1.

Define Drug Any synthetic or natural chemical substance used in the treatment, prevention, or diagnosis of disease, or for other medical reasons. 2. Classify drugs according to the effects/actions of the body. Stimulants Stimulants are drugs that stimulate the brain and central nervous system, speeding up communication between the two. They usually increase alertness and physical activity. They include amphetamines, cocaine, crack and some inhalants like amyl or butyl nitrites. Your everyday coffee is a stimulant that many people have formed an addiction to. Those who stop drinking coffee even suffer withdrawal symptoms. Depressants Depressants slow down the activity of the brain and nervous system, slowing down the communication between the two. For medical purposes they can calm nerves, relax muscles and useful for sleeping disorders such as insomnia. Hallucinogens Hallucinogens interfere with the brain and central nervous system in a way that results in radical distortions of a users perception of reality. Profound images, sounds and sensations will be experienced, but they will not actually exist. These are vivid hallucinations. 3. Discuss the origin of the art of apothecary Apothecaries date back as far as human history. As humans evolved so did their uses of what nature provided them to use to ease pain, disease, and suffering. The art of the apothecary originated from the methods of preparing substances for the treatment of injury or disease. In primitive times, the early practitioners or this art were those who attended the sick and prepared remedies which were handed down by word of mouth from one wise man or woman to the next through the generations. There is even mention of them in the Bible as one of the earliest trades or professions. The apothecary was noted for being the one mixing the medicines, oils, perfumes, and ointments, while the physician is the one who took care of the sick. Sometimes this person was both. Ancient Babylon, often referred to as the cradle of civilization, provides one of the earliest records of the practice of the apothecary. This was around the

year 2600 B.C. Healers were a combination of priest, apothecary, and physician. Clay tablets were found with medical texts recording symptoms, the prescriptions, and the directions for compounding it and an invocation to the Gods. This is similar to the best known and most important record on the apothecary which is the Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt and written around 1500 B.C. The tablets found in Babylon predate the Egyption papyrus roll by over a thousand years. The Ebers was a single roll of yellow-brown papyrus about 12 inches wide and over 22 yards long. It was wrapped in mummy cloths and packed in a metal case. The text was in black ink and the section headings and weights and measures were in red ink. The Ebers contain a collection of more than 800 prescriptions, or ancient recipes for the apothecaries of the time. It mentions over 700 different drugs. 4. Where was the word pharmacy derived? Give its meaning. The word pharmacy was derived from the Greek word pharmakon , which means remedy, and from the Egyptian term ph-ar-maki , which means bestower of security.
5. What is placebo therapy? Is it still being practiced?

It is an inactive treatment or procedure that is intended to mimic as closely as possible a therapy in a clinical trial. Also called sham therapy. (A placebo is a medicine or other kind of treatment that seems therapeutic, but in reality is inert and pharmacological inactive. The placebo effect is "a change in a patient's illness attributable to the symbolic import of a treatment rather than a specific pharmacologic or physiologic property") Yes, placebo therapy is still being practiced for 4 reasons, namely: In clinical studies. Placebos are used to determine the true effectiveness of a prescription medication. A standard drug trial process involves what is called a "double blind placebo controlled trial." What this means is that neither patient nor doctor knows who is getting the "real" medication and who is simply getting the placebo. Patients are interviewed and monitored by an independent group (ideally) and the results are carefully recorded. When the trial is over, then the true recipients of the medicine and/or placebos are revealed. Placebo studies help determine if a drug's effects are more than just subjective or imagined. Homeopathy: A type of over-the-counter "alternative" medications are known "homeopathic." Homeopathy, in this context, simply means "like cures like." It was a system of treatments developed in the late 18th century. The theory is that to treat a particular symptom or disease you

must administer very small amounts of a natural ingredient KNOWN TO CAUSE that symptom. Like cures like. Impure Placebos (or "active" placebos): these are done to determine how often a doctor prescribes a remedy which he/she KNOWS will have no "true" effect upon the patient's condition. An example is when a patient is prescribed an antibiotic for what is clearly a viral infection. It does nothing. But sometimes a patient insists it is necessary and thus the doctor complies. These are known as "impure" placebos. They have an actual ingredient...but it simply is not effective for what is being treated. This is placebo therapy, even if the dispensed medication actually contains real medicine Pure placebos: This is when a doctor knowingly and deliberately dispenses a true placebo. It has no medicine, though it is being represented as a medical product. 6. What is the most famous archeological record of drugs and drug therapy? The Medical Book of Thoth Ancient Egyptian life evolved around their many gods. Thoth, the Egyptian Goddess of knowledge, left 42 books directing how Egyptians should live. Among these records, one specifically provides cures from plant and animal mixtures for human ailments. Court records from Egypt's 18th Dynasty (1550 to 1292 B.C.E.) are the first known reference to this tome. Ebers Papyrus The Ebers papyrus, the world's oldest preserved medical and pharmacological record, is believed to be a copy of the book of Thoth. It measures nearly 20.23 m in length and 30 cm in height. The 110-page scroll from 1552 B.C.E. contains 700 medical and pharmacological recipes for treatments from crocodile bites to intestinal afflictions as well as diabetes and arthritis. "The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic" (China) Included in China's Shen Nong's "The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic" are 365 medicine compounds made from minerals, plants and animals. Shen Nong personally tested the properties of hundreds of medical herbs he identified around 2000 B.C.E. His experiments and documentation are the forerunner to the development of traditional Chinese (herbal) medicine still used today.

Arabic Pharmacology The first pharmacological medicine written in Arabic provided formulas organized by preparation--powders, tablets, ointments and syrups. This work, written by al-Agrabadhin tly Sabur bin Sahl in 869 C.E. provides recipes with methods and techniques to create pharmacological preparations along with the dosages. 7. Give some important contributions of the following scientists to pharmacy: Hippocrates was first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. Pedanius Dioscorides contributed mightily to a transition in pharmacy. He observed, recorded and spread the excellent rules for collection of drugs, their storage and use. Claudius Galen his principles of preparing and compounding medicines ruled in the western world for 1,500 years; and his name still is associated with that class of pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical mean galenicals. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. Carl Wilhelm Scheele indisputably was the first to compound ten of the most familiar acids, including tartaric, oxalic, and lactic acids, as well as the three gases hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen cyanide. Bienaim Caventou he collaborated with Pierre-Joseph Pelletier in a Parisian laboratory located behind an apothecary. He was a pioneer in the use of mild solvents to isolate a number of active ingredients from plants, making a study of alkaloids from vegetables. Pierre-Joseph Pelletier pioneered the use of mild solvents he successfully isolated numerous important biologically active plant products: working with the French pharmacist Bienaim Caventou he discovered caffeine, strychnine, colchicine, quinine, and veratrine. Pierre Jean Robiquet laid founding work in identifying amino acids, the fundamental bricks of proteins, through recognizing the first of them, asparagin, in 1806, in the take up of the industry of industrial dyes, with the identification of alizarin in 1826, and in the emergence of modern medications, through the identification of codeine in 1832, a powerful

molecule today of widespread use with analgesic and antidiarrheal properties. 8. Name reference books for drug standards and discuss their development/origins. The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) an official public standards setting authority for all prescription and overthecounter medicines and other health care products manufactured or sold in the United States. USP also sets widely recognized standards for food ingredients and dietary supplements. USP sets standards for the quality, purity, strength, and consistency of these productscritical to the public health. USP's standards are recognized and used in more than 130 countries around the globe. These standards have helped to ensure public health throughout the world for close to 200 years. The RED BOOK Database presents pricing and descriptive information for over 200,000 healthcare items, including prescription and nonprescription pharmaceuticals, chemicals used for compounding and medical devices and supplies. Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference unbiased and evaluated information on drugs and medicines used throughout the world. No other source has the breadth and depth of coverage. 9. Give the significance/content for the following Drug Regulation Control: a.) Federal Food and Drug Act of 1906 It is an Act for preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes. The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938 A set of laws passed by Congress in 1938 giving authority to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to oversee the safety of food, drugs, and cosmetics. The Durham-Humphrey Amendment of 1952 It explicitly defined two specific categories for medications, legend (prescription) and over-the-counter (OTC). It is a 1952 modification of the 1938 U.S. Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. It differentiates between prescription and over-the-counter medications and specifies medications that can or cannot be refilled without a new prescription.

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It also identifies which original prescriptions and refills can be authorized over the telephone. d.) Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments of 1962 Before marketing a drug, firms now had to prove not only safety, but also provide substantial evidence of effectiveness for the product's intended use. Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 It required the pharmaceutical industry to maintain physical security and strict record keeping for certain types of drugs. Drug Listing Act of 1972 It amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act so that drug establishments that are engaged in the manufacturing, preparation, propagation, compounding, or processing of a drug are required to register their establishments and list all of their commercially marketed drug products with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Drug Price Composition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 Also known as the Hatch-Waxman Act. This Act allows the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to extend the patent life of a drug. The patent extension lasts as long as the drug approval process, up to a maximum of 14 years. Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987 The PDMA was enacted (1) to ensure that drug products purchased by consumers are safe and effective, and (2) to avoid the unacceptable risk to American consumers from counterfeit, adulterated, misbranded, sub potent, or expired drugs. The legislation was necessary to increase safeguards in the drug distribution system to prevent the introduction and retail sale of substandard, ineffective, or counterfeit drugs. It establishes legal safeguards for drug distribution to ensure safe and effective pharmaceuticals. It's designed to discourage the sale of counterfeit, adulterated, misbranded, sub potent, and expired prescription drugs. It was passed in response to the development of a wholesale sub-market (known as the "diversion market") for prescription drugs. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 spells out regulations regarding the manufacture and sale of dietary supplements, defines a dietary supplement as a product (other than tobacco) intended to supplement the diet that bears or contains one of

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i.)

more of the following dietary ingredients: a vitamin, a mineral, an herb or other botanical, an amino acid, a dietary substance for use by man to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake; or a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any ingredient. j.) The FDA Modernization Act 0f 1997 It is a major legislation regulating how clinical products and medical devices are used and distributed in the United States today. The purpose of the act is to amend statutes concerning the regulation of food and drug products and devices under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. Under the legislation, the FDA is required to review and publish their compliance plan into the Federal Register on a biannual basis. The FDA is also required to analyze clinical research and take necessary steps to market regulated products in an effort to support new product availability.

10. What is Drug Product Recall? Give the circumstances for this. A product recall is required when safety issues arise, and the defective products are required to be returned to the manufacturer or distributor. Drug recalls can be extremely costly and can damage consumer confidence in the product or company, so naturally all companies try their utmost to avoid such a scenario. A recall usually results from some combination of a discovery by the manufacturer, customer complaints, or FDA observation. A recall that is initiated by a manufacturer may be based on corporate conscience (or corporate social responsibility), in order to ensure compliance with the essential elements of the law, ethical standards, and business norms. Such recalls may also be designed to limit liability for corporate negligence, which can result in huge amounts of legal penalties, and can also represent an attempt to minimize damage to corporate image. Customer Complaints. People generally do not ask sufficient questions when they lack knowledge about a subject, including medication. Some people think that new medicines are more effective or safer, but this may not necessarily be true.

 Drug product recalls can also be necessitated as a result of an observation made by the FDA during an inspection. Samples of marketed products are regularly tested in the analysis laboratory. Significant compliance deficiencies that are noted by the FDA can result in a company having to recall some, or all, of its drug lots. 11. Enumerate different pharmacists contemporary roles. The Role of the Pharmacist: "The Seven-Star Pharmacist" The contemporary and future pharmacists must possess specific knowledge, attitudes, skills and behaviors in support of their roles. Although these roles go beyond those previously described in official WHO publications and policies, they should be considered essential, minimum, common expectations of national health care systems worldwide. The consultancy summarized these roles in "the seven star pharmacist:" Care-giver the pharmacist provides caring services. Whether these services are clinical, analytical, technological or regulatory, the pharmacist must be comfortable interacting with individuals and populations. The pharmacist must view his or her practice as integrated and continuous with those of the health care system and other pharmacists. Services must be of the highest quality. Decision-maker the appropriate, efficacious and cost effective use of resources (e.g., personnel, medicines, chemicals, equipment, procedures, and practices) should be at the foundation of the pharmacist's work. Achieving this goal requires the ability to evaluate, synthesize and decide upon the most appropriate course of action. Communicator the pharmacist is in an ideal position between physician and patient. As such, he or she must be knowledgeable and confident while interacting with other health professionals and the public. Communication involves verbal, non-verbal, listening and writing skills. Leader whether the pharmacist finds him/herself in multidisciplinary (e.g., team) caring situations or in areas where other health care providers are in short supply or non-existent, he/she is obligated to assume a leadership position in the overall welfare of the community. Leadership involves compassion and empathy as well as the ability to make decisions, communicate, and manage effectively. Manager the pharmacist must effectively, manage resources (human, physical and fiscal) and information; he or she must also be comfortable

being managed by others, whether an employer or the manager/leader of a health care team. More and more, information and its related technology will provide challenges to the pharmacist as he/she assumes greater responsibility for sharing information about medicines and related products. Life-long-learner it is no longer possible to learn all one must learn in school in order to practice a career as a pharmacist. The concepts, principles and commitment to life-long learning must begin while attending pharmacy school and must be supported throughout the pharmacist's career. Pharmacists should learn how to learn. Teacher the pharmacist has a responsibility to assist with the education and training of future generations of pharmacists. Participating as a teacher not only imparts knowledge to others, it offers an opportunity for the practitioner to gain new knowledge and to fine-tune existing skills. 12. Give the Mission of Pharmacy According to the International Pharmaceutical Federation, the mission of pharmacy practice is to provide medications and other health care products and services and to help people and society to make the best use of them. Comprehensive pharmacy service involves activities both to secure good health and to avoid ill-health in the population. When ill-health is treated, it is necessary to assure quality in the process of using medicines in order to achieve maximum therapeutic benefit and avoid untoward side-effects. This presupposes the acceptance by pharmacists of shared responsibility with other professionals and with patients for the outcome of therapy. In recent years the term pharmaceutical care has established itself as a philosophy of practice, with the patient and the community as the primary beneficiaries of the pharmacists actions. The concept is particularly relevant to special groups such as the elderly, mothers and children, and chronically ill patients, as well as to the community as a whole in terms of, for example, cost containment. While the basic concepts of pharmaceutical care and good pharmacy practice are largely identical, it can be said that good pharmacy practice is the way to implement pharmaceutical care. 13. Define pharmaceutical care Pharmaceutical care is a necessary element of health care and should be integrated with other elements. Pharmaceutical care is, however, provided for the direct benefit of the patient, and the pharmacist is responsible

directly to the patient for the quality of that care. The fundamental relationship in pharmaceutical care is a mutually beneficial exchange in which the patient grants authority to the provider, and the provider gives competence and commitment (accept responsibility) to the patient. The fundamental goals, processes, and relationships of pharmaceutical care exist regardless of practice setting. Pharmaceutical care is the responsible provision of drug therapy for the purpose of achieving definite outcomes that improve a patient's quality of life. These outcomes are cure of a disease; elimination or reduction of a patient's symptomatology; arresting or slowing of a disease process; or preventing a disease or symptomatology. Pharmaceutical care involves the process through which a pharmacist cooperates with a patient and other professionals in designing, implementing, and monitoring a therapeutic plan that will produce specific therapeutic outcomes for the patient. This in turn involves three major functions: identifying potential and actual drug-related problems; resolving actual drug-related problems; and preventing drug-related problems.