FOOD MICROBIOLOGY: THE BASICS AND THE DETAILS OF CHEESE PRODUCTION

By Grace Yim & Clive Glover (August 2003) Food spoilage has been an important problem throughout human history. Finding ways to overcome this problem was crucial as communities became larger and individuals no longer grew their own food. Some kind of system was needed to maintain the nutrient content of various food stuffs for long periods of time and prevent them from rotting and becoming inedible. Early solutions to food spoilage Food spoilage is caused by the growth of microorganisms, primarily bacteria and fungi, that convert nutrients into energy which they use for their own growth. Depletion of the nutrient content of food as well as the secretion of byproducts from this biochemical process are two things which contribute to the spoilage of food rendering it inedible. Since ancient times, humans have used many methods to extend the shelf life of food although not always understanding how these processes worked. Salting and drying are two very simple techniques that prevent rotting; both make the food an inhospitable environment for microorganisms. Canning is another technique first developed in the late 18th century by Nicholas Appert, a French confectioner, who, after 15 years of research, realized that if food is sufficiently heated and then sealed in an air tight container it will not spoil. Here the heating of food, kills all residual microorganisms present in the food and immediate sealing prevents the reentry of other contaminanting organisms. Napoleon immediately put this discovery to work in his armed forces and awarded Appert a prize of 12,000 francs for his discovery. Later, an Englishman, Peter Durand, took the process one step further and developed a method of sealing food into unbreakable tin containers. This was perfected by Bryan Dorkin and John Hall, who set up the first commercial canning factory in England in 1813. In 1859, Louis Pasteur definitively showed that microorganisms were responsible for food spoilage for the first time. This discovery led to the coining of the term pasteurization to describe the process where liquids with the potential to spoil (milk in particular) are heated for preservation. Fermentation In some cases, the growth of microorganisms in food can be put to good use for the production and preservation of various types of food. Fermentation is arguably the earliest example of biotechnology and refers to the metabolic process by which microbes produce energy in the absence of oxygen and other terminal electron acceptors in the electron transport chain such as fumarate or nitrate. In ancient times, it was considered as a way to

both preserve food and to retain nutritional value. It was probably accidentally discovered in ancient Egypt when dough, made from ground up wheat and rye, was left for a period of time before cooking. In contrast to dough that was immediately cooked, it was observed that the aged dough expanded in size and when cooked produced tastier, lighter bread. The process was not completely reproducible: sometimes the uncooked dough yielded good bread and other times it did not. However if small amounts of good dough was added to the next batch, the bread was again tasty. The Romans went onto improve and perfect this process and popularized this sort of bread throughout the European continent. The discovery of fermentation in Egypt also led to the first production of wine and alcohol. All these discoveries were largely phenomenological and it would be another 3000 years before the exact cause of fermentation was uncovered. It was Louis Pasteur, again, in 1857 who was able to demonstrate that alcohol can be produced by yeast when grown in particular conditions. This discovery revolutionized the modern food industry: for the first time the agent of fermentation was identified and could be used commercially. Industrial processes using fermentation Fermentation by bacteria, yeast and mold is key to the production of fermented foods. Fermenting yeast produces the alcohol in beer and wine. In fact, the smell of fresh baked bread and rising dough can be attributed to alcohol produced from yeast. Fermentation is used to make many ethnic foods such as sauerkraut and miso. Soy sauce is produced by fermenting Aspergillus ortzae, a fungus, growing on soy beans. Erwinia dissolvens, another type of bacteria, is essential for coffee bean production; it is used to soften and remove the outer husk of beans. Finally, fermentation of milk produces most dairy products. Without microbes, we would not be able to eat many types of different food that we enjoy today. Table 1 shows example of several foods that are produced through fermentation with specific organisms.

Table 1. Some examples of foods which uses fermentation in their production. Dairy products are described in more detail below. The biochemical process All organisms need energy to grow. This energy comes from the reduction of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and results in the release of energy

and a phosphate group. In this way ATP serves as a storage molecule of energy which can be used by the cell. But where does the ATP come from? Cells get their ATP from the controlled chemical breakdown of glucose to form two molecules of pyruvate. This process requires two molecules of ATP but results in the release of four molecules or a net gain of two molecules of ATP. This process is referred to as glycolysis and is illustrated in Figure 1. Once pyruvate is formed, it can be processed in several different ways. Mammalian cells usually process pyruvate by putting it into the tricarboxylic or Krebs cycle. In the presence of oxygen, oxidative phosphorylation produces more ATP from the byproducts of the Krebs cycle reactions. This is referred to as aerobic respiration. However when oxygen is limiting, other processes must be used in order to deal with pyruvate. This is done through anaerobic respiration or fermentation and involves the breakdown of pyruvate into simpler compounds. Two of the most important fermentation processes which are used on an industrial scale are ethanol or lactic acid fermentation. This is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Glycolysis and fermentation. Dairy Fermentation

Milk is an excellent food source for humans and bacteria alike. It is full of vitamins, fats, minerals, nutrients and carbohydrates. It is rich in the protein casein which gives milk its characteristic white color. The most abundant carbohydrate is the disaccharide lactose, milk sugar. At room temperature, milk undergoes natural souring caused by lactic acid produced from fermentation of lactose by fermentative lactic acid bacteria. This accumulation of acid (H+ ions) decreases the pH of the milk and cause the casein to coagulate and curdle into curds and whey. Curds are large, white clumps of casein and other proteins. Whey is the yellow liquid that is left behind after the casein has formed curds. Thus, bacteria obtain nutrients from the milk, inadvertently curdle it and humans use it as the first step in making many dairy products. The microbes important for dairy product manufacturing can be divided into two groups, primary and secondary microflora. Products undergoing fermentation by only primary microflora are called unripened and those processed by both primary and secondary microflora are called ripened. Primary microflora are fermentative lactic acid bacteria which cause the milk to curdle. During dairy product production, milk is first pasteurized to kill bacteria that cause unwanted spoilage of the milk and of the downstream milk products. Primary microflora consists of certain kinds of Lactococcus, Lactobacillus and Streptococcus that are intentionally added to pasteurized milk and grown at 30C or 37C (temperature depends on the bacteria added). Secondary microflora include several different types of bacteria (Leuconstoc, Lactobacillus, and Propionibacterium), yeasts and molds; they are only used for some types of surface ripened and mold ripened cheeses. The various combinations of microflora determine what milk product you will end up with. Different unripened milk products are created by using various starting products and bacteria. For buttermilk production, Lactobacillus bulgaris (named for its country of discovery, Bulgaria) is added to skim milk to curdle it. Leuconostoc is then added to thicken it. Sour cream is made the same way except cream is used instead of skim milk. During yogurt production, dry milk protein is added to milk to concentrate the milk before addition of actively growing Streptococci and Lactobacilli. Butter is produced by curdling and slight souring from Streptococci growing in sweet cream. Leuconostoc is then added so it can synthesize diacetyl, a compound that gives butter its characteristic aroma and taste. The milk is then churned to aggregate the fat globules into solid butter. Thus milk type and bacteria will determine the dairy product produced. Cheese is an important product of fermentative lactic acid bacteria. Particularly in the past, cheese was valued for its long shelf life. Due to its reduced water content, and acidic pH, bacterial growth is severely inhibited. This causes cheese to spoil much more slowly than other milk products. Consequently, the art of cheese production has spread throughout Europe, each country manufacturing many different types of cheeses. Cheese production has three steps: curd formation, curd treatment and curd ripening. 1. Curd formation can use mare, ewe, cow or goat milk to produce sour or sweet curd. Sour curd is produced by fermentative lactic acid bacteria as mentioned above. Sweet curd is produced by adding an enzyme called renin instead of bacteria to curdle the milk. The curd is separated from the whey by draining. The curd can be used directly to make

unripened cheeses such as ricotta or cottage cheese or can undergo further processing to make a ripened cheese. 2. Curd treatment consists of condensing and squeezing to form dense, hard curd. It is then molded into the desired shape, salted and mixed with different types of secondary microflora. 3. Secondary microflora ripen the cheese and will determine the final texture and aroma of each type of cheese. For hard ripened cheeses such as Cheddar, curds are further compressed and the bacteria particular for the cheese is added. The Cheddar is wrapped in wax or plastic to prevent contamination and then incubated to allow the bacteria to do its work. For soft ripened cheeses such as Camembert and Limburger, a microbe, usually mold, is added to the surface of the cheese that produces a protein-digesting enzyme. This enzyme breaks apart the curds and causes the cheese to become creamy and spreadable. Many cities have long held traditions and nuances for producing a particular cheese i.e. the limestone caves in Roquefort, France which have constant heat and humidity that create unique and delightful cheeses. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the cheese manufacturing process.

Figure 2. The cheese manufacturing process. Thus, microbes can not only be harmful to society but also can be manipulated in a variety of ways for the benefit of society. Particularly in the preservation and production of food, microbes have proven to be useful and essential. References 1. Alcamo, I. (2003). Microbes and Society. Missassauga, Ontario, Jones and Bartlett. 2. Doyle, M., L. Beuchat, et al., Eds. (1997). Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers. Washington, DC, ASM Press. 3. Foster, E., F. Nelson, et al. (1957). Dairy Microbiology. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall. (Art by Fan Sozzi)

The Basics of Making Cheese

Milk as Basic Material Making Cheese from Curdled Milk The Basic Components of Cheese o Milk o Starter Cultures o Coagulants/Rennet o Salt o Moulding and Pressing o Cheese Bandaging Farmhouse Cheese Ripening Farmhouse Cheese Sales

The Basics of Making Cheese The process of cheesemaking is an ancient craft that dates back thousands of years. By today's standards of industrial technology, the process of cheesemaking is still a complicated one which combines both "Art" and "Science" together. The subject of cheese has been extensively investigated by many research groups in many countries, and in-depth information has been reported, for example, by Kosikowski (1982), Scott (1986), Robinson (1993) and Fox (1993). The constituents of milk can be described as follows.

Milk as Basic Material

Milks from different species of mammals have been used for the manufacture of cheese, and Table 2.1 illustrates the major differences in the chemical composition of these milks. Table 2.1: Chemical Composition (%) of Milks of Selected Species of Mammals. (Data compiled from Scott (1986)).

Animal Cow Goat Sheep Buffalo

Fat 3.8 6.0 9.0 6.0

Protein

Milk Sugar
4.8 4.6 4.7 4.5

Minerals 0.75 0.84 1.00 0.75

3.0 3.3 4.6 3.8

------------------------------------------------As a result, variations in the quality of cheese do occur, depending on the type of milk used. For example, milk containing high total solids (sheep) increases cheese yields, and conversely, milk high in fat produces softer cheese, but improves the mouth-feel of the product. Thus, the cheesemaking process has to be modified in relation to the type of milk used. In nature, milk is produced to feed the offspring; however, let us consider for a moment what happens when a calf takes in milk from its mother. The milk has to provide all the essentials for the body-build-up of the calf during the critical period up to weaning. She also provides certain compounds which give initial protection from bacterial disease, until the calf can build up its own immunity. First, the milk drawn from the teat is warm and sweet, and the milk sugar (lactose) provides both encouragement to drink more and will provide energy later when needed. Passing into the first of three stomachs, it is progressively acidified until arrival at the fourth stomach. Here it comes into contact with two coagulating enzymes (chymosin and pepsin - previously known as rennin). These enzymes are basically organic catalysts i.e. substances which promote a particular chemical reaction without being themselves used up in the process. So these enzymes combine with the acidified milk and curdle it to form a fine clot. The clot (or curd as it is better known) then passes forward into the intestine. Having been changed into a curd, its passage through the intestines is slowed down just long enough to be digested (protein, fat, minerals, vitamins and lactose), and absorbed through the intestinal wall and into the bloodstream suitable for future body-building. Later we shall see the role of these enzymes in cheesemaking.

Making Cheese from Curdled Milk

Cheesemaking capitalises on the curdling of milk. First, the milk is carefully selected to make sure there are no antibiotics or harmful agents that could affect the process. The milk is then heated and held at a given temperature for a short period to destroy any harmful bacteria (i.e. pasteurisation). Special starter cultures are then added to the warm milk and change a very small amount of the milk sugar into lactic acid. This acidifies the milk at a much faster rate and prepares it for the next stage. Rennet (mainly chymosin) is then added to the milk and within a short time a curd is produced. Pepsin is not normally used in Britain except for certain specialised cheeses. The resultant curd is then cut into small cubes, and heat is applied to start a shrinking process which, with the steady production of lactic acid from the starter cultures, will change it into small ricesized grains. At a carefully chosen point the curd grains are allowed to fall to the bottom of the cheese vat, the left-over liquid, which consists of water, milk sugar and albumen (now called whey) is drained off and the curd grains allowed to mat together to form large slabs of curd. The slabs are then milled, and salt is added to provide flavour and help preserve the cheese. Later, it is pressed, and subsequently packed in various sized containers for maturing. That is the basic method for making what is known as a hard-pressed cheese. Now we can look more closely at the individual components of milk to see what they do. The Basic Components of Cheese Milk Fat Fat exists in milk as small globules that can vary in size depending on the breed of cow. The fat in the milk helps to produce flavour, aroma and body in mature cheese. Cheese made from skimmed milk is hard in body and texture, and lacks flavour. However, only a small amount of fat (as low as 1%) can produce a

background flavour, and today's makers exploit this with their 'low-fat cheese' for which there is a growing demand. Protein Protein exists in two forms in milk as a suspension/colloidal (casein) and in a soluble form (whey proteins). As an analogy, however, consider the first type of protein as a densely woven mesh rather like a string vest suspended freely in the aqueous phase of milk. As long as the milk remains sweet, this structure is unaffected and the milk remains totally fluid. However, if the milk acidifies (i.e. goes sour) without the presence of coagulating enzymes the structure changes quite suddenly at the 'iso-electric point', and a fragile curd is formed that collapses with the slightest agitation into tiny fragments. A typical example is the fine mass we see when milk sours naturally. By adding rennet, at just the right time before the milk would go completely sour, the structure of the casein is changed radically to form a solid curd called para-casein. This can then be cut with knives and saved to be collected as grains of curd for subsequent processing. The second fraction of protein is called albumen (alpha-lactalbumin and betalactoglobulin). This as described above passes out with the whey and is usually lost, though it can be recovered by specialised and expensive filtration methods. When hot milk is allowed to stand still for any time, whey proteins appear as a 'skin' on the surface. Enzymes In milk different enzymes may arise from the cow herself, from bacteria present in the teat canals or from organisms that gain entry to the milk at a later stage. As we shall see shortly these enzymes have a profound effect on the quality of raw milk, and the ripening of cheese in the store. For example, lipases, proteases and lactase enzymes hydrolyse the fat, protein and lactose respectively into different components. In this case, these enzymes, which occur naturally in the milk or which are sometimes supplied by the indigenous bacteria in the milk and the added starter culture, can change the milk fats and proteins in the process of ripening the cheese to produce the delicate flavours and aromas that make mature cheese so enjoyable. Later we shall see just how a cheese grader can assess these vital elements. Vitamins These are organic substances in milk which help to promote growth. Milk fat holds the fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and the water soluble vitamins are the B complex and C which are in the whey. They also play an important part in encouraging bacteria to grow in the cheese ripening process.

Lactose This is the main sugar in the milk. It provides the energy source for the starter cultures to produce lactic acid, and so helps to modify the milk for cheesemaking. About 10% of the lactose is used by the starter bacteria to make lactic acid, and the rest is drawn off with the whey. It was used in the past to feed to pigs for fattening up, but with the massive increase in cheese production this no longer became practical. In the twenties, a private firm (Whey Products Ltd.) was set up in England to exploit the use of whey by concentrating it to about 65% total solids, crystallising the lactose, then washing and refining it for sale to the pharmaceutical and baking industries. For some years after the Second World War, the United Creameries Ltd. (UC Ltd.) at Tarff accepted whey from cheese creameries in Galloway for pre-concentration and transfer south to Haslington for final refining. Tarff creamery closed down in the early seventies due to the advent of large whey installations at Galloway and Lockerbie creameries for whey drying. Surprisingly enough, whey was generally considered by practical cheesemakers of the day to be little more than a confounded nuisance and where sewage facilities were not available large quantities were simply dumped surreptitiously into ditches, down old quarries, sprayed over land or piped straight out to sea. Ash Those substances are present in milk and consist of metallic components (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron, copper) and nonmetallic elements such as sulphur, chlorine, phosphorous. Calcium is probably the most important mineral for the coagulation of milk, and together with the protein is an excellent source of food, especially for children who can absorb it quickly into their growth system.

Starter Cultures
Cheese is really a form of fermented milk, and acid production is carried out by starter cultures. Milk being sourced from a living animal has bacteria in it when fed to the calf. Some bacteria produce acid, others help to digest the protein in the milk; some use milk as a base for their own development which, in the case of disease-producing bacteria, can infect those who drink it. Tuberculosis, brucellosis and undulant fever are three examples of diseases that can affect those who may drink unpasteurised milk. Happily, the acid producing bacteria can in some cases directly suppress disease-producing bacteria under normal conditions. This is why fermented milk products are among the safest foods to take in their natural state particularly in areas where food hygiene may be suspect. Down through the centuries until

around 1860, the existence of bacteria and how they worked was not known. According to Crawford (1959) a few countries in Europe including Scotland played an important role in the early days of cheesemaking when little was known of how to use bacterial cultures effectively. The first breakthrough came when a French scientist called Louis Pasteur was able to show their harmful effect in wine and later in milk. Lister in 1873 isolated a mesophilic bacterium which he named Bacterium lactis and later known as Streptococcus lactis (the present designation is Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis) for use as a cheese starter culture. The first practical use of bacterial cultures for the dairy industry was in fact for butter. In 1890, the Danish scientist Storch developed a selected strain of bacteria which he called Streptococcus cremoris (the present designation Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris), and this knowledge was soon applied to cheesemaking. In Scotland pure cultures were first used in the south west in 1895. At that time discoloration in cheese was a problem caused by contamination of the raw milk. A committee of interested parties decided that this should be checked by thorough cooling of the evening milk and by the addition of a vigorous pure culture to start the fermentation in the mixed evening and morning's milk when cheesemaking started. The success, which followed extensive trials in the south west of Scotland, did much to establish the practice of using pure starter cultures. In the period from 1895 to around 1910, there was growing interest in the use of pure starter cultures for cheesemaking in Scotland. During the same period, Lloyd in England developed a test to determine acidity in milk. Workers on the continent selected pure bacterial cultures just for making cheese to which the name was given as starters. Until the middle of the 19th century, cheesemakers on croft and farm simply held over a portion of soured milk or whey in a small jug or churn and used it the following day to make cheese. This worked perfectly well as long as the amount of cheese being made was relatively small, but cheesemaking was never consistent and results varied greatly. Cheesemaking was carried out only in the summer months and at the end of the season starter had somehow to be kept for the next year. This was in fact done in many rural areas in Scotland by filling up a clean bottle with starter, corking it securely and burying it in the back garden. The following Spring it was dug up and, after one or two sub-cultures, used again for cheesemaking. Henderson (1972) gave an excellent account of cheesemaking in Galloway where this method of keeping starter was employed. Mr Hugh Irvine also recalls that if the starter failed the crofter/farmer simply got another culture from the local chemist. Moulds play their part in cheesemaking. The white mould seen on Camembert helps to hydrolyse the protein in the final cheese by working from the outside in. Blue moulds can be added with the starter, and help to breakdown the curd produced from the inside of the cheese outwards. Sometimes, to help the growth of blue mould, the cheese is pierced with a skewer which lets in air and helps the

mould to spread and carry on the good work of protein/fat hydrolysis. This explains the blue streaks seen sometimes in Danish Blue cheese. Over the last sixty years much work has been done to develop starters that would work consistently under creamery conditions. In effect we have moved from the forties where starter was made up fresh each day in liquid form to the situation now where starter is kept as freeze-dried or in deep freeze cabinets and added as a powder or granules, respectively, to the vat before cheesemaking begins. These starter culture systems are known as direct-to-vat inoculation (DVI). The New Zealand Dairy Research Institute has done much excellent work on starter development for over fifty years. In the mid 1930s, Dr H.R. Whitehead was able to isolate single strain cultures for cheesemaking, and in the 1950s this was taken up by Auchincruive and the Scottish Milk Marketing Board (SMMB) with much success. Professors R.H. Leitch and D.M. Smillie played a leading part in this development at Auchincruive as did Mrs M. Fox who travelled extensively all over Britain to advise on starter usage, in particular with Stilton cheesemakers. For over forty years, United Dairies Ltd. (UD Ltd.) operated a full-time research laboratory in London. During the Second World War and immediately afterwards, the search was on to develop trouble-free starters at creamery level and give them maximum protection at the bulk starter preparation stage. Anderson, Meanwell and Symons developed a number of starters that were to prove resistant to a virus called bacteriophage for a period. Another UD Ltd. Scot, Mr J.E. Lewis, developed a starter protection method, which became known as the 'Lewis' system, and for 20 years provided key protection to making starter in bulk at creamery level. An alternative method known as the 'Jones' system, which was developed in New Zealand, was also used for some years by the SMMB, in Dalbeattie and Galloway creameries.

Coagulants/Rennet
The need to coagulate milk has been well recognised since Roman times, and this can be achieved by the selective use of certain plants or by extracting the enzyme rennet (chymosin and pepsin) from the fourth stomach of the milk-fed calf. Plants are not used today in Scottish cheesemaking though they are widely used in some European countries and the far East. In Britain, the butterworts, artichokes, teasel, spearwort and thistles are said to have been used, but are usually too mild for general use. Up to the 19th century, Ladies' Bedstraw (Galium verum) was said to have been used for making Cheshire cheese. Records for the making of rennet go back to the 16th century. The farmer or small-holder cheesemaker would select and slaughter a milk-fed calf, remove and wash the fourth stomach carefully. He would then hang this out to air-dry in

which case it would become known as a 'vell'. There was a regular market for dried vells. It is difficult to ascertain how these vells were first used in traditional farmhouse cheesemaking in Scotland or elsewhere. However, it is most likely that dried pieces of vells were added directly to the milk, and at later times vell extracts in salt solution were used. Basically, sliced or mascerated vells were soaked in salty water to provide a solution of enzymes. Filtration may have been used for the purification of the final rennet solution. Storing the rennet in a salt solution keeps it in good condition and suppresses any bacteria that might cause a deterioration in quality. Such rennets are known as 'calf rennets'. Rennet is very strong in action (1 part of commercial rennet can coagulate 5000 parts of milk) and today rennet supplies are meticulously monitored. The main suppliers are Chr. Hansen's of Denmark and Rhne Poulenc of France. The British firm of R.J. Fullwood & Bland Limited of Ellesmere in Shropshire (who manufactured non synthetic annatto and rennet for over 200 years) no longer supply it, as their core business is now the manufacture and installation of milking machines and associated products. Another form of rennet is called 'vegetable' rennet which is derived from certain strains of fungi and bacteria. Today, this type of rennet is very popular, reflecting a move towards organic foods, and the manufacture of 'vegetarian cheese'. Substantial amounts are now used at farmhouse and creamery level. Recently, due to world shortage of calf rennet, recombinant or genetically engineered pure chymosin derived from different microorganisms is available on the market, and is currently used by many cheesemakers in different countries.

Salt
By this term we mean sodium chloride, the common salt used at home for cooking and seasoning food. Four main methods are used depending on the type of cheese that is being made. 1. Hard-pressed cheese These are called textured cheese, such as Cheddar, Cheshire and the English regional cheeses including Caerphilly, which undergo pressing for a period from

18 hours up to 2-3 days after being put into the cheese moulds. Throughout the cheesemaking process we have described for Cheddar, the starter is steadily making acid, its speed in so doing reduced somewhat in the heating process used in the final stages. To stop further acid development, and also to provide an element of flavour and help preserve the final cheese, salt is added after the curd blocks are milled. The amount varies with the type of cheese made, but is usually around 1.5 - 3% (w/w). Salting provokes a further small rush of whey, cools the curd slightly and controls further acid development. In traditional cheese vats, the salt was added by hand after milling either in the vat or in the 'cooler' (a trolleylike vehicle on which curd blocks were cheddared and made ready for milling). However, in modern automated plants, the salt can be blown from a salt-silo directly on to the milled curd laid out on a moving bed. Mechanical probes assess the curd depth and adjust the amount of salt needed electronically. 2. Brine-salted cheese These are also hard- and semi-hard pressed cheese, but usually salted for a much shorter time and relatively large and small in size, respectively. A typical example would be the Edam (Dutch) and Emmental (Swiss). In this case, the cheese are removed from their mould and tumbled straight into a bath of salt solution strong enough to float the cheese. By holding these cheese in huge shallow tanks, they start absorbing salt, and after a period they are floated along to similar tanks with an even stronger salt solution during which the salt continues to be absorbed. They are then removed by elevator from the brine bath, allowed to dry out by which time the degree of salt needed has spread through the cheese. 3. Soft cheese salting Soft cheese types, which tend to be small, can be rubbed with salt on the outer surface at least once, and sometimes twice. The salt can then migrate across the cheese in about 24 hours. This method of salting assists in the formation of rind on the cheese. 4. Blue-veined cheese salting Salt is usually applied on the curd before moulding, sometimes on the curd while in its mould or indeed after the cheese has been removed from the cheese mould.

Moulding and Pressing

Moulding has nothing to do with the blue green mass sometimes seen on traditional cheese, or stale bread, but is the term used for containing and pressing salted curd into a certain shape in which it can be matured before finally being sold. In Scotland, traditionally they referred to such containers as 'chissets'

The 'chissets' were made of oak wood and banded with iron for strength. They came in various sizes based on the width of the final cheese. Cheddar cheese were usually 60 to 80 lb in weight on the larger farms down to relatively small moulds used in Highland crofts that made a cheese of some 3-5 lb in weight. The first stage was to line the mould with a coarse cheesecloth called 'scrim' that would help to drain the initial flow of whey. The salted curd was then shoveled or hand filled into the 'chisset', and the final few handfuls being placed centrally to pack the 'chisset' completely. The ends of the 'scrim' were folded over neatly then the so-called 'follower' was placed on top. Being of slightly less diameter than the 'chisset', it would sink down into it slightly and so apply pressure to the curd within. Having filled the 'chisset', be it on the croft or farmhouse, the next step was to consolidate the curd into a firm mass. Many and varied were the methods for doing this. It is essential to apply pressure progressively so that the whey can be uniformly expressed and not locked into the curd permanently. On the croft with a shortage of space and capital, recourse was made to that abundant local material - stone. The need was to secure a stone that would exert just the right amount of pressure relative to the size of the 'chisset', and experience was the best guide. However, a stone was a dead weight in itself as a single unit, and early trials were made using a stone with a screwed shaft sunk through it on an iron or wooden frame. This allowed the dead weight of the stone to be progressively applied and so improve the overall drainage and firming up of the curd. Such a system was in fact used by Barbara Gilmour, generally recognised as the founder of Dunlop cheese, and a similar press remains to this day at The Hill Farm near Dunlop where she lived and worked. Moving up the scale from croft or farm level was the two or four 'chisset' cast-iron press which was very common throughout the late 18th and 19th centuries. Here the 'chisset' was slid on to a circular table, another 'chisset' placed on top and the press head lowered down by a hand wheel. A big advance as it allowed pressure on the cheese to be easily adjusted by placing a series of different weights on the counter-balanced pressure levers. This was of particular value where cheese such as Cheshire were being made. It is necessary to apply pressure progressively over two or three days due to the much wetter curd involved in traditional Cheshire cheesemaking, and also allowed the relatively rich (salted) cheese whey to be collected. Pressure was applied to the cheese for two or three hours then it was released. The 'chissets' were up-ended, the 'scrim' was then pulled up tight to ensure that no folds that may have been driven onto the top or into the sides remained. The followers were replaced and the cheese repressed at full overnight pressure. This could also mean a return late in the evening to tighten up the presses, a chore not always welcomed after a hard days work.

Traditionally made cheese often had to face a period of storage under conditions far from ideal. Accordingly, a Cheddar would be made with up to 36% moisture in the final curd to allow for a loss in store of 3-6% before it was finally sold. A firm coating was, therefore, essential to prevent damage of the cheese and mould penetration. The following day the cheese in their 'chissets' would be removed from the press and taken over to the scalding benches. Here the 'chisset' would be inverted, and the rim tapped against a block of wood or rubber so that the cheese and cloth slid out freely on to the knock-out stool. It would then be reversed, and very hot water poured over the cheese. This was the first stage in forming the rind by hardening of the protein on the surface of the cheese. It was then returned to the mould in the same 'scrim' and re-pressed for some two hours to cool and firm up. The cheese were then removed after being reversed and a fine cloth would be placed over the cheese. Then the cheese and cloth together would be knocked down into the 'chisset' before returning to press for a second night. The following morning after being knocked out, the fine cloth was removed and the cheese were then transferred to the loft or cheese store. At this stage it would be still 'tender' and require some final support.

Cheese Bandaging
The first step was to coat the surface of the cheese with a form of grease that would provide a fixative and close up any surface deficiencies. Pig fat was in common use and a colleague of the author recalls full well as late as 1940, before turning up for school each morning, calling in to collect a bucket of lard and 'larding the cheese' at Stewarton. After larding the cheese would then be secured with a roller bandage wound round from bottom to top. Stitched in position it would then be stamped for identification, and placed carefully on the cheese shelf. A drying-out period of one or two days would then ensue. Mr George Nichol, after a lifetime's experience as farmhouse and creamery cheesemaker, and ultimately the senior Company of Scottish Cheese Makers Ltd. (CSCM Ltd.) grader for many years, writes about cheese storage as he saw it :"Conventional cheese lofts did not have any heating or cooling as we know it today. Some enlightened farmers had a cooling system of a kind which consisted of mains water being pumped up along pipes sited on either side of the roof crown and running the full length. In warm weather, in spring and summer, these were turned on and the mains water ran down the slates to cool the roof on either side. The majority of conventional lofts had only wooden shelves, some had what were called 'turning dales' (Plate 3). These held 10 or 12 traditional Cheddars (70 lb) which could be turned all at once. This reduced the time taken each day to turn the cheese. Flavour and quality depended to a large extent on hygiene at milking, equipment, cheese cultures and the cheesemaker's ability to make good cheese (about 35-36% moisture). If he had slow cheese, which generally tended to hold moisture, the flavour would go bad fairly quickly (4-5

months). If the acid in the cheese developed very rapidly, a lot of the cheese in store would run whey and would have to be sold at a lower price, as would the ones that had gone off flavour, resulting in a loss to the farmer. The body of cheese in conventional lofts could be affected by the rise in temperature during spring and summer. This gave rise to problems with the shape of the cheese which as usual led to a loss of money when selling the product. In conventional stores humidity was fairly critical, if too high or too dry this resulted in a lot of mould or cracked rinds, respectively. Cold storage enables cheese to be stored at a constant temperature which means control of the maturation of the cheese. Even high moisture cheese can be stored at a temperature which if properly controlled, allows the cheese to be stored for another 2-3 months without unduly affecting the flavour". Farmhouse Cheese Ripening The traditional cheese, placed in the store immediately out of press, was basically a rubbery and elastic mass of curd, still warm from the cheesemaking operation, and largely without flavour or aroma. The milled particles still retained their identity in spite of the pressing over the previous two days. There may well have been some mechanical openness and free moisture. For the first few days it needed careful handling. Eventually the curd cooled and became more solid, and a firm bodied structure ready for the changes that would turn it into the type of cheese aimed at by the maker. The actual ripening process - then and now - is brought about through the agency of enzyme systems produced by bacteria which have grown or are growing in the curd. Cheese made from raw milk will always have a subtler and richer flavour at the end of its ripening period as the raw milk bacteria and their enzymes are carried forward into the final making process. Pasteurising the milk can destroy the indigenous bacteria and also the lipolytic enzymes that both contribute to flavour and aroma. However, the pathogenic (or 'illness-causing') bacteria are destroyed by pasteurisation, and where close control of the milk cannot be exercised ultimately by the cheesemaker (as it may arrive in bulk from several farms) pasteurisation is regarded as obligatory for such supplies. At the time under review, however, farmers had complete control of their own supplies and the cheese was made on the spot. Indeed, raw milk cheese making was the norm on farms almost until the outbreak of World War II. This still applies today to the small number of dedicated 'raw milk' farmhouse cheesemakers in Scotland who operate under an "Agreed Code of Conduct" in the making of cheese from raw milk. However, in 1964-65 a "Code of Practice for Cheesemaking" was introduced and accepted by all the major cheesemaking organisations in the UK under which the milk was and is subjected to heat treatment.

According to Scott (1986) the ripening process could be briefly described as follows:- "Although the breakdown of the main constituents of curd, i.e. protein, fats and sugars, is responsible for the changes in body, flavour and aroma, they are not necessarily degraded step by step. The amount of cross-linking of degraded products and the multiplicity of enzymes in the curd give rise to a multitude of substances which, individually affect the body, flavour and aroma of cheese. However, it is the combinationof these individual flavours and aromas against the background of the intact fats and proteins which constitute those characteristics appreciated by the customer". Much of the above was affected by the temperature of the cheese store or loft. This helped to account for the variable quality of pre-war cheese on the farm. Faced with stiff competition from Scottish creamery and Colonial cheeses, their numbers declined steadily. The last traditional farmhouse cheesemaker in Galloway was Mr J. B. Finlay of Ross farm, who stopped making cheese in 1974. Farmhouse Cheese Sales While grading and marketing of cheese today will be dealt with in-depth later, a brief note on how cheese were assessed for quality and marketability follows. Happily, in spite of the massive changes in cheesemaking systems down to the present day, the selection of cheese remains firmly subjective. The skills and long term experience of a cheese buyer remain paramount. In pre-war days this was the function of the cheese 'cadger' who usually a representative of a cheese buying firm or an individual who bought and sold cheese on his own initiative. How then did the buyer go about it? On entering the cheese loft he would both look and sniff. Look to see if the cheese were sitting upright, not sagging and had a good firm coat with a powdery blue mould surface. The sniff would confirm that delicate aroma that Cheddar/Dunlop would provide, totally absent in today's film wrapped and boxed cheese in a cold store. He would then place his four fingers on the top of the cheese and press firmly with his thumb. A slight spring was sought to confirm good body of the cheese and no excess moisture. The tool of his trade would then be brought into action known universally as the 'cheese iron' (Figure 4). These were made either in Kilmarnock or Edinburgh and were supplied in various lengths and diameters to suit the cheese being tested. A Cheshire cheese iron had a larger 'bore' as the curd is more flaky and brittle when tested. The best irons were made from blue polished steel, such as the writer's (4 K/D) made by Hislop in Kilmarnock about 1870. Placing the iron against the cheese the grader would push it firmly in, gauging the resistance of the curd. Straight away he had an indication of the type of cheese to expect, reflecting the state of protein breakdown. He then gave the the iron one or two turns and withdrew gently a plug of cheese which he then examined critically. The sequence of evaluating the cheese by a grader was as follows:-

first he passed the plug under his nose to check for any obvious offflavours and to assess the degree of maturity from the gas released; then he would check for visible defects, mottling, dirt contamination, open texture, graininess, bleaching; the iron would be turned over and the back surface examined; if the cheese had the right moisture level it would have shrouded the blade with a clear film of fat, a dry curd would leave no fat or small particles of rolled curd on the surface; and the iron would be reversed and the plug slid forward, a piece being then broken off at the end, this would be moulded between thumb and first two fingers which would give a very close indication of the degree of protein breakdown (known as 'body') and at the same time release more aroma (yet another indication of maturity level); assessments could be made if the cheese was pasty, crumbly, solid or friable and he would also look at the 'break' of the plug to check the texture and for any free moisture.

All of this took only a few seconds by which time he had assessed the cheese for acidity and flavour. Occasionally, he would taste it in confirmation. By these means he was able to assess whether the cheese should either be kept for further ripening, whether it was ready for sale or with careful control of subsequent storage temperatures would become superlative in due course. The ability to foretell with accuracy what cheese will be like weeks or months later can only come with experience, was and remains the hallmark of a competent 'cadger', buyer and CSCM Ltd. graders.

The lactic acid which is produced is neutralized to a great extent in the cheese by the buffering components of the milk many of which are included in the coagulum. Lactic acid is thus present as lactates in the completed cheese. At a later stage , the lactates can provide substrate for the propionic bacteria which are an important part of the microbiological flora of Swiss cheese, including Emmenthal, Gruyere and similar types.

Cheese with Holes. Besides propionic acid and acetic acid, a considerable amount of carbon dioxide is formed, which is the direct cause of the large round "eyes" in these cheeses. The quality criterion for this characteristic is that the "eyes" must be uniformly distributed in the cheese mass. "Eye" Formation. In the section on ice cream we discussed the growth of ice crystals as an event where the big "fish " feed on the small ones and, in the process the big ones get larger while the small ones disappear. The very same situation occurs in cheese with holes. The "eyes" of many cheese varieties are formed from carbon dioxide evolving from microbial action in the manner shown below. Some starter organisms, particularly mixed cultures containingLeuconostoc citrovorum, produce carbon dioxide from fermentation of citrate. Here, the large gas bubbles feed on the smaller ones, because the gas pressure in the small bubbles is higher than in the bigger ones as a result of the surface tension which drives the gas toward the bigger holes. Such "eyes" are a desirable characteristic in some cheese but their size or number should not be excessive.

Undesirable Gas Formation. If milk for cheese is contaminated with coliform bacteria (hetero fermenters of lactose) excessive gas

formation may occur which affects the cheese structure and also flavour and aroma. Strict sanitation and hygiene as well as heat treatment of milk will control this cheese defect.

The lactate in cheese can also be broken down by butyric acid bacteria. Butyric acid fermentation leads to accumulation of hydrogen in addition to volatile fatty acids and carbon dioxide.

Gassy defects in cheese are often a result of contamination by:

Coliform bacteria Butyric acid bacteria

When butyric acid fermentation occurs, gas pressure builds up within the cheese; the structure becomes disrupted by holes and cracks; the entire cheese swells and may eventually rupture ("blowing"). The responsible organism Clostridium tyrobutyricum is not a pathogen, but nevertheless, a serious quality menace. This anaerobic bacteria does not grow well in milk but may thrive in the anaerobic environment within large cheese blocks. The invasion of C. tyrobutyricum into milk originates at the milking barn by way of the fodder (silage), but also frequently at the cheese factory. The use of wooden cheese vats and utensils may be implicated, because these may harbor the spores. The spores of C. tyrobutyricum are not destroyed by heat treatment of milk and the only effective remedy is to add sodium or potassium nitrate which elevates the oxygen tension and inhibit their growth. NOTE: nitrates are not a permitted additive to cheese milk in some countries.

Protein Decomposition. The ripening of cheese is characterized by extensive proteolysis. The degree of protein decomposition affects the quality of the cheese in profound ways, particularly flavor and aroma but also body and texture. The changes are brought about by the enzyme systems of

Rennet Microorganisms Native proteases in milk (plasmin)

Rennet is a proteolytic enzyme which coagulates milk by cleaving a specific bond in kappa-casein. However, prolonged action of rennet causes breakdown of paracasein into polypeptides. This attack serves as a preconditioning treatment for the subsequent action of the bacterial enzymes which decompose polypeptides faster than the intact paracasein. In cheese varieties, such as Swiss cheese, where the curd

has been deliberately scalded, rennet has been destroyed, but the native proteases in milk can also hydrolyse paracasein into polypeptides, although at a slower rate. Fat Decomposition. A number of mould-ripened cheese varieties, notably Camembert; Brie; Roquefort; and Stilton are characterized by extensive lipolysis. Such cheese often have pronounced flavour and aroma from both proteolysis and lipolysis and the consumers are people who have acquired a taste for the exotic.

Camembert and Brie are manufactured as high-fat products in small shapes of a size no more than 1/2 kilogramme. During ripening, growth of a white mould (Penicilium camemberti) is encouraged on the surface. This aerobic organism produces both proteases and lipases which penetrate below the surface into the cheese. The initial fermentation takes place at relatively high temperatures( 35-38C) at high humidity and over a short time sufficient to cause a dense surface growth. The cheese is then cooled, packaged and marketed, often before it is fully ripe. Experienced consumers have learned to evaluate when such cheese has reached maturity by the proper softness at the surface with a remaining firmer core. Fully ripened Camembert or Brie cheese is characterized by a mild aroma and a soft, spreadable consistency. An overripe cheese will begin to smell of ammonia and volatile fatty acids. Roquefort and Stilton cheeses are also high-fat varieties; in this case ripened by green moulds (Penicilium roqueforti). The typical shape is that of a cylinder of a size between 3 - 5 kg. The milk is often homogenized to give a large surface area to the fat. Mould cultures are added to the milk before coagulation and the cheese blocks are salted in concentrated brine to slow acid development.

Growth of the highly aerobic mould mycelium is encouraged by stabbing heavy needles into the cheese cylinders to permit access of air (oxygen). When proper mould growth has developed along the needle marks, throughout the interior, all holes are sealed by oil or wax to limit oxygen. The ripening process is characterized by pronounced lipolysis and the smell and aroma of volatile fatty acids. The Danish Addition of chlorophyll to milk will give "blue cheese" a whiter

name for mould-ripened cheese is "Blue background as a cheese" because of the particular colour contrast for the blueof the mould against a white background. green mould To achieve the correct hue, Danish cheese makers add chlorophyll as a complementary colour to the yellowish appearance of milk with a high fat content.

Cheese and Cheese Making

References. The Dairy Processing Handbook by Tetrapak Processing Systems AB, Sweden, contains valuable information about this subject. The book Cheese and Fermented Products by Frank Kosikowski has descriptions of procedures for many varieties. Background.

Cheese has been made in most cultures from ancient times. Cheese is a milk concentrate, the basic solids of which consists mainly of protein (caseins), and fat. The residual liquid is called whey. The casein and fat in milk is concentrated about 10 times in production of hard cheese and some semi-hard types of cheese. No strict definition of the concept of cheese is possible, as so many variants exist.

Terminology for Classification of Cheese. Codex Alimentarius, FAO/WHO, has issued Standard A6 as a definition for cheese products. Cheese is the fresh or ripened solid or semi-solid product in which the whey protein/casein ratio does not exceed that of milk obtained:

(a) by coagulating (whole or partly) the following raw materials: milk, skimmed milk, partly skimmed milk, cream, whey cream, or buttermilk, through the action of rennet or other suitable coagulating agents, and by partly draining the whey resulting from such coagulation; or (b) by processing techniques involving coagulation of milk and/or materials obtained from milk which give an end product which has similar physical, chemical and organoleptic characteristics as the product named under Classification of Cheese.

Classification of Cheese. The moisture content of cheese serves as the first term to distinguish various categories. The fat content is the second term, and curing characteristics represent a third term.

Moisture Content. The moisture content of cheese is reported on a fat-free basis (MFFB), as shown: Fat Content. The fat content of cheese is reported on a dry solids basis (FDB), calculated as shown: Curing Characteristics. 1. Cured or ripened cheese is cheese which is not ready for consumption shortly after manufacture but which must be held for such time, at such temperature, and under such conditions as will result in the necessary biochemical and physical changes characterizing the cheese. 1. Mould cured or mould ripened cheese is a cured cheese in which the curing has been accomplished primarily by the development of characteristic mould growth throughout the interior and/or on the surface of the cheese. 1. Uncured, unripened, or fresh cheese is cheese which is ready for consumption shortly after manufacture. Designation of Terms for Classification of Cheese. The following three terms apply to all cheeses covered by the A6 Standard under Codex Alimentarius. However, this classification does not preclude the designation of more specific requirements in individual cheese standards. 1st Term designation fat-free basis Extra hard Hard Semi-hard Semi-soft < 41 49-56 54-63 61-69 Skim Low fat Medium fat Full fat Moisture % 2nd Term designation Fat % total solids basis <10 10-25 25-45 45-60

Soft 3rd Term designation 1. Cured or ripened

>67

High fat

>60

Principal curing characteristics a. Mainly surface b. Mainly interior

2. Mould cured or ripened

a. Mainly surface b. Mainly interior

3. Uncured or unripened

No curing; must be made from pasteurised milk

General Procedure from Milk to Hard and Semi-Hard Cheese. Pretreatment of Milk for Cheese:

Fat standardization; make adjustments to specified fat/casein ratio (approximately the ratio which defines FDM% in the classification under 20.4.4 with allowance for salt). Pasteurisation (see 11.2.1). Pasteurisation is not always employed for hard cheeses; if not, the cheese must be kept for at least 60 days before consumption to ensure freedom from pathogenic bacteria. Cooling to renneting temperature, usually 30. Transfer to cheese vat.

Optional Additives

Calcium chloride (5-20 grams per 100 liters) to achieve constant coagulation time. Sodium or potassium nitrate (NaNO3 or KNO3) up to 0-30 grams per 100 liters of milk to prevent gas blowing of the cheese during fermentation. NOTE: IN MANY COUNTRIES THIS IS NO LONGER A PERMITTED ADDITIVE. Colouring agents (carotene or anatto) to eliminate seasonal variation in carotene content; or decolouring agents (green chlorophyll, a contrast dye) to obtain a pale colour in the finished cheese (e.g. blue-veined, mould ripened cheese).

Necessary Additives

Starter. The starter culture is a very important factor in cheese making. Mesophilic cultures with optimum growth temperature of 20-35C for cheese milk conditioned at moderate temperature (Cheddar, Gouda and Cottage cheeses) and thermophilic cultures for cheese milk conditioned at relatively high temperature (Emmenthal, Gruyere and Feta varieties). Mixed cultures are often used to achieve maximum aroma and flavour development. The criteria for the starter are: (a) ability to form lactic acid in a short time; (b) ability to cause proteolysis during ripening of the cheese; and ability to produce carbon dioxide for some cheese varieties. Rennet. Except for types of fresh cheese, such as cottage cheese and quarg, in which the milk is coagulated mainly by acid, all cheese manufacture depends upon formation of curd by the action of rennet or similar enzymes. The amount to be added depends upon the type of rennet available (liquid or powdered). Cheesemakers look for a constant coagulation time of approximately 30 minutes and make day-to-day adjustments to the amounts used.

Coagulum Determine the readiness of the coagulum by making a very thin vertical slit, about 3-5 cm long, in the surface of the gelled milk. Insert the knife blade at a shallow angle under the length of the slit. Gently tilt the knife tip upward to break the coagulum. A ready-to-cut curd will break along the slit, forming a deep wound with uniformly curved side walls and with only a little whey at the bottom. If the wound tends to collapse, it is not yet ready. If there is much whey, it should have been cut earlier.

Cutting into grains. For village operation, the curd may be cut with a long knife using long parallel strokes (about 1 cm apart) in one direction and then, in a similar fashion, across in the other direction. This will produce vertical columns of cut curd. These columns are now divided by making shallow horizontal strokes with knife in several directions to reach the walls of the tub (see diagram). Cutting curd into grains with wire cutters. These are stainless steel frames strung with thin wires or thin blades. For manual cutting, the vertical cutter (A) is inserted along the end wall of the cheese vat and then pulled in long firm strokes to the other end. Several paths may have to be cut before all curd is cut in one direction. The same instrument is then used to make perpendicular cuts across the vat. Finally, the horizontal cutter (B) is used to cut in one direction only, to divide the curd into cubes. The first wire-frame cutters were meant for manual operation. However, similar designs are now made as attachments for mechanically operated cheese vats, where sturdy frames, with blades rather than wires, are attached to rotating arms which traverse the cheese vat at its length.

Mechanical cheese vat. A set of vertical and horizontal "cutters" are attached to overhead rotating arms which move back and forwards in the vat. Mechanical cheese vats may have a capacity to hold as much as 10,000 liters of milk. The construction needs to be oval in shape for the cutters to reach all points near the walls of the vat.

Whey Expulsion (Syneresis). The aim of cheese making is to obtain a curd with a defined moisture content. This is achieved by a controlled expulsion of whey from the curd particles. The cutting of the curd is done to facilitate whey expulsion by creating a much greater surface for drainage. Stirring of the curd also promotes whey drainage by the mechanical action and by preventing the particles from adhering to one another. Pre-stirring. Immediately after cutting, the curd grains are very sensitive to mechanical treatment and the initial stirring must be gentle to avoid breaking the curd into "fines". However, agitation must be sufficient to prevent the grains from "matting" together into lumps. Curd made from skim milk has a strong tendency to settle at the bottom of the vat and the stirring must be more intense than with full-fat cheese. Pre-drainage of whey. For some varieties of cheese, it is practice to remove some of the whey from very full cheese vats so that hot water can be added for temperature adjustment. For each cheese variety, is important that the amount of whey - normally about 35%, sometimes as much as 50% of the batch volume- is kept consistent in the daily routine. Heating/cooking/scalding. Heat treatment is required during cheese making to regulate the size and acid development of the curd. Heat causes contraction of the curd particles with increased expulsion of whey. More importantly, heat is used to regulate the growth of the lactic acid bacteria and control acid development in the curd. The time and temperature programme for heating is determined by the type of cheese and the method of heating (direct heating by adding hot water; indirect heating in a jacketed vat). Heating to temperatures above 40C , sometimes called cooking , normally takes place in two stages

At 37-38C the activity of the mesophilic lactic acid bacteria is retarded, and heating is interrupted to check the acidity by titration of the whey. Then, heating is continued to the desired final temperature. Above 44C the mesophilic bacteria are totally deactivated, and they are killed if held at 52C for periods of 10-20 min. Heating beyond 44C is typically called scalding. Some types of cheese, such as Emmenthal, Gruyere, Parmesan and Grana, are scalded at temperatures as high as 50-56C. Only the most heat-resistant lacticacid producing bacteria are can survive this treatment. Included is Propionibacterium Freudenreichii ssp. Shermanii, which is the prominent fermentation organism for the structure and aroma characteristics of these cheese varieties. Final stirring. The sensitivity of the curd grains to mechanical action decreases as heating and stirring continues. More whey is excluded from the grains during the final stirring period, primarily due to continuous development of lactic acid, but also by the mechanical effect of stirring. The duration of final stirring depends upon the cheese variety and is dictated by the desired moisture content. Final removal of whey. As soon as the required acidity of whey and firmness of the curd have been attained the residual whey is drained off in various ways. Final treatment of curd. The curd can be treated in several ways after all the free whey has been drained away. It can be: Transferred directly to moulds (granular textured cheeses) and pressed. Pre-pressed into a slab and cut into pieces of suitable size for placing into moulds (round-eyed cheeses) for final pressing. Exposed to a cheddaring process, the last phase of which includes milling into chips which can be dry-salted and either hooped or, if intended for Pasta Filata types of cheese, transferred unsalted to a cooking-stretching machine. Pressing For pressing into the desired shape and removal of residual whey, the curd blocks are wrapped in cheese cloth and placed in a suitable cheese mould and pressed for some hours. The amount of pressure and the length of time varies with the type of cheese.

Salting. Salting takes place after the cheese has been pressed, often starting the following day. In cheese as in many other foods, salt normally functions as a condiment. However, salt has other important effects, such as retarding starter activity and microbial processes associated with cheese ripening. Application of salt to the cheese block causes more moisture to be expelled, both through osmotic effects and a salting effect on the proteins. With few exceptions, the salt content of cheese is 0.5-2%. Blue cheese and Feta cheese, however, have a salt content of 3-7%. The exchange of calcium for sodium in paracaseinate has a favourable influence on the consistency of the cheese, which becomes smoother. Preparation of Common Brine Solutions. Brine is made by dissolving salt (sodium chloride) in water or sometimes whey. The difference in osmotic pressure between brine and cheese causes some moisture to be expelled with its dissolved components, including whey proteins, lactic acid and minerals , in exchange for NaCl. The use of whey minimizes the concentration differences for the dissolved milk constituents but makes it more difficult to control the salt concentration by density measurements. Brine is kept in continuous use over weeks and months but the salt concentration must be replenished each day. Aside from the loss of salt by penetration into the cheese, an equilibrium state will eventually be attained by the dissolved whey constituents and by pH. For this reason, "old" whey is considered best for development of the proper cheese quality, both flavour and texture. Salt Concentration. The desired salt concentration is maintained by daily measurements of the density of the brine using a hydrometer (Be) or by using a refractometer calibrated for the brine composition. The following table shows the composition of salt/water solutions. Note the

differences between expressing salt concentrations as weight-by-weight and weight-by-volume. The difference occurs because the volume of the solutions is increased by salt addition, but only by 0.33-0.36 liters per kilogram of salt. Density versus Salt Concentration Salt Volum Salt added to e of 100 L concentration water soluti on (kg) 15.7 19.3 23.1 26.9 29.0 31.1 (L) 105.2 106.5 108.0 109.4 110.3 111.1 Density (15C)

(% (% (kg/L) (Be) wt/wt) wt/vol) 13.6 16.2 18.8 21.2 22.4 23.7 15.0 18.1 21.4 24.6 26.3 28.0 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.17 1.18 13.2 15.6 17.8 20.0 21.1 22.1

Calculation of Brine Volume

Expressing Salt Concentration (weight-byweight) Expressing Salt Concentration (weight-byvolume) Measuring Salt Concentration by Hydrometer. Hydrometer readings may be expressed as

degree Baume (BE). The instrument is calibrated for densities between 1.00 (0Be) and 1.842 (66Be). The equation on the right will convert Baume readings to density: Penetration in Cheese. The Dairy Processing Handbook cites the following information from the Danish Dairy Research Institute (Report No. 22). Cheese curd is criss-crossed by capillaries; approximately 10,000 per cc. have been found. There are several factors that can affect the permeability of the capillaries and the ability of the salt solution to flow through them, e.g. since fat globules may block some of the capillaries, salt penetration will be delayed in cheese of high fat content. The pH at the time of salting has considerable influence on the rate of salt absorption. More salt can be absorbed at low pH than at higher pH. However at low pH (<5.0), the body of the cheese is hard and brittle. At higher pH (>5.6), the body remains elastic. The interrelationships between pH, calcium and sodium are important at the time of brining. Some parts of calcium are more available for ion exchange with sodium and the amount exchanged determines the body characteristics of the cheese. Milk contains about 1200 mg of calcium per liter. At the normal pH of milk, more than 90% of the calcium is bound in colloidal form to the casein micelles and less than 10% exists in ionised form . As the pH is lowered toward the isoelectric point of casein (4.6), the colloidal calcium is displaced from the micelles as the sites for binding become protonated.

The loosely bound calcium is sensitive to pH changes; the lower the pH the more calcium will leave the paracasein complex as hydrogen ions protonate the calcium sites. At salting these sites will not engage in exchange with sodium ions. Exchange takes place between sodium and calcium but not with the hydrogen ions. If the pH of cheese curd before salting is in the high range (6.0-5.8), a considerable amount of calcium is still present in the paracaeinate. On brine treatment too much sodium will become attached to the casein through exchange with some of the calcium. This results in a softer cheese which may even lose its shape during ripening.

At the pH range 5.2-5.6 there is a balance between the calcium ions and hydrogen ions to bind the optimum amount of sodium to provide for a satisfactory body and texture. At low pH (<5.2), too many sites are protonated and the sodium exchange becomes too small; therefore the body and texture of the cheese becomes too hard and brittle. The higher the salt concentration of the brine, the more salt will be absorbed. At low concentrations (<16%), the paracasein swells and the surface will be smeary and slimy as the result of partial resolubilization. It is common to use salt concentrations near the saturation point (23%) at 10-14C. The microbiological status of the brine must be kept under control . Certain salt- tolerant microorganisms can cause slimy surface, discoloration, and mouldiness. The risk of microbiological disturbances are greatest at low salt concentrations below 16%. Preparation of brine: 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. Dissolve the salt directly in boiling water Add 0.1-0.2 % calcium chloride Cool to room temperature Adjust pH to 5.2-5.3 with HCl Monitor the salt concentration by refractometer readings and measure pH regularly and adjust if needed

1. Avoid contaminations Ripening of Cheese. With the exception of fresh cheese, all other cheese varieties go through a series of ripening processes involving microbiological, biochemical and physical changes to the product. Lactose Decomposition. The moisture remaining in the curd after whey draining has the composition of the whey -- or diluted whey -- if water has been added for temperature adjustments. Lactose fermentation should be controlled in such a way that all lactose has disappeared no later than after pressing and prior to brine salting. The different cheese making techniques take aim at controlling the lactic acid fermentation so that the pH of the curd at the time of salting is at the optimum level. - A Rule of Thumb: If the pH of the curd has not reached a level of 5.6 - 5.8 after 24 hours, the cheese will not be good.

The lactic acid which is produced is neutralized to a great extent in the cheese by the buffering components of the milk many of which are

included in the coagulum. Lactic acid is thus present as lactates in the completed cheese. At a later stage , the lactates can provide substrate for the propionic bacteria which are an important part of the microbiological flora of Swiss cheese, including Emmenthal, Gruyere and similar types.

Cheese with Holes. Besides propionic acid and acetic acid, a considerable amount of carbon dioxide is formed, which is the direct cause of the large round "eyes" in these cheeses. The quality criterion for this characteristic is that the "eyes" must be uniformly distributed in the cheese mass. "Eye" Formation. In the section on ice cream we discussed the growth of ice crystals as an event where the big "fish " feed on the small ones and, in the process the big ones get larger while the small ones disappear. The very same situation occurs in cheese with holes. The "eyes" of many cheese varieties are formed from carbon dioxide evolving from microbial action in the manner shown below. Some starter organisms, particularly mixed cultures containingLeuconostoc citrovorum, produce carbon dioxide from fermentation of citrate. Here, the large gas bubbles feed on the smaller ones, because the gas pressure in the small bubbles is higher than in the bigger ones as a result of the surface tension which drives the gas toward the bigger holes. Such "eyes" are a desirable characteristic in some cheese but their size or number should not be excessive.

Undesirable Gas Formation. If milk for cheese is contaminated with coliform bacteria (hetero fermenters of lactose) excessive gas formation may occur which affects the cheese structure and also flavour and aroma. Strict sanitation and hygiene as well as heat treatment of milk will control this cheese defect. The lactate in cheese can also be broken down by Gassy defects in cheese are often a result of contamination

butyric acid bacteria. Butyric acid fermentation leads to accumulation of hydrogen in addition to volatile fatty acids and carbon dioxide.

by:

Coliform bacteria Butyric acid bacteria

When butyric acid fermentation occurs, gas pressure builds up within the cheese; the structure becomes disrupted by holes and cracks; the entire cheese swells and may eventually rupture ("blowing"). The responsible organism Clostridium tyrobutyricum is not a pathogen, but nevertheless, a serious quality menace. This anaerobic bacteria does not grow well in milk but may thrive in the anaerobic environment within large cheese blocks. The invasion of C. tyrobutyricum into milk originates at the milking barn by way of the fodder (silage), but also frequently at the cheese factory. The use of wooden cheese vats and utensils may be implicated, because these may harbor the spores. The spores of C. tyrobutyricum are not destroyed by heat treatment of milk and the only effective remedy is to add sodium or potassium nitrate which elevates the oxygen tension and inhibit their growth. NOTE: nitrates are not a permitted additive to cheese milk in some countries.

Protein Decomposition. The ripening of cheese is characterized by extensive proteolysis. The degree of protein decomposition affects the quality of the cheese in profound ways, particularly flavor and aroma but also body and texture. The changes are brought about by the enzyme systems of

Rennet Microorganisms Native proteases in milk (plasmin)

Rennet is a proteolytic enzyme which coagulates milk by cleaving a specific bond in kappa-casein. However, prolonged action of rennet causes breakdown of paracasein into polypeptides. This attack serves as a preconditioning treatment for the subsequent action of the bacterial enzymes which decompose polypeptides faster than the intact paracasein. In cheese varieties, such as Swiss cheese, where the curd has been deliberately scalded, rennet has been destroyed, but the native proteases in milk can also hydrolyse paracasein into polypeptides, although at a slower rate.

Fat Decomposition. A number of mould-ripened cheese varieties, notably Camembert; Brie; Roquefort; and Stilton are characterized by extensive lipolysis. Such cheese often have pronounced flavour and aroma from both proteolysis and lipolysis and the consumers are people who have acquired a taste for the exotic.

Camembert and Brie are manufactured as high-fat products in small shapes of a size no more than 1/2 kilogramme. During ripening, growth of a white mould (Penicilium camemberti) is encouraged on the surface. This aerobic organism produces both proteases and lipases which penetrate below the surface into the cheese. The initial fermentation takes place at relatively high temperatures( 35-38C) at high humidity and over a short time sufficient to cause a dense surface growth. The cheese is then cooled, packaged and marketed, often before it is fully ripe. Experienced consumers have learned to evaluate when such cheese has reached maturity by the proper softness at the surface with a remaining firmer core. Fully ripened Camembert or Brie cheese is characterized by a mild aroma and a soft, spreadable consistency. An overripe cheese will begin to smell of ammonia and volatile fatty acids. Roquefort and Stilton cheeses are also high-fat varieties; in this case ripened by green moulds (Penicilium roqueforti). The typical shape is that of a cylinder of a size between 3 - 5 kg. The milk is often homogenized to give a large surface area to the fat. Mould cultures are added to the milk before coagulation and the cheese blocks are salted in concentrated brine to slow acid development.

Growth of the highly aerobic mould mycelium is encouraged by stabbing heavy needles into the cheese cylinders to permit access of air (oxygen). When proper mould growth has developed along the needle marks, throughout the interior, all holes are sealed by oil or wax to limit oxygen. The ripening process is characterized by pronounced lipolysis and the smell and aroma of volatile fatty acids. The Danish name for mould-ripened cheese is "Blue cheese" because of the particular colour of the mould against a white background. To achieve the correct hue, Danish Addition of chlorophyll to milk will give "blue cheese" a whiter background as a contrast for the bluegreen mould

cheese makers add chlorophyll as a complementary colour to the yellowish appearance of milk with a high fat content.

Margarine Manufacture
The Basic steps Presented By N.E.M Business Solutions Margarine manufacture is carried out in two distinct stages. The first stage is called refinement, where oil is extracted from seeds or beans and refined. The second stage is called processing, where oil and other materials are made into margarine.

Refinement
Step 1 The seeds are harvested and transported to a crushing mill. Step 2 The oil is removed from either seeds or beans by either expulsion or extraction. Step 3 The 'crude' oil (dark golden colour) which has been extracted from the seeds or beans needs to be neutralised. This neutralisation removes any "free" fatty acids. If these "free" fatty acids were left they would cause the oil to develop an unpleasant taste. The neutralised oil is then washed and dried thoroughly. Step 4

The oil is now bleached to remove any colour or impurities. This bleaching process is completed by using special absorbent earth. After bleaching is completed the earth is carefully filtered out. Step 5 After oil modification has been completed, the oil is deodorised to remove any smells and tastes. This process is completed by blowing steam through the heated oil, where the steam and any smells and tastes are drawn off by a vacuum. At this stage the oil is now colourless, odourless, tasteless and a light brown colour. It is this oil that is bottled and sold as vegetable oil. Step 6 The vegetable oil is then used in the manufacture of margarine and spreads. Oil modification is used to help make this oil harder. Three ways to modify oils are hydrogenation, rearrangement or fractionation.

Processing
Step 7 The next process is the blending stage, where various oils are mixed or blended together to make the right texture for the final spread product. Step 8 The refined oil is now blended with ingredients such as vitamins, colours, flavours and emulsifiers. At the same time a mixture of water, whey, brine and powdered ingredients is created. Step 9 These two ingredient mixtures are blended together at temperatures around 50 - 60 o C while being slightly mixed. This mixture or

emulsion needs to be pasteurised at temperatures around 70 to 86 o C. Step 10 The mixed spread is now chilled to make it go solid. Step 11 During the chilling process, the product is 'worked' in a cylindrical chamber with a series of pins, which kneads the spread at a fixed speed. Step 12 After the chilling process, the product is now ready to be packed and transported to supermarkets, where it needs to be stored at between 2 o C and 5 o C.

Margarine T e r m s
Emulsion: a mixture of oil and water. Emulsifier: Something that keeps the water and oil mix together. Without it the oil and water would separate with the oil "floating" on top of the water. Fractionation: a liquid oil is cooled under controlled conditions. This separates the high melting point triglycerides, leaving the fat in two parts, one which is more solid than the other at room temperature. Hydrogenation: occurs through the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids to create saturated fatty acids with a higher melting point. Pasteurise: to expose a substance (e.g. milk, oil) to high temperatures (about 60 C) to kill any micro-organisms.
o

Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found mostly from vegetable sources, such as sunflower oil or seeds, but is also found in oily fish such as mackerel and sardines. There are two main groups of polyunsaturates, called n-3 and n-6. Both contain fatty acids which are essential to health. As the body is not capable of producing these, they must be obtained from the diet and are therefore called "essential fatty acids". Rearrangement: a process where two different oils are combined to produce a fat with different melting characteristics. Refine: to make or bring to a fine or pure state. Saturated fatty acids: Saturated fatty acids are the type of fat that is found in larger amounts in foods from animals, e.g. meat, butter, cheese and cream. Many baked goods such as cakes, biscuits and pastries are also high in saturated fat. Excessive intake of saturated fat can increase blood cholesterol levels, one of the major risk factors for heart disease. Saturated fatty acids are usually solid at room temperature and are sometimes known as "bad fats". Triglyceride: Triglycerides are the major form in which fat occurs in nature. Triglycerides come from food and are also made in the human body. Unsaturated fatty acids: Unsaturated fatty acids are found in significant amounts in most types of nuts, avocado pears, rapeseed oil and olive oil. Unsaturated fatty acids do not raise blood cholesterol and evidence shows that they may also help to reduce blood cholesterol levels if they replace saturated fat in the diet. Unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room temperature and sometimes are known as "good fats".

AERATED PRODUCTS
Presented by David Northeast of USP Innovation Consultants (Tel: 01672 870039 Mobile: 07919 074500) david_northeast@yahoo.co.uk Background The first product to be aerated commercially was Ice cream. This was done primarily to make the product softer (for scooping and dispensing). There were also significant commercial benefits associated with selling air. Whipped Ice Cream can typically be whipped to 100 % overrun and labelling legislation is the main restriction on the amount of air that can be added. In the manufacture of "Dairy Desserts" aeration is used to modify mouth feel, texture and flavour delivery in addition to the commercial benefits previously mentioned. The degree of aeration can be used to alter the product characteristics to such an extent that the same base could be perceived as either low quality or premium. (The quantity of air held by the product (%) is called the % Overrun.)

The Science of aeration

Cream Aeration
Cream with a fat content above 30% can be whipped very easily using low powered whisks and then folding in purees and fruit An unhomogenised cream fat globule is very irregular in size and shape and is composed of layers: Cream is reliant on fat and protein in the system to form a structure which is capable of holding air. The fat must be in its solid state - even a minute amount of liquid fat will interfere with aeration. The proteins dissolved in the aqueous phase of the cream stabilise the system. If the conditions for aeration are not correct (particularly the temperature, which allows the fat globules to cluster) the

cream will not whip or will end up as a mixture of butter and buttermilk. This is why the pipe work and all contact parts must be chilled prior to contact with a fat based system. Fat globules cluster together in the bubble walls, where the surface forces rupture some of the membranes. The exposed spheres of fat then stick to each other and form a rigid but delicate network. The proteins then create a matrix to bind the fat together which increases its ability to hold air. Milk can not be whipped because the fat globules are fewer. A froth can be achieved but this disappears very quickly as the fat globules are too far apart to stick together. Large fat globules aerate far more readily than small fat globules as they produce a stiffer whip. This is why homogenised cream is never used. Jersey and Guernsey cows produce the best milk for aeration as the fat globules are larger and the protein content is higher. Stabilizers are added to the cream to give the stability required over the shelf life of the product.

Stabilized Systems
A stabilizer directly impacts the product quality and shelf stability. The system should be able to stand up to transportation over long distances - and even altitudes. Every stabiliser system will contain an emulsifier from a group called "mono - diglycerides." Other components of the system may be Starch, Gelatine, carrageenan, Guar gum, Xanthan gum and locust bean gum. As with the fat based systems, cooling and ageing allow the fat globules to cluster. In stabilised systems the emulsifier crystallises inside the fat. The proteins hydrate and form a structure which binds the fat and usually results in a substantial increase in viscosity which allows for better absorption and holding of the gas. The increase of viscosity and the gel network formed by the stabilisers and emulsifiers during the ageing time should guarantee homogeneous gas bubble distribution if the product is at the correct temperature.

Mechanical Aeration
There are many commercial methods of aerating products currently available on the market, however, the most common by far is mechanical aeration as utilised by machines such as Mondomix, shufflemix and Tanis. The machines vary somewhat in their design - but the principles of their operation are the same.

How does the equipment work?

Unaerated product enters the whipping head. This comprises of a stainless steel shaft covered with metal pegs which fit inside a housing that has also has pegs

inside of it. When assembled the pegs on the shaft and on the inside of the head interlock. The clearances are very tight and if the unit is not assembled properly the pegs will hit each other and break. The whipping head should always have a chilled water jacket on it. The purpose of this is not to cool the base being aerated but to prevent the uptake of heat energy that would be generated by the rotation speeds inside the head. Whilst inside the head the air is injected. The mixing head mechanically crushes the large gas bubbles into very small bubbles that are trapped within the protein / fat matrix. The bubble size is key to determining the product attributes. The product then passes into the backpressure regulator. This needs to be balanced to the mixing head pressure. If the pressure is too low the whip will be lost as the base will be unable to hold the whip. If, however, the pressure is too high the air will be squeezed out of the product. Vertical pumping of the aerated base, bends in the pipe and depositing can result in loss of overrun between the aerator and the depositor hopper.

Mondomix Operation, www.mondomix.nl

Pre Checks Check tank temperature & standing time. If either is not correct inform the line manager and Technical. Even if a product overrun is achieved it will collapse on Transit if the standing time is incorrect. Check the chilled water supply to the mixing head is connected and turned on. Check the air is turned on (system pressure should be 6 bar). Achieve Correct Overrun: Pump unaerated product through the system Set the rotor speed to an acceptable level on the mixing head. The value will vary depending on the size of the aerator. A low value (usually one third of the maximum rotor speed) should be selected for set up - particularly for high fat products or products containing chocolate. Set the air injection and adjust the back pressure until the correct overrun / density is achieved. The back pressure is usually set at 2 bar and should not exceed 3 bar. Critical Parameters that will dictate aeration characteristics: Incoming product temperature - Product should be aerated at the temperature noted in the work instructions. If the product is to warm there will be issues with achieving the overrun in the first place as well as maintaining the definition over the life of the product. Generally, the colder a product is the better it will whip. Standing time

During the standing time (or ageing in cream) the components (fat or stabiliser) develop a structure. This usually manifests itself as an increase in viscosity. The matrix that develops gives the product its ability to hold air. System Pressure Should always be 6 bar. Air Injection This controls the quantity of air injected to the mixing head. Mixing Head Speed The mixing head speed determines how well the air is incorporated into the product. Two products at the same Overrun can be wet or dry. This is due to the bubble structure. Back Pressure Generally somewhere between 2 bar and 3 bar. Back pressure should not exceed 3 bar as the air can be squeezed back out of the product.

Troubleshooting guide
This guide is only relevant when product arrives within specification. Problem Symptom Cause Action *Wet Whip Correct Overrun - Wet product Bubble Structure too large Increase mixing head speed. If product is still wet increase back pressure (not beyond 3 bar) Dry Whip Correct Overrun - Dry product Bubble structure too small Decrease mixing head speed. Overweight Too heavy Overrun too low Increase air until correct Underweight Too light Overrun too high Decrease air until correct Poor incorporation Product popping and spluttering from the pipe Air not being fully incorporated Increase or decrease the Rotor speed. Adjust the air injector (too much air can cause this) Adjust the back pressure (Air can be squeezed out of a system). Poor presentation Product different colours Generally after stoppage where pipe walls increase in temperature Purge lines and reset Overrun. High mixing head speeds will cause the cream to butter and Chocolate products to have a grainy mouthfeel. It is important to adjust one variable at a time and wait for the adjustment to take effect.

What is Overrun?

Overrun is the percentage of air incorporated into a product. % Overrun = Unwhipped base weight - Whipped base weight X 100 Whipped Base weight Overrun and Density are directly proportional What is Density? Density is the volume occupied by a given weight of product. The amount of space occupied by the product will increase with the quantity of air incorporated. The weight will remain the same (as the air weighs nothing). An overrun of 100% will double the volume occupied by the unwhipped base.

C.I.P in the "Ready Meals Industry"

N.E.M Business Solutions Tel / Fax : 01823 680119 Mobile 07768 981196

"Ready Meals" are one of the fastest growing sections of the UK food industry and have been for several years. This situation has resulted in a number of small scale enterprises blossoming into fully fledged industrial scale operations in a very short time. This meteoric growth has left many companies struggling to cope with the technical aspects of running a large scale cooking and packing organisation. In order to try and bridge this gap in technical skills and experience some companies have fallen back on the skills and services provided by the manufacturers of the processing equipment.

From This to This !

Unfortunately in a number of cases the equipment manufacturers are "good engineers" but have very little experience of using or cleaning the equipment in a day-to-day operational situation. Some equipment is by its complex nature difficult to clean, this not only applies to CIP (Cleaning In Place) but to all general cleaning.

Here are a couple of examples that can easily be avoided if a little thought is put into the design process. Don't be afraid to let operational staff get involved in the design process. Standard "off the shelf" pieces of equipment may seem like a less expensive deal in the short term, but living long-term with some of these problems is often far more costly. CIP in the ready meals sector is being "pushed and extended" towards the limits of "practical acceptability" by the need to "turn the plant round" quickly for the

next recipe. This situation is especially noticeable in the cooking vessels that are notoriously difficult to clean quickly. Traditional methods of "boiling-up" (filling a cooking vessel with cleaning solution and letting it simmer for an hour or so) are far to slow and wasteful. The standard techniques used in large sections of the food industry to fit spray balls and "spray-clean" vessels also has similar problems. "Burnt-on" material can take a considerable time to be removed by the relatively low pressure used by a spray ball.

In situations where there is a need for minimal "down-time" then high pressure cleaning techniques are needed. This does not mean a team of cleaners with pressure washers. The fine mist created when normal pressure washing lances are used will carry dirt, debris and bacterial from one are of the plant to another. The generally accepted method for high pressure vessel cleaning is to fit a "high pressure rotating spray device"

It may be necessary to fit more than one spray head to ensure total coverage within the vessel, this often the case where complex agitation mechanisms are fitted.

In some factories the down-time for a complete CIP process is 21 minutes (7 minutes pre-rinse, 7 minutes detergent circulation, 7 minutes final fresh water rinse). The cycle time is dictated by the time needed for the rotating head to complete a full cycle (the residence time), in this case 7 minutes.

Cleaning vessels and pipe work that has contained "particulates" (rice, vegetables, meat, fruit) presents its own variety of problems. Solid objects can block valves, especially non-return valves. Pumps and filters often trap solid debris preventing it being flushed from the system by the CIP pre-rinse.

This is often tackled by pumping the pre-rinse liquid to drain in an area local to the equipment being cleaned. This of course means there have to be suitable drains in these areas. If the drains are not part of the original design for a project, adding them later is a time consuming and costly operation.

Cleaning of packing and filling equipment can also be problematic, many filling machines are not designed for CIP cleaning and careful selection is needed to ensure that the equipment purchased is capable of being cleaned without being dismantled.

The labour cost in many "ready meals" factories is staggeringly high due to the nature of the operation, and a few more staff to dismantle and clean equipment often go relatively un-noticed amongst all the others. The labour cost is only part of the story, dismantling and re-assembling the equipment is time consuming and almost inevitably leads to additional wear and breakages. Fully CIP capable equipment will reduce labour costs and down-time. Automated CIP techniques will also give a repeatable and reliable clean.

Chlorine Compounds As A Means Of Disinfection.

N.E.M Business Solutions 01823 680119

The chemistry of Chlorine in many of its forms and general information :

Chlorine: pale green gas, highly poisonous, chemical formula Cl Hypochlorous acid: unstable compound only found in solution, effective bactericide, chemical formula HOCl Hypochlorite: Usually the Sodium or Calcium salt of Hypochlorous acid, the common component of bleach, chemical formula (NaOCl or Ca(OCl)2 ) Chlorine dioxide: yellow to brown coloured gas, chemical formula ClO2

Chlorine:
Chlorine is a poisonous gas and as a general rule is not used in this form in the food and beverage industry. However it is still used to Chlorinate water supplies and consequently you may come across it in some sites. Due to the potential dangers it has generally been replaced with one of its less dangerous compounds. Chlorine dissolved in water forms both hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite; these are the components that actually give Chlorine its bactericidal effects. Chlorine (Cl) is among the most abundant of nature's elements, and combines with other elements to sustain life and the natural processes that make up our environment. Chlorine is found in the Earth and, in the oceans. Chlorine is highly reactive and, as such, is typically found in nature bonded to other elements like sodium, potassium, and magnesium. When isolated as a free element, chlorine is a greenish yellow gas, which is 2.5 times heavier than air. It turns to a liquid at -34C (-29F), and becomes a yellowish crystalline solid at -103C (-153F).

Hypochlorous Acid:

A weak, unstable acid occurring only in solution and used as a bleach, oxidiser, deodorant, and disinfectant. Chemical formula: HOCl.

Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid, which can only exist in solution, because it is highly unstable when isolated in a pure form. There are a number of uses for this chemical, most of which take advantage of its strong oxidising properties, which allow it to be used as a bleach and disinfectant, among many other things. Hypochlorous acid is the most effective of all the chlorine forms, similar in structure to water. The germicidal efficiency of HOCl is due to the relative ease with which it can penetrate cell walls. This penetration is comparable to that of water, and can be attributed to both its modest size and to its electrical neutrality.

Formation.
Addition of chlorine to water gives both hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid: Cl2 + H2O HClO + HCl In organic synthesis, HOCl converts alkenes to chlorohydrins. In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, and contributes to the destruction of bacteria and this is used in water treatment such as the acid being the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based swimming pool products. Production Using Electrolysis: Solutions of hypochlorites can be produced by electrolysis of an aqueous chloride solution. Chlorine gas is produced at the anode, while hydrogen forms at the cathode. Some of the chlorine gas produced will dissolve forming hypochlorite ions through the above reaction. The geometry of the cell is critical to ensure that as much of the chlorine as possible dissolves, rather than simply bubbling out of the cell. At the anode: 2 Cl- ---> Cl2 (g) + 2e- . This technique is often used to produce what is called electrolysed water. At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e- ---> H2 (g)

It can be seen that over time, the electrolyte will become increasingly basic. There are a number of potential hazards and challenges associated with this process. Untrained operators should not attempt it. The electrochemical environment of the cell is highly corrosive, particularly at the anode. Few materials are suitable as an anode electrolyte. Graphite can be used, but will degrade quickly (which also results in contamination of the cell with finely divided carbon particles). Graphite supported lead dioxide electrodes have been reported to be more effective. If the reaction conditions are not controlled, the produced hypochlorite can react with the hydroxide ions to form chlorate ions. These can additionally be electrochemically oxidized to perchlorate ions (within the same cell). Hypochlorite is a powerful oxidizing agent, and will attack the dyes used in pH paper and damage pH sensors, making measurement and control of the conditions difficult. Hydrogen gas is highly flammable, and can form explosive mixtures with both air and chlorine over a wide range of concentrations. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and corrosive. NOTE the process for making Electrolysed water is effectively the same. Electrolysed water is produced by passing a current of electricity through a dilute saltwater solution. One product of the reaction is sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and the other is Hypochlorous acid, which has a low pH, contains active chlorine, and has a strong oxidation-reduction potential similar to that of ozone. The properties of Electrolysed water can be optimised by increasing the voltage and increasing the salt concentration which results in a more acidic solution and higher residual chlorine level. Three forms of the solution can be produced, an acidic form, a neutral pH form and an alkaline form. The electrolysis unit produces the solutions in a concentrated form which is then diluted through an automatic dosing system to the required concentration.

Hypochlorite:
Usually the Sodium or Calcium salt of hypochlorous acid, the common component of bleach, chemical formula (NaOCl or Ca(OCL)2 ) Sodium Hypochlorite is the most common form found in the food and beverage industry, it is often referred to as Hypo however there are numerous trade names. Sodium hypochlorite is by no means a modern product. In about 1785 Berthollet, a Frenchman developed liquid bleaching agents based on sodium hypochlorite. The Javel company introduced this product and called it 'liqueur de Javel'. At first, it was used to bleach cotton. In France, sodium hypochlorite is still sometimes referred to as 'eau de Javel'. Sodium hypochlorite is a clear, slightly yellowish solution with a characteristic odour. As a bleaching agent for domestic use it usually contains about 5% sodium hypochlorite (with a pH of around 11, it is irritating). A more concentrated solution, containing around 10-15% of sodium hypochlorite (with a pH of around 13, causes skin burns and is corrosive). Sodium hypochlorite is unstable. Chlorine evaporates at a rate of approximately 0.75-gram active chlorine per day from the solution. When heated sodium hypochlorite disintegrates. This also happens when sodium hypochlorite comes in contact with acids, sunlight, and certain metals; giving off poisonous and corrosive gasses, including chlorine gas. Due to the presence of sodium hydroxide in hypochlorite dissolves in water, two substances form, which play a role in oxidation and disinfection. These are Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and the less active hypochlorite ion (OCl-). The pH of the water determines how much Hypochlorous acid is formed. The lower the pH the greater the level of Hypochlorous acid.

Chlorine dioxide:

Chlorine dioxide was first produced from the reaction of potassium

chlorate and hydrochloric acid by Davy in 1811. Not until the industrial-scale preparation of sodium chlorite, from which chlorine dioxide may more readily be generated however, did its widespread use occur. The most common traditional methods of generating chlorine dioxide involve mixing sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), acid (HCl2) and sodium chlorite (NaClO2) or chlorine gas (Cl2) and sodium chlorite. NaOCl + HCl + 2NaClO2 2ClO2 + 2NaCl + NaOH Cl2 + 2NaClO2 2ClO2 + 2NaCl New technology has dramatically improved the onsite generation of chlorine dioxide. This new technology generates chlorine dioxide by electro catalytic and electrochemical techniques. These generators

typically use only one precursor, sodium chlorite. The elimination of both chlorine and acid in the process has resulted in a much safer and simpler generation process. Some of these new generators produce chlorine dioxide directly in an aqueous solution with a concentration below 1000 mg/L. This low concentration in an aqueous solution dramatically enhances the safety of the process. Chlorine Dioxide has the chemical formula ClO2 and is a yellow to brown coloured gas at room temperature and pressure. It is a highly reactive oxidant and for all practical areas of water disinfection, it must be generated on site using proprietary reaction and dosing equipment By comparison: At room temperature, chlorine is a greenish-yellow poisonous gas. When added to water, however, chlorine combines with water to form hypochlorous acid that then ionises to form hypochlorite ion - 'bleach' In general, chlorine dioxide has been found to produce fewer organic byproducts with naturally occurring dissolved organic material. Chlorine dioxide is an explosive gas, but is stable in water in the absence of light and elevated temperatures. ClO2 is capable of oxidizing iron and manganese, removing colour, and lowering THM (Trihalomethanes) formation potential. It also oxidizes many organic and sulphurous compounds that cause off-tastes and odours. The physiological mode of inactivation of bacteria by chlorine dioxide has been attributed to a disruption of protein synthesis. In the case of viruses, chlorine dioxide preferentially inactivates the outer protein layers, rather than nucleic acids. It is well known that ClO2 does not react with ammonia; however, this is only one of many chemicals not affected by The Selective Oxidiser. ClO2 does not react with: acids, alkanes, alkynes, alcohols, aldehydes, aliphatic amines, ammonia, azole, carbohydrates, ethers, fats, glycol, ketones, methanol, polysaccharides, saccharides, unsaturated fatty acids and unsubstituted aromatics, among others. Organic contaminants, such as those mentioned above, are regularly found in cooling and process water systems. The cooling system contaminants could be ammonia in a semiconductor plant, glycol in a process heat exchanger, oil in a textile air washer or a steel mill, food from a cooker or methanol from a chemical plant. Because ClO2 does not

react with these contaminants, its demand is based on the microbiological loading in the water only. This demand impact is a major advantage in the areas of cost and performance. As regards to the cost of ClO2 it is certainly more expensive on a pound for pound basis, than chlorine gas (as much as 1OX), or hypochlorite (4X). It is only when the consumption of the chlorine by the systems demand is factored in, can the economics favour the ClO2 cases have been witnessed in heavily contaminated systems where a 1:25 replacement by ClO2 for chlorine, resulted in satisfactory treatment program where one did not exist prior. (John Murphy, Microcide Consultants).

TERMS:
Free Available Chlorine:
Refers to the hypochlorous acid (HOCl) form of chlorine only. It is the free, un-combined form of chlorine that is effective for disinfection.

Total Free Chlorine:

Refers to the sum of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ion (OCl-). The hypochlorite ion is not effective for disinfection, but it is in a free form. All of the total free chlorine would be in the form of hypochlorous acid if the pH were low enough.

Combined Chlorine:
Refers to chlorine, which is not readily available. For example, chlorine combined as chloramines or organic nitrogen is not an effective disinfectant and will not readily convert to hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite ion.

Total Residual Chlorine:

Refers to the sum of total free chlorine and combined chlorine. Low total residual chlorine is of particular interest to ensure there are no downstream consequences for aquatic life.

Cheese: Development of structure

Presented By N.E.M Business Solutions
Written By Miloslav Kalab
Cheeses are the most common dairy products. Milk from various animals, particularly cattle, buffaloes, goats, and sheep is used to make cheese. The basic procedure is very simple and is based on the spontaneous processes which, thousands years ago, probably led to the development of cheese. The description of cheese making procedures may be found on the Internet. Sometimes even photographs of various cheese varieties may be viewed. There are also instructions available, how to make processed cheese at school.. Various books, including one entitled Cheese - Chemistry, physics and microbiology, may be found in libraries. Another book, Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods by F. Kosikowski (F. V. Kosikowski & Associates, Brooktondale, NY, USA, 2nd ed. published in 1982) has been used by generations of dairy technologists for its thorough description of the manufacture of very many cheese varieties. Some journal papers dealing with the development of structure in cheese are richly illustrated with micrographs. The following links lead to individual topics on this page: Coagulation of milk, Cottage cheese, Unripened cheeses, Cream cheese, Low-fat cheeses, Curd granule junctions, Can I see curd granule junctions? Processed cheese Coagulation of milk To make cheese, milk is curdled using an agent called rennet present in the tissue of the calf stomach. Rennet (chymosin) is a proteolytic enzyme and its role is to destabilize casein micelles and make them to coagulate.. Similar enzymes are also found in plants, microorganisms, and digestive tract

tissues of other animals including chickens. They break down k-casein present on the surfaces of casein micelles in milk. Deprived of the protective action of k-casein, casein micelles form a gel. When examined by electron microscopy, they form a thin matrix consisting of their clusters and short chains, encapsulating fat globules. Void spaces in the matrix are filled with the liquid milk serum called whey which is a solution of lactose, minerals, and vitamins, and a suspension of whey proteins. The subsequent steps in the cheese manufacture are aimed at separating the curd from the whey and ripening it. Freshly coagulated milk is cut or broken into smaller particles using wire knives, stirrers or other tools and the cut or broken milk gel is slowly heated and stirred. Casein micelle clusters gradually shrink as they expel the whey and the protein matrix becomes compacted. Another milk component - fat globules - stays with the proteins in the curd. A small number of fat globules, which were exposed during curd cutting, are washed away with the whey. The micrograph at left shows an early stage of milk coagulation. Fixation in a glutaraldehyde solution preserved the solid constituents allowing water to be removed to show the microstructure of the milk coagulum.. The removal of the whey makes the casein matrix (shown blue to black) more compact and also brings the fat globules (yellow) closer together. The curd shown in the micrograph was made from fresh full-fat milk. The fat globules are shown as separate entities in the curd they did not interact with the casein micelles in the fresh milk and they may be characterized as nonreacting inclusions. in the curd. This is true of fat globules unaffected by homogenization. Homogenization of milk is a process during which large fat globules are disintegrated into considerably smaller particles. Their total surface is up to 6-fold larger than was the total surface of the original fat globules. Since the original fat globule membranes were fragmented by homogenization, there is a large area of unprotected exposed fat surface. Consequently, the small fat particles react immediately with any available proteins in the medium until all bare fat is again well covered. Even entire casein micelles are used for this purpose. Homogenized milk produces a different kind of curd. It is firmer than the curd made from nonhomogenized milk provided that all other parameters have been left unchanged (enzyme, total solids, pH). This

phenomenon was known even before the use of electron microscopy, but now the reason for the difference is clear: The minute fat globules with casein micelles anchored on their surfaces have become part of the protein matrix. Fat is no more an inert inclusion but has become a structural constituent. And this example is one of many which show the benefits of electron microscopy in elucidating interactions among food constituents and the development of food microstructure. Each individual parameter used during the cheese manufacture has some effect on the cheese produced. This is probably one of the reasons for the great variety of cheeses. On the other hand, it is a great challenge for the cheese producer to keep sensory attributes of a particular product constant in a world where, for example, the original rennet has to be replaced with a similar product from a different source because there is a global shortage of calf stomachs. Enzymes with a high proteolytic activity may be efficient in quickly curdling the milk but they may also disintegrate a large proportion of the milk proteins which would consequently be lost for the cheese production. High proteolytic activity may also lead to a weakened casein matrix and alter the characteristic consistency of the cheese. Similar constrains are encountered quite frequently. However, new technologies and new ingredients offer new directions in cheese manufacture. Examples will be presented as this home page is further developed.. Rennet is added to milk along with a lactic bacteria culture. The role of the bacteria is to assist curdling by decreasing pH of the milk. This is achieved by converting lactose into lactic acid. After the whey had been removed and the curd salted and pressed, the next stage - ripening takes places at a lower temperature for several weeks or months. This is the time when bacteria slowly degrade the milk proteins and produce substances which give the cheese its characteristic structure (carbon dioxide eyes in Swiss-type cheeses) and flavour (e.g., a low concentration of propionic acid),. The great variety of cheeses is made possible by the combinations of many varieties of specific bacteria. However, some cheeses are made with moulds (fungi}such as the Penicillium species [P. camemberti, P. roqueforti, etc.] rather than bacteria. A small group of cheeses (Paneer, Queso Blanco, White cheese) is made by coagulating milk while it is hot, with an acid, such as lactic acid. Such cheese are not ripened. Pressing and ripening The increase in the density of the curd matrix as a result of whey removal

and pressing has been followed in various cheeses by TEM. The micrograph at left shows a thin section of cheddared curd in a cross section. The casein micelle clusters are now more compacted (dark areas) than in the preceding micrographs. The fat globules are in contact with each other, having retained their fat globule membranes. An occasional bacterium (brown) may also be found. Cheddaring is a process, during which slabs of the warm curd are piled up in the cheese vat, subjecting the curd to a slow flow. It aligns the proteins and fat globules into a 'fibrous' structure reminiscent of a baked chicken breast. A section cut parallel with the 'fibres' shows the internal organization of the curd (micrograph at right). Similar kinds of structuring ('stretching') may be found in Italian-style Mozzarella cheese and, in particular, in 'string cheeses'. Additional images will be presented when this home is upgraded. Cottage cheese Cottage cheese represents an early stage product in the cheese manufacture. Curdled milk, cut into cubes, is heated and gently stirred. The cubes shrink and expel whey, as has already been explained. The whey is drained off and the curd is cooled so that its grains are prevented from 'matting', i.e., fusing with each other. The microstructure of Cottage cheese, as seen by SEM at left, is still porous consisting of distinct casein micelle clusters. Three bacteria (greenish) can be seen as if attached by filaments to the protein network. These filaments developed during sample preparation from a thin layer of a polysaccharide mucus (bacterial capsules) which surrounded the bacteria in the fresh curd. Highly hydrated polysaccharides are produced by some lactic acid bacteria. They are beneficial in our diet as a source of dietary fibre. In addition, the high viscosity of these polysaccharides modifies the mouthfeel of the food products such as Cottage cheese or yogurt. A high water-holding capacity of the bacterial polysaccharides is another beneficial property. Unripened cheeses Some cheeses (Indian Paneer cheese, South American Queso Blanco cheese, American White cheese, North American Ricotta cheese) are made by coagulating hot milk with an acid and separating the curd from the whey. The development of microstructure in Paneer, Queso Blanco, and White cheeses has been described in Food Structure. These cheeses have

several features in common: the milk is first heated to at least 85C and then is coagulated using an acid such as citric, lactic, acetic, or hydrochloric acid (or an acid precursor such as glucono-d-lactone) to a final pH value of 5.5. This means that the curd is not too acidic. The coagulated milk is then cooled and the whey is separated. The microstructure of the casein particles has a characteristic 'core-andshell' structure (micrograph at left). (The whey contains very little whey proteins since they coagulated due to the heating and became part of the curd). How the microstructure develops has not yet been fully explained but it is known that three essential conditions must be met: The milk must be coagulated at a temperature higher than 85C so that whey proteins may interact with the k-casein; Whey proteins and the milk salt system must be present in the milk; The final pH value must be 5.5 0.1. Cream cheese As the name indicates, Cream cheese is made from pure cream or from mixtures of cream and milk. It has a rich, mildly acidic flavour and a smooth buttery consistency. In the traditional system of manufacturing, the cream mixture is pasteurized, homogenized, and coagulated using a lactic bacterial culture. The curd is then heated to 52-63C, drained, and hot-packed or cold-packed. This kind of manufacturing procedure yields whey which has to be disposed off. In a newly formulated method of 'whey-less' manufacturing, the creamand-milk mixture has the total solids composition of the cheese. The mixture is also pasteurized, homogenized, and incubated with a lactic bacterial culture at ~30C. Then the solidified mixture is homogenized again and packed without cooling. Products which have not been made by the traditional procedure may not be called 'cream cheese' and terms such as 'cream cheese food' or 'cream cheese spread' are used. Another new procedure has been suggested by Dr. H. W. Modler. It consists of producing curd, mixing it with high-fat (58%) cultured cream, and homogenizing the mixture. Whey is produced but whey proteins are retained in the curd depending on how high the milk is heated prior to coagulation. Heated milk (up to 98C) is coagulated using a 2.5% citric acid solution until pH of 5.3-5.5 is reached and the curd is drained. A mixture of the curd and high-fat cream is heated at ~70C, homogenized, and the cream cheese spread is hot-packed.

Microstructure Structural differences between the cheeses are best observed using TEM of thin sections. This technique makes it possible to Microstructure of examine the traditional Cream interior of the cheese Fat globule cheese particles clusters (dark yellow) are whereas SEM covered with protein (dark would show blue) in the aqueous their surfaces. medium (light yellow).

In the traditional Cream cheese, electron microscopy reveals a very high fat content in the form of minute fat globules. Their surfaces are covered with protein particles. The protein frequently covers fat globule clusters rather than each individual fat globule. The newly formulated Cream cheese Microstructure of newly spread structure is different. This is noticeable at the first glance: the fat is formulated Cream cheese Large fat particles present in the form of relatively large fat particles which are not associated with (brown) are not closely protein. Protein is relatively evenly associated with protein (dark blue) in the aqueous distributed through the body of the spread in the form of small clusters attached to the fat medium (yellow) particles at random. Cream cheese spread made by homogenizing high-fat cream with fresh curd differs from the products mentioned above and clearly reflects the manufacturing procedure. Most of the fat is in form of small globules in clusters and the protein is in the form of relatively large particles. The structure of the curd also reveals its origin - acid-induced coagulation of hot milk to pH 5.5 shows the core-and-shell ultrastructure of the casein particles. Although the curd undergoes homogenization with cream, the 'protein shells' are clearly noticeable (figure at right).

Microstructure of Cream cheese made from high-fat cream and acid-coagulated hot milk Fat globules (brown) and the curd (which shows the coreand-shell ultrastructure of casein particles - dark blue) are the major ingredients dispersed in the aqueous phase (yellow).

Information on Cream cheese products presented in this section is based on my earlier experimental work described in several papers coauthored by A. G. Sargant, D. A. Froehlich, and H. W. Modler in Food Structure and in Milchwissenschaft 40(4):193-196 (1985) (Milk gel structure. XV. Electron microscopy of whey protein-based Cream cheese spread).

Low-fat cheeses Electron microscopy has also been used in studies of low-fat or fat-free cheeses, where fat has been replaced with one of the socalled fat replacers. They may be based on proteins, polysaccharides, or even on indigestible fats and oils. Their action is based on the fact that our tongue receives stronger signals about the dimensions of the particles than about their chemical nature. Particles 1 to 3 m in diameter are perceived as fat. In the micrograph at left, a protein-based fat replacer has been incorporated in cheese. It affects, because of its protein nature, only sensory attributes and instrumental measurements of the cheese. Protein- and polysaccharide-based fat replacers do not melt and their use is limited to specific situations, for example frozen desserts, salad dressings, and some other applications. The low-fat cheese sample shown at left was freeze-fractured. This procedure makes it possible to fracture (break) even minute particles and study their internal structure by scanning electron microscopy.

An example of low-fat cheese where a fat substitute based on protein (light greencoloured globular aggregates of microparticulated protein) was used to replace a small portion of milkfat. Fat globules originally present in the cheese were extracted from the sample while it was prepared for scanning electron microscopy. Initially they occupied the spaces which now appear empty in the protein body of the cheese.

Additional scientific papers are being processed for this page. Images of fat substitutes used in cheese, the structure of cheeses made without the aid of microorganisms, Cottage cheese and other cheeses such as Mozzarella will be gradually presented at this site. Processed cheese is another important dairy product in which interesting discoveries have been made using electron microscopy.

Brick cheese vs. Cheddar cheese

Two different structures compared
Differences between cheeses can not only be tasted but also seen, because manufacturing processes impart special features on the cheese microstructure. To make cheese, curdled milk is cut using steel wire knives or the milk gel is broken into small particles using a propeller stirrer. Subsequent heating shrinks and compacts the particles, as whey is drained off. The curd particles are pressed together and they fuse to make a uniform body of cheese. The sites of contact, where adjoining curd particles meet, are called curd granule junctions. Their development is schematically shown in the diagram. The gelled (nonhomogenized) milk which contains fat globules (yellow disks) is cut (red vertical line). The fat globules thus exposed are washed out from the curd (arrows). The surface of the granules heals (middle figure). Pressing of the 2 granules together (last figure) causes the superficial layers depleted of fat to fuse. The junction is shown as an area devoid of fat globules. If homogenized milk is used where the fat globules are considerably smaller, the width of the junctions is markedly reduced. The junctions can easily be seen by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as compact zones. To obtain the micrograph shown, a small Brick cheese sample (1x1x10 mm) was fixed in a glutaraldehyde solution, dehydrated in ethanol, defatted in n-hexane, returned into absolute ethanol, and rapidly frozen in liquid Freon 12. The frozen sample was transferred into liquid nitrogen, where it was freeze-fractured, returned into absolute ethanol, where it thawed, and then it was critical-point dried from liquid carbon dioxide. Defatting and freeze-fracturing were the essential steps to show the junctions. Removal of fat makes the fracture plane of the sample 'rough' - full of

cavities (initially occupied by fat) - in the area showing the interior of the curd granules. The protein walls separating the cavities scatter light in all directions. Light scattering causes this area to appear lighter than the compact structure of the curd granule junctions, which is mostly free of fat globules. The contrast between both structures creates the curd granule junction patterns. The junctions are visible even to a naked eye. Brick cheese (left figure below) made from curd obtained by knife cutting shows granules relatively similar in size. Such images may be obtained even at a high school chemical laboratory and instructions on how to proceed are given below. They are also characteristic of other 'stirred-curd' cheeses such as Farmer's, Eidam, Gouda, etc. Cheddar cheese manufacture involves considerably more work. The fused curd granules (curd slabs) are piled one over the other in the cheese vat in traditional Cheddar making. Heat and the presence of fat in the curd make it to slowly flow down. This cheddaring process elongates the granules. The slabs are gradually replaced so that all are exposed to maximum flow and then the slabs are milled into finger-like pieces. These are salted and pressed together. Milling produces new cuts and thus new junctions (right figure). They are called milled curd junctions and are noticeably thicker than the curd granule junctions. Also mechanized and automated cheddaring produces both kinds of junction. Different equipment leaves its marks in the junction patterns. These findings are of practical importance. For example, they show that any attempts to alter a certain cheese manufacturing procedure would easily be detected. The findings ensure that the higher price which the consumers pay for Cheddar cheese compared to Farmer's cheese is justified and that they buy a product which really is Cheddar cheese.

Readers who would like to see the junctions in their piece of cheese who would like to see the junctions in their piece of cheese and who have access to a chemical laboratory, will find that the procedure is relatively simple. Needs:

fume hood 3 to 4 petri dishes cheese slicer or a sharp knife a piece of filter paper a pair of tweezers 2 glass or metal plates (at least 10x10 cm)

weights fine sand paper 2 to 5% glutaraldehyde solution 96% (denatured) alcohol n-hexane or acetone

Procedure: Obtain thin (~2 mm) slices the cheese under study, about 5x5 cm large, and immerse them in an aqueous 2 to 5% glutaraldehyde solution in separate petri dishes overnight. This treatment will fix the cheeses and make them easy to handle. It will also increase the contrast between the junctions and the curd interior. Next day, replace the glutaraldehyde solution with 96% denatured alcohol, about 3 times after 30 minute periods. Then replace ethanol with n-hexane or acetone (twice) to extract fat from the cheese. Using a pair of tweezers, place the cheese slices between two filter papers, place them, with the papers, between two glass or metal plates, place a weight on them, and let the cheese slices dry overnight. All this work must be done in a fume hood. When the cheese slices are dry, they are light and brittle. Sand them carefully with a fine sand paper and see the junctions emerge as sanding progresses. Why is necessary to sand the slices? Because cutting had smeared cheese protein on the slices and it is necessary to remove it. Stretched Mozzarella, cheeses with very low fat contents, and processed cheeses do not reveal curd junction patterns. Processed cheese Processed cheese has a relatively short history. First experiments started at the end of the last century but success was achieved only in 1912, when citric acid was introduced as a melting salt. This happened in Switzerland. A few years later, sodium phosphates were added to sodium citrate and have been used since that time. The initial idea of processing cheese was to increase the shelf life of cheese and, more importantly, to utilize cheeses which may have had various defects. If it was possible with butter by rendering it, some people believed, it should also be possible with cheese. However, when

cheese is melted without any additive, fat separates from protein and the result is terrible. The secret of 'processing' cheese is in keeping the fat in the protein matrix. Heating, however, decreases the ability of the cheese proteins to keep the fat globules in the dispersed state, which means that the emulsifying capability of the proteins has been reduced. Melting salts restore it by binding (sequestering) calcium which is present in the caseins. Melting salts with very strong calcium-binding ability (affinity for calcium) lead to the production of hard processed cheeses which contain fat in the form of very small globules. For those readers who like chemistry, the affinity increases in the following order: NaH2PO4 (monosodium phosphate) Na2HPO4 (disodium phosphate) Na2H2P2O7 (disodium pyrophosphate) Na3HP2O7 (trisodium pyrophosphate) Na4P2O7 (tetrasodium pyrophosphate) Na5P3O10 (pentasodium tripolyphosphate). It has to be emphasized that the melting salts are not emulsifiers but they restore the emulsifying ability of the milk proteins very efficiently. Principles of cheese processing are simple: Various natural cheeses are shredded and then blended with the melting salts and other ingredients such as various kinds of milk solids such as milk powder, whey powder, coprecipitates, cream, butter or butter oil, and sometimes also previously processed cheese. Vegetables and spices may also be added and some processed cheeses may contain 'muscle food ingredients' such as ham, salami, or fish. Other additives such as preservatives, colouring and flavouring agents, binders, and salt and water complete the list of the ingredients. The blend is heated with constant stirring until a smooth mass is formed. In a continuous processed cheese production, the temperature is increased to 140C for a few seconds to destroy harmful bacteria (such as clostridia) if they happen to be present in some of the ingredients.

From the structural viewpoint, many features

TEM of processed cheese. Undissolved melting salt crystals (white), fat being emulsified (yellow), and a Compact electron-dense calcium phosphate crystal structures (purple arrow) (red) are all clearly developed in processed cheese noticeable. Bar: 5 m made with 2.7% trisodium phosphate (used as the melting salt) due to excessive heating (82C for 5 hours).

SEM of processed cheese. Cavities left in the protein matrix by undissolved melting salt crystals (blue arrow), dark globular cavities initially occupied by fat, and a calcium phosphate crystal (red) are also noticeable by SEM. Bar: 20 m

characteristic of natural cheeses are destroyed, for example, the curd granule junction patterns and the original fat globule membranes. On the other hand, new features are formed. In most processed cheeses, undissolved melting salt crystals may still be evident. Adding the salts in crystalline form rather than in the form of an aqueous solution to the cheese blend leaves some crystals undissolved. Interactions between the melting salts and calcium in the natural cheeses lead to the formation of insoluble calcium phosphates. T Emulsification of fat - that means disintegration of large fat globules into wo kinds of electron-dense structure developed in process smaller droplets - is also often noticeable in processed cheese. cheese made with 20% rework consisting of hot melt. The hot melt was obtained by processing Processed cheese rework cheese with 2.7% sodium citrate and heating it at 82 for 5 hours The amount of heat absorbed by (green arrow). The shredded hot processed cheese blends during processing may vary and may even be melt was added to a fresh excessive at times. A blend may cheese blend and the mixture receive too much heat during was processed (using 2.7% trisodium phosphate) and excessively heated. Purple arrows point to structures developed in the fresh cheese blend.

continuous processing if, for example, packaging is delayed for some reason and the flow of the viscous processed cheese blend in the pipes is reduced. The blend eventually thickens and stops moving. Then it is called hot melt. It is removed from the pipes and is frozen for future use. Reworking or reprocessing consists of thawing and shredding the hot melt and adding a small quantity of it to a fresh blend. This is often done on purpose to modify the melting properties of processed cheese in a desired manner. Hot melt is thus a type of process cheese food that is not packaged for sale although it would meet product specifications. If it is re-used, it is called rework. Electron microscopy revealed structural changes in the proteins of rework in the form of small (<1 m in diameter) dark areas in the micrographs of thin sections. Darkening may be the result of compaction of the cheese proteins or alterations in their chemical structure whereby the heat-modified proteins would react more intensively with heavy metals used during fixation and staining. Tests, in which heavy metals (Os, Pb, U) were omitted from the fixatives and stains during sample preparation for electron microscopy indicated that the proteins in the dark areas were rather compacted than chemically altered. The submicrostructure of the compacted areas was found to be related to the melting salt used to make the processed cheese. Hot melt contained considerably less undissolved melting salt crystals apparently because the crystals had time to dissolve during the entended exposure to heat. Rework dispersed rapidly in the freshly processed cheese blend. This visual observation was confirmed by optical microscopy. What do these findings mean in processed cheese production? They show that the loss of meltability is associated with structural changes in cheese proteins. They make it possible to detect if rework was used in cheese processing; even at 10% rework, there was a high concentration of the dark areas in the micrographs. Finally, these findings point to interesting thermal effects on processed cheese, which may eventually be studied in greater detail and explained.

Updated: June 23, 2000. Author: M. Kalab