current 3
43
A short diversion A.C.
Consider the heating effect of alternating current in a resistor.
At any instant
2
P VI I R = =
For ,
0
cos I I t =
2 2
0
cos P I R t =
Then the average power heating:
2 2
0
cos P I R t =
2
1
2
cos t =
cos 0 t =
I
P
t
t
0
cos I t
2 2
0
cos I R t
44
Then the average power heating:
2 2
0
cos P I R t =
2
2
0
0
1
2
2
I
I R R
| |
= =
|
\ .
a direct current of magnitude would have the
same heating power as an alternating current of amplitude .
is known as the effective value of the current, or
the root mean square value.
0
2 I
0
2 I
0
I
With respect to the 50 Hz a.c. mains in South Africa:
the r.m.s. voltage is quoted as 220 volts
Hence
0
2 220 V =
0
220 2 V = = 311 volts
A.C. 2
45
back to three phase power
What is the maximum voltage
between two of the lines?
( 2 3)
2 0
j t
V V e
+
=
( 4 3)
3 0
j t
V V e
+
=
1 0
j t
V V e

=
e.g. what is ?
( )
1 2
maximum
V V
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
0
V
1 0
j t
V V e

=
0
2V
0
2V
0
V
0
( 2 3)
2 0
j t
V V e
+
=
1 2
V V
t
A.C. 3
46
( 2 3)
2 0
j t
V V e
+
=
1 0
j t
V V e

=
( )
1 2
maximum
V V
in three phase power ?
( 2 3)
1 2 0 0
j t j t
V V V e V e
+
=
{ }
2 3
0
1
j t j
V e e

=
0
2 2
1 cos sin
3 3
j t
V e j

=
`
)
0
1 3
1
2 2
j t
V e j

= +
`
)
1
2 3 j
e

2 3
1
j
e

( )
( )
2
2
2 3
3 3
2 2
1
j
e

= +
3 =
0
3 3
2 2
j t
V e j

=
`
)
2 3
1 3
j j
e e

=

0
3
j t j
V e e

=
( )
( )
1 2
maximum
220 2 3 V V = = 539 volts
A.C. 4
47
Oscillations in electric circuits
V IR =
Resistor R
Capacitor C
Inductor L
Q
V
C
=
dI
V L
dt
=
2
P I R =
2
1
2
Q
W
C
=
2
1
2
W LI =
where
dQ
I
dt
=
48
Charging a capacitor through a resistor
+Q
Q
C
R
I

Suppose the capacitor is

uncharged at t = 0.
At some time t > 0, a
current I is established and
a charge Q builds up on
the capacitor.
Energy equation for this circuit:
round trip
0
Q
V RI
C
= =
or

Q dQ Q
RI R
C dt C
= + = +
Differential equation
Solution:
( ) 1
t
RC
Q t C e
| |
=
|
\ .
49

Charging a capacitor through resistor 2

( ) 1
t
RC
Q t C e
| |
=
|
\ .
Q(t)
t
C
0.63 C
V
R
(t)

V
C
(t)
t

I(t)
t
/R
0.37 /R
t
RC = time constant
t t
RC
e e
R R

= =
( )
( )
dQ t
I t
dt
=
( ) ( )
(1 )
C R
t
V V IR
e

= =
=
( )

R C
t
V V
e

=
=
50
Discharging a capacitor through resistor
Suppose the capacitor has
charge Q
0
at t = 0.
At some time t > 0, a current I
is established as the charge
drains off the capacitor.
Energy equation for this circuit:
round trip
0
Q
V RI
C
= + =
or
0
Q dQ Q
RI R
C dt C
= + = +
or
0
( )
t
RC
Q t Q e

=
+Q
Q
C
R

I
Write
1

dQ
dt
Q RC
=

giving
1
lnQ t K
RC
= +
0
ln K Q =
51

Discharging a capacitor through resistor 2

0
( )
t
Q t Q e

=
Q(t)
t
Q
0
0.63 Q
0
V
R
(t)
Q
0
/C
V
C
(t)
t
Q
0
/C
I(t)
t
Q
0
/RC
e Q
0
/RC
t
RC = time constant
0 0
t t
RC
Q Q
e e
RC RC

= =
( )
( )
dQ t
I t
dt
=
0

t
C
Q Q
V e
C C

= =
0
0

t
R
t
RQ
V IR e
RC
Q
e
C

= =
=
52
53
Establishing a current in an inductor
L
R
I

Suppose the current in the

circuit is zero at t = 0.
At some time t > 0, a
current I is established.
Energy equation for this circuit:
round trip
0
dI
V RI L
dt
= =
or

dI R
I
dt L L

| |
+ =
|
\ .
Differential equation
Solution:
( ) 1
R
t
L
I t e
R

| |
=
|
\ .
54

Establishing a current in an inductor 2

I(t)
t
/R
0.63 /R
V
R
(t)

V
L
(t)
t

t
/L
0.37 /L
t
R/L = time constant
( )
R
t
L
dI t
e
dt L

=
( ) ( )

L R
t
V V IR
e

= =
=
( )
(1 )
R L
t
V V
e

=
=
( ) dI t
dt
( ) 1
R
t
L
I t e
R

| |
=
|
\ .
55
Decreasing current in an inductor
t
V
L
(t)

t
R/L = time constant
t
R
V IR e

= =
( ) 1
R
t
L
I t C e
| |
=
|
\ .

I(t)
t
0.63 /R
/R
( ) dI t
dt
( )
R
t
L
dI t
e
dt L

=
/L
/L
( )
R
t
L
L
dI t
V L e
dt


= =
t
V
R
(t)

56
Oscillations in an LC circuit
L
C
I
+Q Q
Capacitor fully charged at t = 0.
At t > 0, charge on capacitor
decreases, giving current in the
direction shown.
C L
V V =
Q dI d dQ
L L
C dt dt dt
| |
= =
|
\ .
dQ
I
dt
=
Hence:
compare with
2
2
d x k
x
dt m
=
Solution of the form
0 0
( ) cos( ) Q t Q t = +
where
2
2
1 d Q
Q
dt LC
=
0
1
LC
=
57
Oscillations in an LC circuit: an energy approach
Energy stored in capacitor:
Energy stored in inductor:
No dissipation (circuit has zero resistance)
2
1
2
Q
E
C
=
2
1
2
E LI =
2
2
1 1
2 2
= constant
Q
LI
C
+
2
2
1 1
2 2
= 0
d Q
LI
dt C
| |
+
|
\ .
= 0
Q dQ dI
LI
C dt dt
+
dQ
I
dt
=
= 0
Q d dQ
L
C dt dt
| |

|
\ .
or
2
2
1 d Q
Q
dt LC
=
as before
58
59
Mechanical
Electrical
displacement x charge Q
velocity v
mass m
spring constant k
current I
inductance L
capacitance
1
0
1
LC
= 0
k
m
=
1
C
potential energy:
kinetic energy:
Electric energy
stored in capacitor:
Magnetic energy
stored in inductor:
2
1
2
kx
2
1
2
mv
2
1
2
Q
C
2
1
2
LI
60
We have thus far neglected all dissipative mechanisms
Damped oscillations
our oscillations can continue oscillating with the
same amplitude forever
Various physical damping mechanisms will contribute towards
the damping
friction between mass and table
air resistance
internal friction in spring
.
model these by introducing a damping force which is
proportional to the velocity of the oscillator
French
page 62
61
In mechanical systems, we draw in a dashpot a device
similar to a shock absorber in a car
In these systems, the damping force b = R v
,
,
b: damping
coefficient
deals with many damping mechanism but not all
viscous damping mechanical systems
resistive damping electrical systems
liquid
piston with small holes
seal dashpot
talk about
62
Damped mass-spring system
2
2
0
2
0
d x dx
x
dt dt
+ + =
x
m
k
b
For horizontal forces on the mass:
ma kx bv =
or
2
2
d x dx
m kx b
dt dt
=
or where
0
k
m
=
b
m
=
: damping constant

unit: s
-1
life time =
1

63
Damped oscillator equation
2
2
0
2
0
d x dx
x
dt dt
+ + =
Let
pt
x Be =
Then
pt
dx
Bpe
dt
= and
2
2
2
pt
d x
Bp e
dt
=
Substituting into DE:
2 2
0
0
pt pt pt
Bp e Bpe Be + + =
Thus
2 2
0
0 p p + + =
{ }
2 2
1
0 2
4 p =
or
2
2
0
2 4
p

=
64
2
2
0
2 4
p

=
We can distinguish three cases:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
2
2
0
4

>
2
2
0
4

=
2
2
0
4

<
Oscillatory behaviour
Critical damping
Overdamping
Damped oscillator equation 2
65
2
2
0
4

> Case (i):

( )
2 2 2 2
0 0
4 4 =
Put
2 2 2
1 0
4 =
2
1 1
2 2
p j

= =
The solution will be:
( ) ( )
{ }
1 1
2 2
2 1 1
1 2 1 2
j t j t
t
j t j t
x Be B e e Be B e




+


= + = +
leading to
2
1
( ) cos( )
t
x t Ae t

= +
This is an oscillatory solution multiplied by
a damping factor .
1
cos( ) A t +
2 t
e

As we approach our undamped oscillator. 0
66
t
t 0
0
no damping
with damping
0
cos( ) t +
2 t
e

67
As is increased the oscillations decay more rapidly, until
at oscillation no longer occurs.
The condition is referred to as the
critical damping condition.
2
2
0
4

= Case (ii):
The two roots coincide:
2 2
0
4 =
The solution will be
2
( ) ( )
t
x t A Bt e

= +

2
p

=
If a system released from rest will oscillate.
[ many practical applications ]
2 2
0
4 =
2 2
0
4 <
68
The condition is referred to as overdamping
a slower approach to the rest position is observed.
2
2
0
4

< Case (iii):

2

=
The solution will be
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
( )
t t
x t Be B e

+
= +
2
2
0
2 4
p

=
say
2
2
0
4

<
69
t
t
t
Oscillatory
Critical
damping
Overdamping
0
0.5 =
0
5 =
0
0.05 =
70
t
t
t
Oscillatory
Critical
damping
Overdamping
0
0.5 =
0
0.05 =
0
5 =
71
2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
2 2
0
1
1 1
4 4 4Q

| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
So for 1 Q >
(light damping) :
1 0

e.g. for
10 Q =
1 0 0
1 1
1 1
400 800

| |
=
|
\ .
=
Note also Damping increases the period of
the oscillator, as one may intuitively expect.
1 0
<
Convenient to define a parameter
0
Q

=
Q: quality factor or the Q of the oscillator
gives a measure of
period
damping time
Notice that
72
t
t
t
Q = 5
Q = 50
Q = 15
73
A subtle point:
2
1
( ) cos( )
t
x t Ae t

= +
Damped oscillator: summary
The differential equation
2
2
0
2
0
d x dx
x
dt dt
+ + =
has the general solution
where
2 2
1 0
4 =
the two constants A and
must be determined by some
initial conditions

2
t
Ae

A
the initial amplitude
A is not the amplitude it is a constant related to the
initial amplitude by (initial amplitude) =
0
A
cos A
74
Energy of a damped oscillator
For the lightly damped oscillator:
2
1 2
2
t
E k Ae

| |
=
|
\ .
2
1
2
t
kA e

=
0
( )
t
E t E e

=
Then:
0
t
dE
P E e E
dt

= = =
For a lightly damped oscillator, the amplitude is slowly varying
Total energy of the undamped oscillator:
2
1
2
E kA =
E
0
t
( ) E t
0
E e
t
e

1
75
t
t
0
0
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
e
n
e
r
g
y
0
( )
t
E t E e

=
2
1
( ) cos( )
t
x t Ae t

= +
76
0
0 0
Oscillator energy

Power dissipation
E
Q
P

= = =
2
T

=
2 Q =
Oscillator energy
Energy dissipation per cycle
Oscillator energy
Power dissipation
Number of oscillator
cycles in one lifetime =
0
1 1 1
2 2
Q
T

| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
Energy of a damped oscillator 2
Now write:
e.g. a oscillator having Q = 10 performs 1.6 cycles in one lifetime
which may be regarded as quite significant damping
77
78
Forced oscillations and resonance
We now look at
oscillators which are
subject to an externally
applied force
0
( ) cos F t F t =
is a periodic force with driving frequency
x x
F ma =

0
cos F t kx bv ma =
2
2
0
0
2
cos
F d x dx
x t
dt dt m
+ + =
2
0
/ k m =
/ b m =
x
m
k
b
( ) F t
( ) F t
French
page 78
79
2
2
0
0
2
cos
F d x dx
x t
dt dt m
+ + =
Forced oscillations in a mass-spring system
Equation of motion:
Two parts observed to the motion of the system:
Transient response: while the system continues to oscillate at its
natural frequency which dies out with the characteristic
decay time.
Steady state response: at times >> the response has the same
frequency as the applied force
0

1
1
Observe also that there might be a phase difference (usually
a lag) between the response and the driving force
For
0
( ) cos F t F t =
write ( ) cos( ) x t A t =
80
Forced oscillations in a mass-spring system2
Using complex numbers: and
0
( )
j t
F t F e

=
( )
( )
j t
x t Ae

=
Then
( ) j t
dx
j Ae
dt

=
2
2 ( )
2
j t
d x
Ae
dt

= and
Substituting into our differential equation of motion:
2 ( ) ( ) 2 ( )
0
0
( )
j t j t j t j t
F
Ae j Ae Ae e
m



+ + =
Divide by since this holds for all t :
j t
e

2 2
0
0
( )
j
F
j Ae
m

+ + =
or
{ }
2 2
0
0
( )
j
F
j A e
m

+ =
( )
0
cos sin
F
j
m
= +
81
Forced oscillations in a mass-spring system3
{ }
( )
2 2
0
0
( ) cos sin
F
j A j
m
+ = +
Equating the real and imaginary parts:
2 2
0
0
( ) cos
F
A
m
=
0
sin
F
A
m
=
Then
2 2
0
tan
( )

and
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
0
cos sin ( )
F F
A A
m m

| | | |
+ = +
| |
\ . \ .
{ }
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
0
( )
F
A
m

| |
+ =
|
\ .
or
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
82
Forced oscillations in a mass-spring systemsummary
Steady state solution of
2
0
0
cos
F
x x x t
m
+ + = `` `
is
( ) ( ) cos( ) x t A t =
where
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
and
2 2
0
tan ( )
( )

83
is small
Note (for now) that has a maximum at a frequency
slightly less than see later
At low frequencies,
0
<
2 2 2
0 0 0
1
tan ( )
( ) Q



= =

i.e.
tan 1 <
the response is almost in phase with the driving force.
0 0 0 0
2
2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2
0
0 0
( )
( )
F m F m F m F
A
k

= =
+ +
And
The amplitude is approximately which is the amplitude for a
steady force the oscillator behaviour is determined essentially by
the spring (or the capacitor) i.e. the oscillator is spring limited
( ) A
0

0
F k
Resonance
84
At high frequencies,
0
>
0 0
2 2 2
0
1 1
tan ( )
( ) Q Q



= = = =

i.e. is small and negative tan

the response is out of phase with the driving force.
0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 2
0 0
( )
( )
F m F m F m
A
Q

=
+ + +
And
the oscillator is inertia limited

Resonance 2
0
2
F
m
=
85
In the resonance region ,
0

0
2 2
0
tan ( ) as
( )

i.e.
2

the response lags the driving force by .
And
the oscillator amplitude is strongly dependent on the damping
constant b it is resistance limited
0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
0 0
( )
( )
F m F m F F F
A Q
m b k

= = =
+
2

Resonance 3
86
0
1
( ) ( )
2
A A =
when:
0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0
/ / 1
2
( )
F m F m

=
+
2 2
0 0
( ) =
0 0 0
( )( ) + =
0 0 0
2 ( ) =
0
( )
2

=
When
0
1
( ) ( )
2
A A =
then
0
2

=
Close to resonance, it is the term which gives the rapid
variation with frequency as we move away from we see
that we will get
2 2 2
0
( )
0

0
0
2 2
( )
0
F m
A

=
+
Resonance 4
87
(ignoring distinction
between and )
( ) A

0
2

+
0
2

0
( ) A
0
( )
2
A
m

( )

3 4
4
2
0
0
F k
88
and is known as the resonance width
At and , the oscillator amplitude
is decreased by of its maximum (resonance) value.
0
2

= +
0
2

=
1 2

These two frequencies are known as the half power frequencies

can be understood to be
resonance frequency
0
Q

=
width of resonance curve at half power points
as the damping term decreases, i.e. as Q increases, the
resonance curve gets sharper
Resonance 5
French
page 89
89
t
slow decay
narrow resonance

2
t
e

( ) A
( ) x t

90
t
( ) A

( ) x t
rapid decay
broad resonance

2
t
e

91
E
0
t
( ) E t
0
E e
t
e

1
Free vibration
0
( )
t
E t E e

=
Lifetime =
1

( ) A

Forced vibration
Resonance width =

lifetime resonance width = 1
92
Distinction between
0
and
m
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
( )
( )
( )
{ }
3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0
1
0 0 2
( ) 2( ) 2 2
F dA
d m

= + +
Thus for
0
dA
d
= ( )
2 2 2
0
2 =
or
2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
2 2
0
1
1 1
2 2 2Q

| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
i.e.
0
2
1
1
2
m
Q
=
where is the frequency at which is a maximum.
e.g. for ,
m

( ) A
8 Q =
0
0.996
m
=
93
( ) A

0
(0) A F k =
m

( )
m
A
Distinction between
0
and
m
2
What is the maximum value of ?
0
2
1
1
2
m
Q
= Substitute into
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
and find
max
2
(0)
( )
1 1 4
m
QA
A A
Q
= =

where
2
0 0 0
(0) A F m F k = = = the static displacement
( ) A
Note that for ,
5 Q >

max
(0) A QA
94
Q = 20
Q = 5
Q = 20
Q = 5
95
Transients
French
page 92
Consider a mass-spring system which is at rest at t = 0 when a
driving force is turned on.
2
0
2
cos
d x
m kx F t
dt
+ = Equation of motion: (no damping)
2
2
0
0
2
cos
F d x
x t
dt m
+ =
or
Then
0
2 2
0
cos
( )
F m
x t

=

But what are the adjustable constants of integration?

when the force is switched on, then x jumps from 0 to !
0
2 2
0
( )
F m

96
Transients 2
Say that has solution x
1
2
2
0
0
2
cos
F d x
x t
dt m
+ =
2
2
0
2
0
d x
x
dt
+ = and has solution x
2
Then x
1
+ x
2
is also a solution to
2
2
0
0
2
cos
F d x
x t
dt m
+ =
The complete solution of the forced-motion equation is
0
( ) cos( ) cos x t B t C t = + +
0
2 2
0
( )
F m
C

=

where
Initial conditions:
0
dx
dt
=
x = 0 at t = 0 :
0 cos B C = +
at t = 0 :
0
0 sin B =
0 or =
B C =
97
Transients 3
Then
( )
0
( ) cos cos x t C t t = Beats!
Since
2 2
cos 1
2
t
t


then
2 2 2
2
0 0 0
2 2
0
( ) 1
( ) 2 2
F m t F
x t
m



=

as expected
98
Transients 4
If damping is present then:
( )
2
1
( ) cos( ) cos
t
x t Be t A t

= + +
2
2
1 0
4

=
where:
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
2 2
0
tan ( )
( )

transient term steady state term

off resonance:
at resonance:
99
Steady state
x
t
t
t
x
F
A damped oscillator
free oscillations at natural frequency
0
0
2
2
A driving force F with
0
<
Transient 5 t <

5 t >

The resulting displacement of the oscillator

100 Steady state
x
t
t
t
x
F
A damped oscillator
free oscillations at natural frequency
0
0
2
2
A driving force F with
0
>
Transient 5 t <

5 t >

The resulting displacement of the oscillator

101
Steady state
x
t
t
t
x
F
A damped oscillator
free oscillations at natural frequency
0
0
2
A driving force F with
0

Transient beats
The resulting displacement of the oscillator
102
Steady state
t
t
x
F
An oscillator driven at resonance
driving frequency = natural frequency
0
Initial transient
switch on F
switch off F
Switch off transient
103
The power absorbed by a driven oscillator
We now consider the power required to keep an oscillator
vibrating with constant amplitude.
( ) ( ) cos( ) x t A t =
0
( ) cos F t F t =
( ) ( )sin( ) v t A t =
Power
0
( ) cos sin( ) P Fv A F t t = =
{ }
0
( ) cos sin cos cos sin A F t t t =
2
0 0
( ) cos sin ( ) cos sin cos F A t F A t t =
Now
2
1
cos
2
t = and cos sin 0 t t =
1
0 2
( )sin P F A =
and
Therefore
French
page 96
104
1
0 2
( )sin P F A =
The power absorbed by a driven oscillator 2
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
2 2
0
tan
( )

2 2 2 2
0
sin
( )

=
+
0
1
0 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0
( ) ( )
F m
P F

=
+ +
2 2
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
1
( )
2 ( )
F
P
m

=
+
or
Can show that
1
2
2
0 0 0
2
0
1
( )
2
F
P
kQ Q

| |

= +
`
|
\ .

)
105
2 2
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
1
( )
2 ( )
F
P
m

=
+
The power absorbed by a driven oscillator 3
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
and
( ) A drops to of its maximum value at
so will drop to its maximum value at these frequencies

0
2

+
0
2

( ) P
1 2
1 2
0
2 =
( ) P
0
( ) P
1
0 2
( ) P
0 at = 0

: Full Width at
Half Maximum
(FWHM)
106
An alternative form for for high Q oscillators
close to resonance
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
( ) A
2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) = +
2 2
0 0
(2 ) ( )
near resonance
0
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
( )
4 ( )
F m
A

=
+
Near resonance,
0

0
2 2
0 0
( )
2 ( ) 4
F m
A

=
+
107
0
2 2
0 0
( )
2 ( ) 4
F m
A

=
+
Near resonance
The energy
2 2 2
1 1
max 2 2
( ) E mv m A = =
( )
{ }
2
0 2
1
2
2 2 2
0 0
4 ( ) 4
F m
m

=
+
2 2
0
2 2 2
0 0
1
8 ( ) 4
F
m
m

=
+
this form is encountered in various branches of physics
e.g. the Breit-Wigner formula in nuclear physics
lineshape
( )
2
2
0
1
4 E E

+
( )
E = h
108
Optical resonance
Atoms behave like sharply tuned oscillators in the processes
of emitting and absorbing light.
Doppler
broadening of the
spectral lines is about
100 times greater
than any effect due to
the true lifetime of
the radiating atom!
French
page 105
Example: Fraunhofer lines in the absorption spectrum of the sun
which are the result of resonant absorption processes
wavelength ()
5850 5900 5950 6000
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
109
Nuclear resonance
Nuclear cross sections display resonances at certain
energies, which depend on the particular reaction and incident
energy E
0

Many of these resonances can be

well-described by the equation
( )
0
2
0
2
( )
( )
4
1
E
E
E E

( ) E
: FWHM
French
page 108
110
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Atomic nuclei are limited to only a few discrete orientations when
placed in a magnetic field.
protons have only two orientations and can be caused to flip
from one state to the other, in a magnetic field, by injecting
electromagnetic radiation of just the right frequency
for protons in a magnetic field of 5000 G, the resonance
frequency is about 21 MHz can observe a voltage which varies
(resonantly) as a function of frequency and can be described by
( )
( )
0
2
0
2
( )
4
1
V
V B
B B
B
=

nuclear magnetic resonance

Nobel Prize in physics (1952): F. Bloch and E.M. Purcell
French
page 109
111
A.C.: A resistive circuit
I
0
V
R0
t
0
j t
R
V e V

=
0
j t
R
IR V e

=
0
0
j t j t
R
V
I e I e
R

= =
Im
Re
V
R0
0
I
t
R
V
I
Phasor:
I
R
0
j t
V e

Current in phase with voltage
112
A.C.: An inductive circuit
I
0
V
L0
t
Im
Re
0
I
t
I
L
I
V
L0
V
L
( )
0
j t
L
dI d
V L L I e j LI
dt dt

= = =
Current lags voltage by 2
0 0
( )
j t j t
L
V V V
I e j e
j L j L L


= = =
( ) 2
0
j t
V
I e
L

=
0
j t
L
V e V

=
0
j t
V e

2 j
j e

=
113
A.C.: A capacitive circuit
C
I
I
0
V
C0
t
Im
Re
0
I
t
C
V
I
V
C0
0
j t
C
Q CV CV e

= =
2 j
j e

=
0
j t
dQ
I j CV e
dt

= =
0
j t
V e

0
j t
C
V e V

=
( ) 2
0
j t
dQ
I CV e
dt

+
= =
Current leads voltage by 2
114
A resistive circuit
An inductive circuit
A capacitive circuit
115
A.C.: LRC circuit
2
0
2
1
cos
d Q dQ
L R Q V t
dt dt C
+ + =
0
cos
L R C
V t V V V = + +
dQ
I
dt
=
2
2
1 d I dI dV
L R I
dt dt C dt
+ + =
I will be of the form
0
j t
I e

Therefore write
( )
2 1
j LI j RI I j V
C
+ + =
1
R j L I V
j C

| |
+ + =
|
\ .
Rearrange:
0
cos V t
R
L
C
I
French
page 102
116
1
R j L I V
j C

| |
+ + =
|
\ .
LRC circuit 2
call the impedance Z
which is the a.c. analogue of resistance.
Write
1
R j L
j C

+ +
j
Z R j L
C

= +
Circuit element Impendence
resistance
inductance
capacitance
j L
j
C

R
117
LRC circuit 3
Write V IZ =
1
Z
2
Z
2
Z
1
Z
1 2
Z Z Z = +
1 2
1 1 1
Z Z Z
= +
Impedance is complex:
1
Z R j L
C

| |
= +
|
\ .
or
j
Z Z e

=
where and ( )
2
2
1 Z R L C = +
( )
1
tan
L C
R

=
can use
Kirchhoffs Rules,
Thenevins theorem, etc.
118
0
cos V t
R
L
C
I
LRC circuit 4
( )
0
1
j t
V e V
I
Z R j L C

= =
+
( )
0
2
2
1
j t
j
V e
R L C e

=
+
( )
( )
0
2
2
1
j t
V
e
R L C



=
+
and the physical current is
( )
( )
0
2
2
cos
1
V
t
R L C



+
The current has amplitude
and lags the applied voltage by .
( )
0
2
2
1
V
R L C +

119
I
t
C
V
L
V
L
V
C
V
V IZ =

R
V IR =
At high frequencies the impedance of the inductance is
dominant, the phase lag is positive,
i.e. the current lags the voltage.
LRC circuit 5
120
At low frequencies the impedance of the capacitance is
dominant, the phase lag is negative,
i.e. the current leads the voltage.
I
t
C
V
L
V
L C
V V
V IZ =

R
V IR =
LRC circuit 6
121
The amplitude and phase lag depend on frequency.
as the current amplitude is a maximum.
For ,
i.e. the amplitude is a maximum when the applied frequency
is equal to the natural frequency of the (undamped) oscillator.
( )
1 0 L C
2
1
LC
=

At resonance the circuit behaves like a

pure resistance.
1
L
C

=
0
cos
V
I t
R
= 0 =
1
L
C

=
LRC circuit 7
122
( ) I

0
2

+
0
2

0
( ) I
0
( )
2
I
0

( )
4
4
2
0
phase
lag
2
123
Oscillations in an LRC circuit
an energy approach
L
C
R
Power dissipated in resistor = rate of decrease of stored energy
2
2 2
1 1
2 2
d Q
I R LI
dt C

= +
`
)
2 2
2
1 1
2 2
0
dQ d Q dQ
R L
dt dt C dt

| | | |
+ + =
`
| |
\ . \ .

)
2
2
2
0
dQ Q dQ dQ d Q
R L
dt C dt dt dt
| |
+ + =
|
\ .
dQ
dt

2
2
0
2
0
d Q dQ
Q
dt dt
+ + =
0
1
LC
=
with and
R
L
=
124
x
m
k
b
2
2
0
0
2
cos
F d x dx
x t
dt dt m
+ + =
2
0
2
1
cos
d Q dQ
L R Q V t
dt dt C
+ + =
2
0
1
LC
=
R
L
=
2
0
k
m
=
b
m
=
Hence
( ) ( ) cos( ) x t A t =
where
0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
F m
A

=
+
2 2
0
tan ( )
( )

2 2
0
tan ( )
( )

0
2 2 2 2 2
0
( )
( )
V L

=
+
A
( ) ( ) cos( ) x t t = A
L
C
R
0
cos V t
125
LRC resonance CI laboratory experiment
L
C
R
0
cos V t
Frequency (kHz)
0
R
V
V
Given C (= 0.0914 F)
... find L and R from resonance curve