Fall 2012

PH 103
Weeks 4

Numbers, Scalars and Vectors

Numbers- Notation: Numbers are used for counting objects, say books, / , / , markers, fans and students; for expressing fractions such 11 1 1 ratios of magnitudes of physical quantities and sum of infinite series. These are respectively referred to as whole numbers or integers, rational numbers, or ratios of integers and irrational numbers. In the later category the ratio of circumference to diameter of a circle, denoted by , and of natural logarithm e 1 11 11 11 .. , are two of the most familiar numbers to scientists and + / !+ / !+ / !+ engineers. Representation: A real number, denoted by the letters a , b , x and y , etc; represents any of the above category of numbers. Graphically real numbers are represented by pints on a line. A point on the line representing the number 1 is taken as a reference point, or the origin, with points on its right 1 resenting positive numbers and those on its left representing negative numbers as shown in Fig 4.1. FIG 4.1 1 1

11 1

Binary Operations- Addition and Multiplication: Having defined real numbers we now need to define rules for combining two or more of these numbers to get another real number. It is suffice to define rules for combining two numbers at a time as these rules can easily be generalized for combining more than two numbers. Such rules are called binary operations or number algebra. From practical considerations it is easy to see that adding two numbers x1and x 1 gives a 3rd number x1. By denoting the process of addition by the symbol, this operation of addition is written as, x1+ x 1 = x1 (4.1) It is also clear that the order of adding these numbers doesnt affect the final result, x1+ x 1 = x 1 + x1 = x1 (4.1a) This feature, the independence of the result of addition of the order of adding two numbers, is known as the commutative property of addition, and we say that addition is a commutative operation. The real number zero, 1 plays a special role in addition in that its addition to any , number x yields the same number x , x+1 1 x+x = +

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For this reason it is called the identity element of the addition operation. In particular, adding a number to its own negative yields the identity element, x + ( x) = ( x) + x = 0 Note: 4.1: Subtracting one number from another number is equivalent to adding its negative to that number. By adding another number x 4 to the number x3 given by EQ (4.1) we get another number x5 , x3 + x 4 = ( x1 + x 2 ) + x 4 = x5 (4.1b) In this way we can generalize the binary operation of addition to three or more numbers. It is follows from everyday experience that we could 1st add x1 to x 4 and then add to the result x 2 , or 1st add x 2 to x 4 and then add to the result x1 , without changing the end result x5 , ( x1 + x2 ) + x 4 = ( x1 + x 4 ) + x 2 = x1 + ( x 2 + x 4 ) = x5 (41c) st This freedom of adding any two of the three number 1 and the adding to it the 3rd number without affecting the result, is known as the associative property of addition Multiplication: Adding the number x to itself n -times is equivalent to multiplying it by n , x + x + x + ... + x = nx This can also be looked as the total number of object in n rows with x objects per row. In general, denoting the operation of multiplication by the symbol , the total number of objects in x1 rows with x 2 objects per row is given by the number x3 , x1 x 2 = x3 (4.2) Since, the number of rows and the number of items per row are interchangeable, we may also write EQ (4.2) as, x 2 x1 = x3 (4.2a) Therefore multiplication of two numbers is also commutative operation. For any number x 0 we can define its inverse number 1 / x , or x 1 , such that, x x 1 = 1 (4.2b) Thus the number1is the identity element of the multiplication operation. EQ (4.2c) also helps us generalize multiplication to division operation denoted by the symbol .; for any two numbers x1 and x 2 0 we get another number x3 by dividing x1 by x 2 ,

( )

x1 x 2 = x1 x 2 x1 / x 2 = x 3 (4.2c) Therefore, unlike multiplication, the operation of division is not commutative. Multiplying x3 given by EQ (4.2) by another number x 4 we get some number x5 and using EQs (4.2) and (4.2a), we may write, x3 x 4 = ( x1 x 2 ) x 4 = x1 ( x 2 4 ) = ( x1 x 4 ) x 2 = x5 (4.2d)

( )
1

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This means that, a) the operation of multiplication can easily be extended to three or more numbers, and b) multiplication of numbers is an associative. From the above considerations it follows that both of the binary operations of addition and multiplication on numbers, a follow the commutative and associative rules of algebra. Scalars refer to the magnitude of physical quantities. The only difference between scalars and numbers is that in the case of scalars we also need to specify their units. Just like numbers we use denote scalars by real numbers and their addition and multiplication follow all the rules of algebra. Like numbers, graphically scalars, being mostly positive, are represented by points on the right side of the origin on a line along with their appropriate units. Some examples scalars are; time, mass, length, volume, speed, temperature, charge, energy, power and flux. Vectors are physical quantities that need two or more numbers (their magnitude and direction, or their components) to specify them. Examples of vector quantities are position vector, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, gravitational, electric and magnetic fields and linear and angular momentum. The magnitude of vectors is expressed in real number with appropriate units and their numerical values depend on these units. Last week we discussed the one-dimensional examples of displacement, velocity, acceleration. This week we will discuss their two and higher dimensional analogues and various vector operations. Vector Notation and its Graphical Representation: As discussed duringsteps along y-axis the No of class, consider my taking a walk of 3 steps from the origin at O in4one direction, P labeled as x-axis, and another 4 steps in a direction perpendicular to it, labeled 3 as y-axis, as shown by dashed lines in Fig. 4.2. Then my position after this short walk can be represented by the arrow OP , which is denoted by2r1 . Note that r to make things simple, I am using bold letters to denote vectors in steadr of the Q
1

usual vector notation r .

Fig. 4.2

2 3 4 If I Continue from P taking another step in the x-direction and 2 steps in1 the yx- axis No of steps along x-axis direction I arrive at the position Q. This part of my walk is shown bydash-dot lines in Fig 4.2. and my new position vector is represented by the arrow OQ , or

the vector r 2 . The vectors

and

are called position vectors. The vector PQ

, or r , represents my displacement from my location P .to my new location Q . To proceed further we need to introduce the concept of unit vector n . It is vector of magnitude unity, n = 1 , without any units representing direction. In the

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same spirit We shall use i for representing x-direction, direction and

for representing y-

for representing z-direction. In general we will use the symbol

to denote unit vector along the position vector r , which is defined as:

r=r r

or

Where,

= r , the magnitude of vector r . The units of the physical quantity

represented by

are associated with its magnitude A .

Fig.4.2

Note 4.2: We denote a vector by bold small or capital letters, such as A and its magnitude by the corresponding letter; for example A stands for magnitude of A . Graphically, an arrow represents a vector. The length of the arrow corresponds to its magnitude A and the direction in which an arrow points is its direction. For a two dimensional vector the direction is also given by the angle that the vector makes with a reference line, say the horizontal dotted line in Fig. 4.2. In three dimensions, we need two angles to represent its direction as we shall discuss later. In 3-dimensions we will use a small circle with a dot at its center to represent a vector pointing at us from the page or the board and a small circle with a cross to representing vectors pointing away from us into the page or the board as shown in Fig 4.3. Fig 4.3 Vector Components and Vector Addition: From Fig. 4.1 and its associated description we can write the position vectors r1 , r 2 and the displacement r in terms of unit vectors i and j as follows. OP = r1 = 2 i + 3 OQ = r 2 = 3 i +

j
and

(4.3) (4.3a) (4.3b) (4.3c) (4.3d)

PQ = r = i 2

Or, from EQs (4.3) - (4.3b), r = r 2 r1 , and

r =r
2

+ r

Note 4.3: The positions vectors r1 , r 2 and the displacement r do not depend on the particular paths I took to get there. I could have first moved along the ydirection and then the x-direction, had gotten there along any zigzag path, or walked straight from O to P along OP. Also, the mathematical notation, or the
.

A
4

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graphical representation of a vector doesnt contain any information about the starting and end points of my walk. This means that I can move around the arrow that represents it anywhere I like provided I dont change its magnitude and its direction. Note 4.4-Negative Vector: Consider a situation when I walk along OP, then back to O along PO, see Fig 4.3c. In this case we can write, Fig. 4.4 OP + PO + = 0 , or in terms of EQ. (4.5): r1 + r 2 = 0 Thus we may write,
PO = OP = r1 , or OP + OPO = r1 + ( r1) = 0

In general we can define the negative of any vector A as

A + ( A ) = 0

A such that
(4.4)

This is shown in Fig. 4.4.. Note 4.5: r1 and r 2 are two dimensional position vectors. The same symbols could also be used to represent three-dimensional position vectors if I could also move in the k-direction, as insect and birds can do.

Vector Algebra
Vector Addition: EQ. (4.3c) is an example of vector addition. In general, lets consider any two vectors A and B as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). Since A and B specify the direction and magnitude of these vectors but not their location ( see note 4.2 above), we can draw them anywhere on the page. In particular we can draw B such that it starts with the tip of vector A as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b).The vector C joining the tail of A with the tip of B gives their sum, or resultant:

A +B =C
A
A B

(4.5)

A B
(b)

B C

A B
(c)

A C
(d)

-A

(a)

Fig 4.5 In stead of moving B we could have moved A to the tip of B giving;

B + A =C
Therefore, addition of two vectors is commutative.

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We can also think of A as vector with the same magnitude as that of A but pointing in the opposite direction, Fig. 4.4 (d) and, so that A + A = A + A =0

) (

Zero or null vector 0 may have any direction except when it represents the magnitude of a vector that is vanishingly small. In that case it will have the same direction as that of the corresponding vector. Likewise, if we a vector D to the vector C given by EQ (4.5) we could extend vector addition to three or more vectors and show that vector addition is also associative,

C +D

{ A + B } + D + A + {B + D } = B + {D + A } = E

(4.6)

Magnitude and Direction of the Sum of Two Vectors: We can find the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector C that is given by EQ (4.5) in three different ways; geometric, trigonometric and component methods. a) Geometric Method: In this case we draw the two given vectors A and B by choosing some appropriate scale and find their resultant C , either by the tip-to tail method shown in Fig. 4.4(b) or the parallelogram method shown in Fig 4.4 (c) and them find the magnitude and direction of C by measuring its length and the angle its makes with the reference line. b) Trigonometric Method: In this method we sketch with known sides Fig 4.5 A and B that are given by the magnitudes of the a vectors A and B making an angle A + B , since A B is the angle between vectors A and B . Fig 4.5 is a sketch of a triangle abc , with its two sides ab and bc equal to the magnitudes of the two given vectors A and B , and the angle < cbd = = A B between them. To find its 3rd side ac , and the angle < cab = we make a right angle triangle acd by drawing the perpendicular cd from point c on the line ab . This gives the base ad and the altitude cd of the right angle triangle acd : ad = ab + bd = A + B cos , and cd = B sin So that, using Pythagoras Theorem we get, 2 2 2 2 2 C 2 = ( ac ) = ( ad ) + ( cd ) = ( A + B cos ) + ( B sin ) = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos , giving, C= A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos , and cd B sin tan = = ad A + B cos (4.6a) (4.6b)

C
b

B
d

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Which is the angle between vectors A and C . Since vector A makes an angle

A with the reference line, the angle C of the result vector C is given by, C = A
Where, one of the two sign is chosen depending on which side of

(4.6c)

A is C . c) Algebraic, or Component Method: If we know the components of A and B we can find the components of C by adding the corresponding components of A and B . These components may be given, if not we can find them from the given magnitude and directions of A and; A = A cos , A = A sin , etc. In
x A y A

either case, we are given, A = Ax i + Ay j , and B = Bx i + B y

, and required to find,

A +B

= Cx i + C y

Adding together the corresponding components of A and B , we get, C x = Ax + B x , C y = Ay + B y , etc. giving,

= Cx i + C y

j =(A

+ B x ) i + ( Ay + B y )

(4.7) (4.7a)

2 2 C = Cx + C y ,

With the angle that is makes with the reference line given by, C y A + By tan (C ) = = . C x Ax + B x Example 4.5: As an illustration of vector addition let us consider finding the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the following, vectors: A = 3i + 4 j , and B = 3i 4 j , Find a) C = A + B , b) D = A B

(4.7b)

Here we use the trigonometric and algebraic methods and encourage students to find C and D by the geometric method. Fig 4.6 We have A =
2 2 Ax + Ay = 5 = B , tan A =

4 = tan b , or A 53 0 = B 3

Therefore, EQs (4.6a) and (4.6b) give, ai) Trigonometric Method: C = A + B

C = = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos( A B ) = 5 2 1 + cos 106 0 = 5 2(1 sin 16 0 ) = 5 2 0.96 = 5 1.92 5 1.39 = 6.94 B sin ( A B ) sin 106 0 cos 16 0 0.96 0.96 4 = = 0.96 = = , or, Tan tan = 0 A + B cos( A B ) 1 + cos 106 1 sin 16 1 0.28 0.72 3
0 53 0 , and C = = A 106

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b-i)

D = A B

, in this case, as is clear from Fig 4.6, B = A

C = = A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos( A B ) 5 2 1 + cos 106 0 = 5 2(1 + cos 74 0 ) = 5 2 1 + cos 74 0 = 5 2 0.28 5 0.28 = 1.4 B sin ( A B ) sin 74 0 sin 74 0.96 96 3 tan = = = = = = = 0.25 , or, A + B cos( A B ) 1 + cos( 74 ) !+ cos 74 1 + 0.28 128 4

0 0 0 = 14 0 , and D = A = 53 + 14 = 67 b-i) Algebraic Method: C = C x i + C y j = ( Ax + Bx ) i + ( Ay + B y )

= 6i + 0

= 6i

C=6 tan C = b-ii)

Ay + B y Ax + B x

0 = 0 , giving C = 0 0 6

= Dx i + d y

j =(A

B x ) i + ( Ay B y )

= 0i + 8

=8

, giving,

D = 8 , and Ay B y 9 tan D = = , giving D = / 2rad = 90 0 , Ax B x 0

Example 4.6- Parabolic Trajectory: As an example of the application of vector addition lets consider viewing a ball thrown vertically upward with a speed v0 in a train moving with constant speed u . A person in the train will see the ball going up and returning back to its original position as shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). A person standing on the platform will see the ball moving in a parabolic path; Fig. 4.7 (b). If v is the initial velocity of the ball as observed from the platform, then

v=ui+ v

If is the time of flight of the ball then, / 2 = v0 / g , The height H and the range R of the parabolic trajectory of the ball as seen by an observer on the platform are given by; 2 1 2 1 H = 2 g = gv 0 , and 2 2 R = u = 2uv 0 / g Fig 4.7 The angle that the initial velocity

j
u i + v0

ui
(a) (b)

makes with the x-axis is given by,

tan =

v0 u

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v0 by , we get the familiar g 2 expressions for the projectile motion that are derived below using the standard method.

Writing, u = v cos , v 0 = v sin and replacing

Projectile Motion-Standard Form: Lets consider throwing a ball with an initial velocity v0 . This problem has only two vector quantities; the initial velocity v0 and the direction of the acceleration due to gravity. Since two non-collinear vectors uniquely specify a plain, the motion of the object will be in a plain.We chose y -axis to be pointing upwards (away from the center of the earth) and x -axis perpendicular to the y -axis in the horizontal plane, with as the angle of v0 with the x -axis. The components of v0 along the x- and y-axis are given by; v x = v cos 0 , v y = v0 sin

Let u x ( t ) and u y ( t ) be the x- and y-components of the velocity, a x ( t ) a x ( t ) those of the acceleration and x( t ) and y ( t ) are the components of the location of the projectile at any time t during its motion. From the equations of motion we have, dx ( t ) du ( t ) ux (t) = , ax (t ) = x dt dt du y ( t ) dy ( t ) u y (t) = , ay (t) = dt dt In this case, the acceleration is due to gravity g that always points towards the center of the earth, or in the negative y -axis, we get, a x ( t ) = 0 , and a x ( t ) = g Therefore, from the above equations we get, du x ( t ) = 0 , or, du x = o , giving dt (4.7a) du x = u x = v cos , and, = g , or dt du y = gdt , du y = g dt , giving
dx( t ) we get, dt

du y ( t )

u y ( t ) v sin = gt

(4.7b)

Substituting the value of u x ( t ) from EQ (34.7a) in u x ( t ) =

u x ( t ) = v cos = dx ( t ) , or dt

dx (t ) = v cos dt Recalling that v cos does not depend on t and x = 0 at t = 0 , we get, x(t ) = v cos( )t (4.7c) The range R of the projectile is the horizontal distance it covers during its time of flight ;

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(4.7d) dy ( t ) Likewise substituting the value of u y ( t ) from EQ (4.7b) in u y ( t ) = we get dt dy ( t ) u y ( t ) = v sin gt = , or, dt dy (t ) = (v sin gt )dt = v sin( )dt gtdt , Recalling that v sin and g are both independent of t , integrating the above equation with, y = 0 at t = 0 , gives, 1 y (t ) = v sin( )t gt 2 (4.7e) 2 The highest point in the trajectory of the projectile H is reached for t = , where 2 the vertical component of its velocity becomes zero. Therefore, EQ (3.8) gives, 0 = u y ( t ) = v sin g , or 2 2v sin = (3.7f) g From EQs (4.7d) and (4.7f), we get, 2v sin ( ) 2v 2 sin cos( ) v 2 sin ( 2 ) = R = v cos( ) = (4.7g) g g g Substituting t = / 2 in EQ (4.7d)

R = v cos( )

1 v 2 sin 2 ( ) 1 v sin ( ) , or H = y ( ) = v sin( ) g = g 2 2 2 2 g 2 g 2 2 v sin ( ) H= (4.7h) 2g From the above equation it follows that the projectile has a maximum range for = 45 0 ; v2 R= (4.7k) g And its corresponding height is; v2 H= (4.7l) 4g We can also obtain the equation of the trajectory of the projectile motion by eliminating the value of t from EQ (4.7c) in EQ (4.7e), giving,
2 2 2

x 1 x g 2 y = v sin( ) g v cos ( ) = x tan ( ) 2v 2 cos 2 ( ) x , or v cos( ) 2 2 g sec ( ) 2 (4.7m) y = x tan ( ) x 2v 2 This is equation of a parabola, which is symmetric about the line x = R / 2 that is parallel to y -axis, and with its origin shifted to the point ( R / 2, H ) . 9/28/2012 Physics 105 Physics- Classical Mechanics, Fall 2010, Abdullah Sadiq Page of 13 10

Q 4.3: a) Write EQ (4.7m) for = 45 0 and sketch y as a function of x . What is the shape of the curve? 2 b) Write your equation of part (a) above in standard form y ' = 4ax ' by replacing x by x ' + R / 2 and y by y ' + H , with R and H given by EQs (4.7k) and (5.7l), and find the value of a . c) Show that the trajectory passes through the point ( R / 2, H )

Activity 4.1: Find the maximum speed with which you can throw a ball by repeating the Activity 2.5 of throwing an object vertically upward and measuring the time it takes to return to its original position. a) Use this information to calculate its initial speed with your error estimate. Explain the sources of your error. b) Using the above information predict the ranges and heights of projectiles if you were to throw a ball at angles 300, 450 and 602 with the horizontal along with your error estimates c) Check your predictions of part (b) by throwing a stone or a ball at these angles in an open space to see if your ranges are within your expected errors. Vector Multiplication: We may multiply a vector by a number, a scalar quantity or by another vector quantity. Multiplying a vector by a positive number gives another vector different magnitude but of the same units and direction. Multiplication of vector by a negative number reverses its direction. Multiplying a vector by a scalar changes its magnitude and units but not its direction. For example as we mentioned earlier, multiplying the displacement vector r by the inverse time we get the average velocity which has the same direction as r but has different magnitude and units. Q 4.4: Give at least 4 examples multiplying a vector by i) a number and ii) a scalar sketching the original and the resultant vectors side by side. Activity 4.2: Make a table of scalars and vectors and identify i) scalar that are product of two vector quantities. You will also notice that certain vector quantities, and ii) vector quantifies that are product of two vector quantities. Q 4.5: Give examples of at least two physical quantities that are scalars and two other physical quantizes that are vectors, which are product of two vectors quantities From these considerations we conclude that there are two possible outcomes of physical interest when we multiply two vectors quantities; a scalar quantity or another vector quantity. Therefore, we can multiply vector A and B in two ways. Scalar Product: The result of one, known as scalar or dot product, is a scalar

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quantity, which on the basis of physics considerations discussed during the class, we write it as; (4.8) A B = AB cos Here is the angle between the two vectors A and B . In terms of their components A B = Ax i + Ay j Bx i + B j = Ax Bx i i + Ax B y i j +

Ay B x

i + A y By

j j

= Ax B x + Ay B y

(4.8a)

In getting the last tern in EQ (4.8a) we used the fact that the unit vectors i and are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, i j = j i cos( / 2) = 0 , and i i = j j = cos 0 = 1

It is clear from the commutation properties of numbers and EQs (4.8) and (4.8a) that scalar product of two vectors is commutative: A B = AB cos = BAcons = B A , and

A B

= Ax B x + Ay B y = B z Az + B y Ay =

B A

The above delimitation of scalar product is easily extendable to the dot product of vectors with three or more components. By combining the EQs (4.8) and (4.8a) we can calculate the magnitude of a vector as well as the angle between two vectors. 2 2 2 2 (4.8b) A A = A cos 0 = A = Ax + Ay , or A = Ax 2 + Ay 2

A B

= AB cos = Ax B x + Ay B y , giving, cos =

Ax B x + Ay B y AB

(4.8c)

Q 4.6: Calculate the angle between the two vectors, A = 3i + 4 j , and B = 3i 4 j Vector or Cross Product: The other vector multiplication is known as vector or cross product. In this case the result is another vector C , which, on the basis og physics considerations, is written as, (4. 9) A B = AB sin ( ) n = C Here n is a unit vector. Its direction is given by the right hand rule by pointing the fingers of the right hand along the first vector and turning then towards the send vector. The direction of n is, then, the direction in which the thumb, outstretched at right angle to the other fingers, points. In terms of their components

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A B
+ Ay B x

j } {B i + B j } = A B i i j i + A B j j = ( A B A B )k
= Ax i + A
y x y x x y y x x y

+ Ax B y i

(4.9a)

The last term in EQ (4.9a) is obtained by using EQ (4.9), which gives,

i j = j i

= sin ( / 2 ) k = k , and,

i i

j j = ( sin 0) n = 0

Similarly, the cross product of 3-componant vectors is given by,

A B = {A i + A j + A k } {B i + B j + B k } = ( A B A B )i + ( A B A B ) j + ( A B A B ) k
x z x y z y z z y z x x x y x x y

(4.9c)

The expression on the right hand side of EQ (4.9b) can also be written in the form of the determinant:

i j k AAA BBB
x x y y

z z

(4.9d) Q 4.7: Calculate a) A B , b) A B , c) A A B , and d) for the following vectors and discuss their physical significance. A = 3i + 4 j , and B = 3i 4 j Q 4.8: Also calculate a) Home Work: 1. Watch and try to understand a) MIT OCW Physics 801, Lecture 3, 2. Go through all the check points and sample problems in Chapter 3 and make sure you understand them. 3. Attempt the following questions/problems given at the end of Chapter 3 of HRW, 8th Ed. Or related problems in other editions Q 9, problems 1, 7, 11, 15, 21, 29, 31, 35, 39, 45, 51, 59, 61, 65, 69, 75, 79

(A B ) B

B A , and b) B A and comment on your results.

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