IBP2132_12 ASSESSMENT OF HYDROSTATIC COLLAPSE OF SUBMARINE PIPELINES: AN UP-TO-DATE LITERATURE REVIEW 1 Adilson C. Benjamin , Divino J. S.

Cunha2

Copyright 2012, Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute - IBP

This Technical Paper was prepared for presentation at the Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012, held between September, 1720, 2012, in Rio de Janeiro. This Technical Paper was selected for presentation by the Technical Committee of the event according to the information contained in the final paper submitted by the author(s). The organizers are not supposed to translate or correct the submitted papers. The material as it is presented, does not necessarily represent Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute opinion, or that of its Members or Representatives. Authors consent to the publication of this Technical Paper in the Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012 Proceedings.

Abstract
As offshore oil and gas developments are steadily moving into deeper waters far from the coast, submarine pipeline designers are faced with the challenge of designing large diameter trunklines (diameters in excess of 16 in) that will be installed in deepwaters (water depths in excess of 1000 m). In this scenario the external hydrostatic pressure is one of the driving parameters for the design of submarine pipelines. The subject of this paper is the assessment of hydrostatic collapse of submarine pipelines. Initially the classical approach is presented. Then a historical review of the classic methods is carried out. Finally the literature on the hydrostatic collapse of submarines pipelines is reviewed.

1. Introduction
There are in the literature many definitions for the limit beyond which a water depth can be considered as deep. Herein, water depths equal to or greater than 1000 m (3281 feet) are considered deep. As offshore oil and gas developments are steadily moving into deeper waters far from the coast, submarine pipeline designers are faced with the challenge of designing large diameter trunklines (diameters in excess of 16 in) that will be installed in deepwaters (water depths in excess of 1000 m). In this scenario the external hydrostatic pressure is one of the driving parameters for the design of submarine pipelines. From a structural point of view an empty pipeline resting on the seabed is a long circular tube subjected to an external hydrostatic pressure. Depending on its external diameter to thickness ratio (De / t ) the pipeline is classified as a thick tube (De / t < 20) or as a thin tube (De / t 20). Ideally the hydrostatic collapse pressure (phc) of a very thick tube is equal to the full yielding pressure (pfy) while the collapse pressure (phc) of a very thin tube is equal to the elastic buckling pressure (peb). In the intermediate range of De / t ratio (moderately thick tubes and moderately thin tubes) plasticity and geometric nonlinearity interact and the hydrostatic collapse pressure is smaller than the smallest among the full yielding pressure (pfy) and the elastic buckling pressure (peb). The literature on the hydrostatic collapse of long circular tubes is extensive [1-87]. Since the 19th century until the present day many documents on this subject (conference papers, original articles, review articles, reports and book chapters) have been published. Besides the scientific interest the main motivations for these works were: the design of submarine pipelines [8-71], the design of pipe casings [72-83] and in more recent times the design of steam generators tubes of nuclear power plants [84-87]. Due to space limitations only the documents directly related with the hydrostatic collapse of submarine pipelines will be reviewed herein. The design of submarine pipelines must consider the external pressure loading which is applied to the line during installation (external pressure combined with tension and bending, external pressure combined with tension and external pressure alone) and in service (external pressure alone). Herein only the problem of submarine pipelines under external pressure alone will be addressed. During installation the pipeline is empty and its portion that is resting on the seabed is subjected to an external overpressure (external pressure alone).

______________________________ 1 D.Sc., Civil Engineer PETROBRAS 2 D.Sc., Mechanical Engineer PETROBRAS

Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012 In service, if the transported fluid is gas, an external overpressure occurs when there is a shutdown of operation (scheduled or not). If the transported fluid is oil, an external overpressure occurs when after a shutdown of operation the line is evacuated (emptied). The subject of this paper is the assessment of hydrostatic collapse of submarine pipelines. Initially the classical approach is presented. Then a historical review of the classic methods is carried out. Finally the literature review is carried out.

2. Classical Approach
The failure behavior of long circular tubes subjected to external pressure is sensitive to initial imperfections introduced by the manufacturing process, as for example: out-of-roundness of the tube cross section, reduction of the tube compressive yield stress in the hoop direction and residual stresses. Due to the complexity of the problem, the Nonlinear Finite Element Method is the best method to calculate the collapse pressure of a tube subjected to an external hydrostatic pressure. However a method composed of closed form equations is more adequate to perform the collapse check recommended by a design code. The classic methods for the check of the hydrostatic collapse of long circular tubes are composed of the following equations: An equation for the prediction of the full yielding pressure (pfy) of perfect circular tubes, relevant for very thick tubes; An equation for the prediction of the elastic buckling pressure (peb) of perfect circular tubes, relevant for very thin tubes; An equation for the prediction of the hydrostatic collapse pressure (phc) of nominal circular tubes, which in the limit of thick-walled tubes converges to the full yielding pressure (pfy) of perfect circular tubes and in the limit of thinwalled tubes converges to the elastic buckling pressure (peb) of perfect circular tubes. Besides the features listed above a classic method may also incorporate empirical factors to take into account the effect of imperfections such as ovality of the cross section, reduction of the tube compressive yield strength and residual stresses. In order to illustrate the basic characteristics of the classic methods and the relationship of these characteristics with the failure behavior of a long tube subjected to an external pressure the pressures pfy, peb and phc were plotted against the tube De / t ratio in Figure 1. These curves were generated using the equations of the Southwell method (presented ahead), which is the most simple of the classic methods. Underlying this illustration it is the assumption that the application of the classic methods addressed herein is limited to the tubes with De / t ratios equal to or greater than 5 and equal to or smaller than 50 (5 De / t 50). This assumption does not represent a real limitation because submarine pipelines usually have De / t ratios smaller than 30 and deepwater pipelines have De / t ratios smaller than 20.

240 220 200 180 160 140 P (MPa) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 De / t 30 35 40 45 50 pfy peb phc

Figure 1. Curves of the pressures pfy, peb and phc 2

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The curves of the pressures pfy and peb cross each other at the point correspondent to a De / t ratio of approximately 23.15. For De / t ratios smaller than 23.15 the curve of the pressure pfy is below the curve of the pressure peb (pfy < peb) and the distance between them increases as the De / t ratio decreases. This graphical representation illustrates the fact that in this range of De / t (De / t < 23.15) the influence of plasticity in the failure behavior of the tube increases as the De / t ratio decreases. For De / t ratios greater than 23.15 the curve of the pressure peb is below the curve of the pressure pfy (peb < pfy) and the distance between them increases as the De / t ratio increases. This graphical representation illustrates the fact that in this range of De / t ratio (De / t > 23.15) the influence of geometric nonlinearity in the failure behavior of the tube increases as the De / t ratio increases. The curve of the pressure phc is always below the curves of the pressures pfy and peb. The equation for the calculation of the hoop stress () in a thin-walled perfect circular tube subjected to an internal pressure (pi) was published in the 19th century by Barlow [1] and Rankine [2], among others scientists.

= pi

Di 2t

(1)

where, Di internal diameter of the tube (Di = De 2t) De external diameter of the tube t wall thickness of the tube Equation 1, which is adequately accurate for very thin tubes, becomes increasingly unconservative as the De / t ratio diminishes. Some time after the publication of Equation 1 it was realized that its range of application could be extended by the substitution of the internal diameter Di by the average diameter Dave or by the external diameter De. = pi D ave (2) 2t = pi D e (3) 2t where Dave average diameter of the tube (Dave = De t) In an ideal situation in which the geometric nonlinearity is not active, Equation 2 or Equation 3 can be used to calculate the hoop stress in a thin-walled perfect circular tube subjected to an external pressure (pe). = pe D ave (4) 2t = pe D e (5) 2t The most disseminated equations for the prediction of the full yielding pressure (pfy) of a perfect circular tube are based on Equations 4 and 5. 2t pfy = yield (6) Dave pfy = yield where

2t De

(7)

yield yield stress of the material

An equation for the calculation of the elastic buckling pressure of a perfect circular ring was published by Bresse in 1859 [3] and by Levy in 1884 [4].

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t (peb)ring = 2 E D ave

(8)

where, E Youngs modulus of the material

The most disseminated equation for the prediction of the elastic buckling pressure (peb) of a perfect circular tube was published by Bryan in 1888 [5]. peb =

2E (1 2 )

t D ave

(9)

where, E Youngs modulus of the material Poissons ratio of the material

3. Classic Methods
In 1915 Southwell [6] published a method composed of the following equations: p fy peb

phc =

p fy + peb

(10)

where, pfy = yield peb =

2t Dave
t D ave
3

(11)

2E (1 2 )

(12)

In 1936 Timoshenko [7] published a method composed of the following equations:

( p hc peb ) ( phc p fy ) = 1.5 phc peb fo

where, pfy = yield

Dave t

(13)

2t Dave
3

(14)

t 2E peb = 2 (1 ) Dave ( Dave ) max ( Dave ) min fo = Dave

fo ovality parameter (Dave)max maximum value of the tube average diameter (Dave)min minimum value of the tube average diameter

(15) (16)

In 1985 the equations of the Shell, which have been developed in 1975 [8], were published in the open literature [16].

phc =

p fy peb
2 ( p + peb )1/ 2 2 fy

(17) 4

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where, pfy = yield peb

2t De

(18)

2E = (1 2 )

t D e

(19)

In 1999 the Shell method was introduced in the pipeline design code of the American Petroleum Institute [43]. In 1981 Haagsma and Schaap [10] published a method composed of the following equations:
2 ( p hc peb ) ( phc p 2 ) = phc peb pfy fo fy

De t

(20)

where, pfy = yield peb =

2t De 1
2

(21) (22)

De De 1 t t ( De ) max ( De ) min fo = De

2E (1 2 )

(23)

(De)max maximum value of the tube external diameter (De)min minimum value of the tube external diameter In 1993 the British Standards Institute (BSI) introduced in its pipeline design code [25,52] a modified version of the Haagsma-Schaap method, called herein the BSI method. The difference between the BSI method and the Haagsma-Schaap method is the equation adopted to calculate the pressure peb, presented below.

peb =

2E (1 2 )

t D e

(24)

In 1996 DNV introduced in its pipeline design code [35] a modified version of the Haagsma-Schaap method, which is in its essence equal to the BSI method. The DNV method is composed of the following equations [59]:
2 ( p hc peb ) ( phc p 2 ) = phc peb pfy fo fy

De t

(25)

where, pfy = yield

2t De
3

(26)

t 2E peb = 2 (1 ) De ( De ) max ( De ) min (fo)calc = De fo = max((fo)calc,0.005)

(27) (28a) (28b)

The DNV method is world wide accepted and to a certain extent is considered the standard in offshore engineering. 5

Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012 Equations 25 to 28 constitute the basic form of the DNV method. They differ from the ones presented in DNV OS-F101 [59] in that for simplicity the following empirical factors were excluded: fab, fy,temp and U. The factor fab is used to take into account the effect of the tube fabrication process in the compressive yield stress in the hoop direction. The factor fy,temp takes into account the effect of temperatures above 50oC in the value of the yield stress. The factor U considers the different material qualification levels allowed in DNV OS-F101 [59]. The RCA (Renewed Classical Approach) method is a new classic method which was recently developed by Benjamin and Cunha [70,71]. This method is composed of the following equations:
2 ( p hc peb ) ( phc p 2 ) = phc peb pfy fK fo fy

Dave t

for fo 0.04

and

De 45 t

(29)

where, pfy = yield peb =

2t Dave
3

(30)

t D ave ( De ) max ( De ) min (fo)calc = De fo = max((fo)calc,0.005) fK = (fI)0.5% (fK)0.5% + (fI)4.0% (fK)4.0% (fI)0.5% = 1.1429 28.571 fo (fK)0.5% = (310 K2 600 K3 + 1750 K4) e 9.2 K (fI)4.0% = 28.571 fo 0.1429 (fK)4.0% = 1.28 (1 e 27 K 0.12 K ) Dave = De t D K = 0.01 ave 4 for t
2E (1 2 )

(31) (32a) (32b) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42)

Dave 4 t

(43)

4. Deepwater Pipelines Characteristics

Submarine pipelines usually have De / t ratios smaller than 30 while deepwater pipelines usually have De / t ratios smaller than 20. Ever since the first pipeline was installed offshore, pipeline developments have been moving into ever deeper waters. While in the early days of the offshore industry 100 m water depth was considered as deep, now pipelines are being installed in 2500 m water depth or more [88]. For a history of the submarine pipelines from the point of view of the installation activity see Timmermans [89]. As a pipeline is installed in deeper water, the external pressure becomes dominant, and the wall thickness design is no longer governed by the pressure containment criterion [88]. Local infield lines, such as subsea umbilicals, risers and flowlines (SURF) usually are modest challenges (for the pipe manufacturing and for the pipeline designer) as they are small in diameter and inherently resistant to hydrostatic collapse. These lines generally are produced as seamless pipe which is readily available and generally economical [90]. Deepwater trunklines and long-distance tiebacks present a greater challenge (for the pipe manufacturing and for the pipeline designer). To increase subsea production these lines tend to be larger in diameter with a thicker pipe wall to withstand the hydrostatic pressure and bending as it is laid to the seabed [90]. In terms of water depths in which pipelines have been installed to date, it is necessary to distinguish between the function and size of the pipelines. Smaller diameter, usually in-field flowlines of less than 14 in diameter, have been installed in water depths in excess of 2900 m, such as the flowlines (10 in diameter) of the Perdido field in the Gulf of Mexico [91]. The installation of larger diameter trunklines, typically in excess of 16 in, has been limited to around 2500 m, such as the export pipelines (18 in diameter) of the Perdido field in the Gulf of Mexico [92]. As the oil and gas fields discoveries are moving into deeper waters and far from the coast, the use of largediameter linepipe for deepwater is increasing in the offshore industry [90]. Large diameter trunklines have proved to be the safest and cheapest way of transporting gas for short to medium distances up to 2500 kilometers [93]. 6

Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012 For large diameter, heavy walled linepipe, the UOE pipe manufacturing process is the general method applied by pipe mills [60]. The name UOE stems from the initials of three mechanical steps which are carried out during the process (U for U-ing cold forming from the plate, O for O-ing cold forming from the Ushape, E for cold expansion to meet the geometric tolerances). Out-of-roundness (ovality) of the pipe cross section is one of the imperfections introduced during the UOE pipe manufacturing process. Typical deep water pipelines can have an ovality fo of at most 1%. Another side effect of the UOE process is the reduction of the tube compressive yield stress in the hoop direction. As a result of the cold deformation caused by forming operation, the transverse compressive yield strength measured on the pipe may be lower than that measured on the plate. However extensive research [61] has showed that the de-rating of the compressive yield strength can be compensated for by a heat treatment at a moderately elevated temperature (about 200C to 220C). This heat treatment is analogous to what the linepipe experiences during the application of the anticorrosive coating (polyethylene or polypropylene). Pipelines in deepwater require the tightest dimensional tolerances to maximize resistance to collapse and to maximize girth weld fatigue resistance. Furthermore, pipelines from 16-in. to 28-in. diameter are seen as the future for deepwater export pipeline systems [90]. Recently the thicker pipe (t = 1.25 in=31.75 mm) at 18-in. diameter has been manufactured for the TupiMexilhao gas pipeline [94]. While this pipeline is not the deepest ever installed, it represents a milestone in pipe forming. This is the thickest UOE pipe ever manufactured at 18-in. diameter (note as the diameter of a pipe reduces and thickness increases, the levels of strain and power required to forming it increases) [90]. As remarked by McKinnon [95], with the ongoing technological advances such as deepwater drilling and diverless production systems, the viability of developing deepwater prospects has been enhanced. Uncertainty relating to high cost drilling operations has also been diminished with the advent of high-tech 3D seismic acquisition, modelling and interpretation. With each development comes the potential requirement for transportation by pipeline. It is anticipated that over the next 20 years, deepwater field developments will increase substantially in number and water depth. Potential areas of developments around the world include [95,96,97]: Gulf of Mexico, Offshore Brazil, UK Atlantic Frontier, Norwegian sector and Offshore Philippines.

5. Literature Review
A research project on buckling of submarine pipelines was conducted by Battelle Petroleum Technology Center from 1973 to 1979 with the sponsorship of thirty seven companies of the international petroleum industry [12,13]. The focus of the project was pipelines to be installed at water depths between 1000 feet (305 m) and 3000 feet (914 m). An empirical equation was developed for the assessment of the buckling of pipes subjected to both bending and tensile stresses. Tests were conducted on 45 small-diameter pipe specimens having De / t ratios of 16, 20, 30 and 40. Also a computer program was developed and validated which predicts the load carrying capacity of pipelines exposed to combined external pressure, bending and axial tension. A research project on the installation of deepwater pipelines, named Deepwater Pipeline Feasibility Study, was conducted by Shell Development Company from September 1974 to April 1977 with the sponsorship of thirty nine companies worldwide. For a general overview of this project see Langner and Ayers [15]. The Shell method [8,16] was originally developed as part of this Joint Industry Project (JIP). Research projects on collapse of submarine pipelines were undertaken in the Netherlands in the seventies by the following institutions: The Netherlands Organization for Industrial Research (IBBC-TNO), Protech International, Delft university of Technology and Eindhoven University of Technology. Haagsma [9] and Haagsma and Schaap [10] published the results of the research project carried out by Protech International B.V. In the early seventies submarine gas pipelines were being installed or planned for water depths in excess of 200 m. A theoretical and experimental study was performed. A new method for the prediction of the collapse pressures was developed (Haagsma-Schaap method). Various tests have been carried out on 100 mm diameter tubes with a De / t ratio of 25. It was concluded that the initial out-of-roundness has a detrimental effect on the tube collapse pressure. Relatively large axial tension also reduces the tube collapse capacity. On the other hand bending moments up to yield do not considerably reduces the tube collapse capacity. In 1981 de Winter [11] reported the research conducted together by the Netherlands Organization for Industrial Research (IBBC-TNO), Protech International, the University of Delft and Eindhoven University of Technology. Analytical methods for the assessment of the pipe collapse strength under three loading conditions (external pressure only, external pressure plus axial force and external pressure plus bending) were developed. Tests on 100 mm diameter 7

Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012 tubes (with a De / t ratio of 25) subjected to the same loading combinations were carried out in order to verify the analytical results. In 1985 Verner et all [14] published a review of the literature on collapse of thick wall pipe in ultra deepwater. Although published in 1985 the literature review was completed in 1981 and thus includes no literature beyond that date. The purpose of the paper is to discuss the knowledge, data, design guidelines, theories, etc. that are available in the literature, and to compare briefly some of the available data with the theories. The documents found in the bibliographic search performed are categorized by type of loading: pure external pressure; pressure plus tension; and pressure plus bending. The combination of bending, tension, and pressure is not considered since large tension stresses and large bending stresses rarely occur simultaneously in deepwater pipe. The abundance of data for oil well casing is found to contrast sharply with the lack of data for line pipe. As it was reported by Langner [21], a research program on collapse of submarine pipelines was undertaken in the USA in the eighties with the sponsorship of the Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI). The Phase I of this program (1984-1985), focused on the effects of imperfections on pipe collapse, was done at the University of Texas at Austin [17]. The Phase II of this program (1986-1987), also performed at the University of Texas at Austin, considered the effects of construction loads [19]. The final phase, Phase III, of this program (1988-1989), intended as a full scale verification of the small scale tests conducted in the previous two phases, was conducted at Stress Engineering Services in Houston [22]. As part of the research program sponsored by the PRCI, Yeh and Kyriakides developed [18], at the University of Texas at Austin, a two-dimensional nonlinear formulation for the assessment of thick-walled tubes under external pressure. The formulation is general enough to include initial geometric imperfections of the tube cross section such as initial ovality and wall thickness variation. In addition the effects of residual stresses and of initial inelastic anisotropy are considered. Experiments on tubes with De / t ratios between 10 and 40 were carried out. Commercially available drawn stainless steel 304 tubes were used in these experiments. The test specimen had diameters which ranged between 1.0 and 1.5 in. (25-38 mm). Good agreement between experiments and theory is shown to occur provided all parameters are modeled correctly. A study of the effect of the various parameters of the problem on the collapse pressure is also presented. As part of the research program sponsored by the PRCI, Yeh and Kyriakides carried out [20], at the University of Texas at Austin, the collapse tests of four API 5L steel tubes (two X42 tubes and two X65 tubes). The four tubes have diameter of 4 in and the De / t ratios range from 23.5 to 33.3. Geometric deviations from a circular shape were recorded at ninety points around the circumference. The wall thickness was also recorded at the same points. The stress strain characteristics in the axial and circumferential directions were measured for each tube. The measured parameters were used to calculate numerically the collapse pressures of the tubes. The biggest deviation between the experimental and the calculated values was less than 8%. Several research projects on buckling of submarine pipelines were undertaken in the nineties in the Submarine Technology Laboratory of the Naval and Ocean Engineering Department of the Graduate Scholl and Research in Engineering Institute of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (LTS/PENO/COPPE/UFRJ). These projects were carried out in cooperation with the PETROBRAS R&D Center. The buckling of intact pipes under external pressure (alone or combined with bending and axial tension) as well as buckle propagation and buckle arrestors have been studied through laboratorial tests and computer simulations. Based on these studies analytical equations were recommended for design [24,27,30,36,37,38,44,50]. In 1990 Langner [21] presented a historical review of the research on hydrostatic collapse of pipelines at a Seminar organized by the Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI). Results of the available collapse tests were also reviewed. In 1991 Fowler and Langner [23] published a review paper in which the differences between onshore and offshore pipeline design are highlighted. Also the offshore pipeline design process is outlined formulas to consider collapse, collapse plus bending, and collapse plus tension are catalogued in convenient form. In 1993 Bai, Igland and Moan [26] published the results of Finite Element analyses of the collapse behaviour of thick tubes (10 < De / t < 40). The loads and load combinations considered were: external pressure, combined pressure and tension loads, combined pressure and bending loads. The effects of initial ovality, residual stress, strainhardening, yield anisotropy and loading paths are included in the analysis. The analysis procedure was validated through comparisons with the available experimental results. Sensitivity studies on the factors affecting tube collapse were carried out. Collapse envelopes (interaction curves) from the FEM analysis were presented for the load combinations. Equations to predict collapse strength and collapse envelopes were discussed. The Submarine Pipeline Reliability Based Design Guideline Joint Industry Project (SUPERB JIP) was conducted by Snamprogetti, SINTEF and DNV, from 1991 to 1996, with the sponsorship of ten major oil companies and two regulatory authorities. For a general overview of this project see Sotberg et al [31]. As part of the SUPERB JIP, an appraisal of the available methods for the assessment of the hydrostatic collapse of submarine pipelines was carried 8

Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012 out [39]. The outcome of this appraisal was that the BSI method was, among the available methods, the most adequate one. Based on this appraisal DNV introduced the BSI method in its pipeline design code [35] in 1996. In the early nineties Oman Oil Company planned to implement the 1100 km Oman to India Gas Pipeline Project [98,99]. The pipeline would cross the Arabian Sea, initiating at Ras al Jifan in Oman with landfall at Rapar Gadhwali in India, and would encounter a maximum water depth in the Dalrymple Trough of 3500 m [29]. The project group formed to study technical and economic factors pertaining to the Oman-India pipeline project was led by Oman Oil Company and includes among others McDermott-ETPM East Ltd., Saipem SpA and Snamprogetti SpA [98]. The exhaustive feasibility engineering phase of the project concluded that the project was technically feasible, and it was unfortunate for the industry that the project was halted for wider commercial reasons. As it was remarked by Smith and Phillips [100], although the Oman-India gas pipeline project never eventuated, this project was responsible for much of the advancement in deepwater pipeline materials and installation technology achieved in the nineties. Another contribution of the Oman India pipeline project to the progress of deepwater pipeline technology was the improvement in the international laboratory facilities with the construction of a hyperbaric pressure chamber at C-Fer laboratory, in Edmonton/Canada [29]. As part of the Oman India pipeline feasibility study the following research activities were carried out: full scale collapse tests [28,29,33], establishment of the mill capabilities and material requirements for the production of large diameter thick-walled pipes [32,40] and finite element analyses [34]. A research project conducted by Gresnigt and van Foeken [41,45] with the sponsorship of PRCI was concluded in 1998. The motivation for this project was that, although several offshore pipelines have been constructed using UOE pipes, the number of tests carried out on such pipe was rather limited. The project consisted of three parts: full scale experiments, probabilistic calculations and finite element calculations. Three UOE manufactured pipes and one seamless pipe was subjected to external pressure. The material grade was X65. A second pipe section of the same materials was subjected to four point bending tests to determine the maximum moment capacity, the curvature at maximum moment and the ultimate curvature. FE analyses were carried out to obtain more information on the parameters governing the collapse resistance of UOE manufactured pipes. In 1998 Palmer proposed what, in his own words, is a radical alternative approach to design and construction of pipelines in deepwater [42]. It is argued that conventional design is carried out considering that during installation the pipeline is air-filled. This assumption means that during installation the pipeline will have to withstand the external hydrostatic pressure of the sea. In deepwaters this methodology results in values of wall thickness excessively high. Assuming that, once the pipeline is in service, the internal pressure during operation is almost invariably higher than the external pressure, Palmer proposed that the pipeline design is carried out considering that instead of air-filled the pipeline will be liquid-filled during installation. The obvious and straightforward choice of liquid is water. Alternative liquids might have advantages. A lighter liquid fill reduces the submerged weight. The hydrostatic pressure generated by the fill inside the pipe increases less rapidly with depth than the hydrostatic pressure outside, but the pressure difference is much less than it would be if the pipe were air-filled. From the end of the nineties until the present day many research projects were carried out with the following objectives: demonstrate that the use of high-grade material (API 5L X80 and X100) can result in significant reductions in the required wall thickness of deepwater pipelines [46,47,48], develop improved test procedures to the measurement of the mechanical properties and residual stresses in UOE pipes [49,62], perform numerical simulation of the UOE manufacturing process [49,57,58], study the influence of the pipe end conditions on the results of the collapse test [49,55], study the influence of thermal treatment on the collapse pressure of UOE pipes [51,55,56,62,64], perform full scale collapse tests of UOE thick-walled pipes [53,57,64], compare the collapse pressures predasticted by empirical equations with those measured in full scale collapse tests [54,55,64,68,69], calculate the collapse pressure of thickwalled pipes using the nonlinear Finite Element method [56,57,58], perform a literature review [61], perform numerical and experimental studies with the objective of improving the manufacturing process of UOE thick-walled pipes [58,62,63], perform numerical and experimental studies to validate a new manufacturing process in which longitudinally welded pipe formed by the JCO process is finished by controlled compression (Impander) [65,66] and develop an assessment method for the prediction of the collapse pressure of thick-walled pipes based on numerical and/or experimental results [67,70,71].

6. Conclusions
In this paper an up-to-date review of the literature on the assessment of hydrostatic collapse of submarine pipelines was presented. Based on this review it is possible to anticipate that there is a trend of increasing the research activity on this subject because, over the next 20 years, deepwater field developments will increase substantially in number and water depth. 9

Rio Oil & Gas Expo and Conference 2012 Because the collapse pressure of UOE pipes is sensitive to the out-of-roundness of the tube cross section and to the value of the tube compressive yield stress in the hoop direction it is anticipated that the in the near future the research projects will test and investigate technologies that result in improvement of the tube manufacturing process.

7. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank PETROBRAS for permission to publish this paper.

8. References
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