Roxana MIHALACHE

English for 2nd Year Students of Food Processing

Iasi, 2011

CONTENTS
1. History of Bread Making 2. Types of bread 3. From wheat to pasta 4. Types of Pasta 5. Pastry products

Bibliography

Unit 1

The History of Bread Making

Since immemorial times, cereals have played an important role in human nutrition. They have been grown by man for thousands of years, beginning long before the Christian era. Botanically, cereals belong to the grass family which is subdivided into several genera. In temperate zones, there are representatives of the genera like wheat, barley, oats and rye. Wheat and barley are grown on relatively fertile soils, whereas rye and oats are more adapted to poor (acid and dry) soils. Maize is the most important cereal crop in the subtropical zones, although it is grown in temperate zones too. In tropical zones, rice, sorghum, and various kinds of millet are grown. Rice is the main crop in areas where water is sufficiently available (South-East and East Asia). In areas where water is limited (Africa), mainly sorghum and maize are cultivated, whereas millet is a famine crop that is available to thrive under extremely dry conditions. Rice, sorghum, and millet are as important for the population of the tropical areas as wheat is for the population of temperate areas. Although people have been making bread for thousands of years, its exact origin is unknown. Man began to cook cereals long before starting to make bread. Some sort of porridge was probably the first form in which cereals were prepared for food. This technique of preparation is still practiced by many cultural groups, especially in Africa. Porridge was, in many cases, succeeded by flat, unleavened cakes. These primitive forms of bread still 9

The History of Bread Making

persist here and there, sometimes having ritual significance: various porridges, the Scottish oat cake, Indian chappaties and Jewish unleavened bread. During the late Stone Age, nomadic tribes probably made a thick gruel from wild grain and baked it into flat cakes on hot stones in their campfires. About 10,000 years ago nomadic tribes settled and began cultivating grains, such as emmer, the ancestor of modern domestic wheat. People from Sumeria, in the southern part of Mesopotamia, were the first to bake leavened bread. About 6000 years B.C., they started to mix sour dough with unleavened dough. Sour dough is generated during the natural yeasting process of flour and water, during which carbon dioxide is formed which in turn causes the dough to rise. The Sumerians transmitted their way of preparing bread to the Egyptians some 3000 years B.C. The Egyptians perfected the system and started to use yeast generated from brewing beer. Moreover, they developed a baking oven, which made it possible to bake several loaves at the same time. Archaeological evidence suggests that yeast-risen wheat breads were developed in Egypt around 4000 years ago. The Egyptians are also believed to be the first to grind wheat flour in a process analogous to modern milling. The Greeks, who colonized the Mediterranean between about 700 and 130 BC, were avid bakers. They refined flours to eliminate impurities; they seasoned their breads and cakes with honey, sesame and fruits, and invented a stone oven for baking bread. By the 2nd century AD, Roman bakeries produced several different kinds of bread and the Romans introduced their bread to all the lands they conquered. In the Mediterranean region, long before recorded history, various cereals formed a substantial part of the human diet. For some time, barley was grown more extensively than wheat and 10

The History of Bread Making

apparently, it was considered to be more valuable for human consumption, albeit closely followed by wheat. During the early half of the Middle Ages, around the 5th century to the 10th century, political conditions caused trade between countries to decline. Wheat crops, grown in warm, dry climates, became less available to bakers in the cool, damp countries of northern Europe. The northern perfected rye, oat and barley breads and a tradition of dark, hearty bread making persists in some regions of northern Europe today. Throughout the Middle Ages, in central and eastern Europe, rye was more important than the various species of wheat available at the time. Bread made from rye, however, was mainly considered as food for the poor. When rye was in short supply, it was supplemented with flour from oats, peas, beans and sometimes even acorns. Rich people ate bread prepared from a mixture of wheat and rye flour. In the Mediterranean basin, however, rye was hardly known. Around the middle of the 18th century, wheat began more and more popular and gradually most people began to eat bread, although the poorest still had to content themselves with rye bread. In early English historical times, there were constantly recurring periods of famine, due to not enough, or too much rain, or frosts and other natural causes. The ruling classes, knowing that rebellion often followed famine, did their utmost to keep the price of bread from rising too high. Laws regulating its price were passed during the reign of King John (1202). Not only did the law fix the price, but it strictly allocated that price between cost of material and an allowance for necessary changes to the baker. The bakers liked to keep the mystery of the trade to themselves and to prevent unlicensed people from starting up. If a young man wanted to become a baker, he had to serve an apprenticeship of seven years. The law supported the bakers in 11

The History of Bread Making

preserving their craft to themselves, and there were statuses published with various penalties for infringement. Colonial Americans made bread from cornmeal at home, baking it in the fireplace hearth. Wheat for bread became available as American settlers migrated westward to the plains regions with climates suitable for wheat farming and established cooperative mills for grinding grain. Bread makers had to make their own yeast or rely on old dough starters for leavening until 1868, when prepared packaged yeast was made available for sale to the public. In the 20th century, industrial and technological improvements made the time-consuming flour-refining process less expensive. White flour, once considered a delicacy for upper classes, replaced whole wheat flour as the cheapest, most widely produced flour.

1. Vocabulary
gruel = terci, fiertur de cereale yeast = drojdie grind, to (ground, ground) = a pisa, a mrun i milling = mcinare hearty = abundent, copios hearth = vatr infringement = nclcare, infrac iune albeit = dei, cu toate c, chiar dac
Phrasal verbs, expressions and proverbs

grind down 1. someone grinds you down = they treat you very harshly and cruelly, reducing your confidence or your will to resist them; to grind something down = to make something smooth or even by grinding. If someone has an axe to grind, they are doing something for selfish reasons.

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The History of Bread Making

to grind something away = to remove something by grinding. to grind something out 1. Lit. to produce something by grinding. 2. Fig. to produce something in a mechanical or perfunctory manner When a crowd of people mill around or mill about, they move around within a particular place or area, so that the movement of the whole crowd looks very confused. to a grinding halt/ to grind to a halt = to slow down and stop grind on: to drag on endlessly grind your teeth = to rub the teeth daily grind means (someone's) everyday work routine Mill cannot grind with water that is past. Prov. Do not waste the opportunities you now have.; Do not waste time wishing for what you had in the past. Mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small. Prov. It may take a long time, but evil will always be punished. A run-of-the-mill person or thing is very ordinary, with no special or interesting features.

2. Comprehension
2.1. Answer the following questions: 1. When is the history of bread making considered to have begun? ............................................................................................ 2. Who were the first to produce bread? ............................................................................................. 3. Who were the bakers of ancient Europe? 13

The History of Bread Making

............................................................................................. 4. What did the Greeks add to their bread and cakes? ............................................................................................. 5. What kinds of cereals were cultivated in the Middle Ages? ............................................................................................. 6. How did the American bread makers get the needed yeast? ............................................................................................. 7. What kind of bread was largely consumed in the 20th C.? .............................................................................................

2.2. Mark with true (T) or false (F) the next statements: a. In the Middle Ages the trade flourished. b. The Egyptians are considered the first to have ground flour. c. The Greeks were greedy bakers. d. The law supported the bakers in preserving their craft to themselves. e. Cereals belong to the same genus. f. Colonial Americans made bread in fireplaces, not at home. g. Rice is the main crop in areas where water is sufficiently unavailable. h. During the Middle Ages, in Europe, rye was more important than the various species of wheat.

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The History of Bread Making

i. In the 20th century white flour was replaced by whole wheat flour. j. The Sumerians were the ones who discovered beer.

3. Practice
3.1. Give the synonyms of the words below: famine rebellion dry unknown unleavened unleavened dough apparently grind grind on grind someone down grind something out grind to a halt 3.2. Give the antonyms of the words below: thick nomadic avid 15

The History of Bread Making

cool damp dark bread hearty upper classes 3.3. Find the mistakes in the sentences below and correct them: a. A Bakers's Guild was formmed in Rome round about the year 168 BC. b. The bakers in Rome at this period enjoyed special privileges: they were the only craftsmens who were freemens of the city, all other trades beeing conducted by slaves. c. The Romans enjoied several kinds of breads, with interesting names. There was oiyster bread (to be eaten with oiysters); 'artolaganus' or cakebread; 'speusticus' or 'hurry bread'. d. In early English historycal times, there were constantly recurring periods of famine, due to not enought, or to much rain, or frossts, and other natural causes. e. The invension of the steam-engine changed the industries and the lifes of the people in Britain, except, strangely enough, the milling of floor. f. One miller in Landon who used a steam-engine to drive his machinery, found the mill destroyied by fire one day; this 16

The History of Bread Making

apparently discuouraged him from attemppting to use the new steam machinery again. 3.4. Match the words with their definitions: a. Eurasian wheat, first cultivated by the Babylonians and now widely grown as a - cornmeal; - yeast; - milling; - leavening; - gruel; -emmer. cereal grain and as livestock feed. b. It is a food made by boiling oats with water or milk. c. It is a powder made from maize. It is used in cooking. d. A process which produces fermentation in dough or batter. e. It is a kind of fungus which is used to make bread rise, and in making alcoholic drinks such as beer. f. The process of pulverizing, or breaking down into smaller particles.

3.5. The word in capital letters at the end of each of the sentences can be changed in such a way that it forms a word that fits suitably in the blank space. Fill each blank in this way: a. Nursing was ill-paid and . hard work. GRIND

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The History of Bread Making

b. MILL c. d. e. f. g. h.

They moved purposefully through the .. crowd. She received flowers from an . admirer. KNOW They are fresh. I bought them from the ..this morning. They found a tractor .. for heavy duty. SUIT The village was founded by from Denmark. The new landlord is a great ............. over his greedy Yesterday the great ..tribes of Sahara were presented.

BAKE

SETTLE predecessor. IMPROVE NOMAD 3.6. Use the following phrasal verbs in the sentences below: a. to grind your teeth b. to a grinding halt/ to grind to a halt c. to grind down d. to have an axe to grind e. to grind on f. to mill around/about g. a run-of-the-mill h. Mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small i. daily grind j. grind something away (at) k. to grind something out l. mill cannot grind with water that is past 18

The History of Bread Making

1. A car will come to . if you put water in the petrol tank. 2. After you get the same complaints from a number of people, you begin to think it may not be just people who have personal .......................... . 3. He was forced to ........................ second-rate out novels in order to support his family. 4. Civil War in the Sudan ........................ for nine years. 5. .................. the bumps .................... and make the wall smooth. 6. He ............................. the powder, a cup at a time. 7. His performance in the game was neither exemplary, nor disastrous; it was simply ......................... 8. I don't have ........................ about the fact that Christmas has become commercialized. 9. If the computer network crashed, the whole office would ........................ . 10. .................... this ............... to make it smooth. 11. If you know you ........................, particularly at night, you must see your doctor. 12. If you think you can .................. me ........... by bothering me all the time, you are wrong. 13. The war has been ........................ for seven years. 19

The History of Bread Making

14. If you want to go abroad, do it now, while you're young and have the money. .................................... 15. I'm getting very tired of the ........................ . 16. The machine ........................ the same part by the hundreds all day long. 17. It ........................, making a terrible noise in the process. 18. As a novelist, he has no political ........................ . 19. Jill: It really doesn't seem right that Fred can be so horrible and dishonest, but he always gets everything he wants. Jane: Be patient. ...................................... . 20. Please ........................ the bumps. 21. Every day about noon, traffic in town ........................ . 22. Please ........................ this rough spot. 23. Quite a few people were ........................, but nothing was happening. 24. The article criticized the new software, but the author ........................, as its manufacturer had fired his son. 25. The bus ........................ at the corner and someone got off. 26. The constant nagging ........................ the employees at last. 27. The factory just keeps ................... these toys ........, day after day. 28. The hours ........................ without anything happening. I was so tired of waiting. 20

The History of Bread Making

29. The best reporting is done by people who don't ....................... . 30. The strike has caused production of new cars to ........................ . 31. There will always be some bosses who want to ........................ . 32. The machine ........................ at the rocks, making tonnes of gravel. 33. The lecture ........................, minute after minute. 34. There are people who want to humiliate you and to . you... 35. Tom, I need to talk to you. I have ........................ . 36. Traffic on the interstate almost ........................ today because it was so foggy. 37. When my vacation was over, I had to go back to the ........................ . 38. The orchestra ........................ the same tunes it has been playing for the last twenty years. 39. Bill and Bob went into the other room to argue. They had ........................ . 40. The peace process has ........................ . 3.7. Translate into English: 21

The History of Bread Making

I.

Principalele defecte ale pinii Defectele formei Pinea poate fi bombat sau plat. Pinea bombat rezult din aluat insuficient fermentat, la care s-a folosit maia btrn cu putere redus de cretere. O astfel de pine are i coaja desprins de miez, miezul dens, cu porozitate neuniform i gust fad. Pinea aplatizat, necrescut provine n urma folosirii finii de calitate slab, a dospirii aluatului timp mai ndelungat i coacerii n cuptor cu temperatura prea joas. Acest defect este nso it de goluri n miez, coaj crpat i gust acru. Defectele gustului Defectele gustului sunt considerate ca fiind cele de acru, fad, nesrat sau prea srat. Gustul acru se datoreaz folosirii maielei vechi i n cantitate prea mare sau conducerii fermenta iei la temperatur depit. Gustul fad rezult ca urmare a insuficientei fermentri a maielei sau aluatului. Gustul nesrat sau prea srat se datoreaz dozrii necorespunztoare a srii la prepararea aluatului. Pot aprea i alte gusturi necorespunztoare, cum ar fi cele de rnced, de amar, de mucegai. Acestea se datoreaz fie utilizrii finii alterate sau impurificate, fie pstrrii necorespunztoare a pinii.

II. Pinea este un aliment popular n aproape toate societ ile lumii cu excep ia Asiei care prefer orezul. Pinea este un aliment de baz preparat prin coacerea, gtirea cu abur sau prjirea aluatului. Se prepar din aluat de fain de gru, dospit cu drojdie, lsat s creasc i n final coapt n cuptor. Datorit nivelelor nalte de gluten care dau aluatului un aspect buretos i elastic, grul este cea mai frecvent folosit cereal pentru prepararea pinii, dar aceasta poate fi fcut i din secar, orz, porumb sau ovz de obicei, dar nu ntotdeauna, n combina ie cu faina de gru. Ingredientele minime sunt faina i apa, sarea fiind deseori prezent, plus un agent de dospire cum ar fi drojdia. Pinea 22

The History of Bread Making

mai poate con ine condimente cum ar fi chimenul i semin e (susan, mac), folosite pentru decorare. Pinea alb este fcut din fain care con ine numai miezul unei grunte (endosperma). Pinea neagr se face cu endosperma i 10% tr e. Pinea integral con ine toate componentele bobului de gru. Pinea n diverse ri In Marea Britanie i n Statele Unite, cel mai consumat tip de pine este pinea moale cu coaja sub ire care se vinde gata feliat i mpachetat. Se mnnc de obicei cu crust, dar unele persoane o pot nltura, dup preferin . In Scotia, se consum un tip de pine numita pine simpl. Feliile sunt mult mai nalte i mai sub iri, cu crusta ars numai deasupra i dedesubtul franzelei. Aceast pine are o textur mult mai ferm dect pinea american i britanic.

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Unit 2

Types of Bread
Bread baking is a delicate dance between the simple and the complex. On the one hand, nothing could be more straightforward: just combining flour, water, salt and yeast yields a dough that with the bakers touch magically transforms into a crusty baguette or a hearty loaf. On the other hand, the science behind the magic is incredibly elaborated and research reveals the markedly complicated process that baking actually is. Flour is the main ingredient of most breads, accounting for about three-quarters of the finished loaf. The chosen flour gives the bread its individual character. The flour affects not only the quality of the baked bread but also the bread making process. Flour will absorb more or less liquid according to the variety of wheat that it was made from, where it was harvested and how it was milled. Such variables are compounded by the humidity in the air on a damp day, flour will absorb less liquid than on a dry one. Bread styles The most basic breads contain just the four simple ingredients of flour, water, yeast and salt. These are referred to as lean breads and tend to have crusty exteriors, such as a baguette. Though only 150 years old, the baguette loaf has become the universal symbol of bread. It is characterized by a thin, crackly crust, diagonal cuts across the top that bloom open into crusty flaps, and colour varying from light gold to deep gold with tones of reddish brown. The colouring is caused both by caramelization and by the Maillard reaction, two types of sugar heat reactions that affect all yeasted breads. 24

Types of Bread

The interior crumb of the French bread has irregular holes, some very large and barely connected by strands of gluten and others tighter and smaller. If this webbing is composed of uniformsized holes, it means the loaves have been shaped too roughly or by mechanical equipment rather than gently by hand, and the flavour of the grain will be less complex. Baguettes and French breads of other shapes, or pain ordinaire, are leavened by commercial yeast, as are the similar Italian-style breads. This dough can easily be made by the direct, or single-mixing method, but the best loaves are made using prefermented dough techniques, or the indirect method. Levain: A levain is a naturally leavened bread made with a pre-fermented starter developed from wild yeast. There are many versions of this bread and numerous ways to build such a loaf. Country levains are made with a small percentage of whole-grain flour, usually wheat or rye, to add complexity and texture. The crust is thicker and chewier than pain ordinaire or other yeasted breads. The flavour usually includes acidic sour tones, though Europeans like their levain minimally sour. The crumb should have the same irregular hole structure as a baguette. Because levain is often baked in round (boule) or oblong (btard) shapes, it has more interior crumb than a baguette. This allows for even larger, more open holes than in a baguette. The mouth feel should be cool and creamy, not dry. The crumb webbing should have a slightly shiny, almost translucent quality. Ciabatta and rustic breads: Loaves made from wetter doughs are called rustic breads, of which the best known is the Italian ciabatta. Other Italian versions include francese, stirato, pane rustico, and stretch bread. These breads may be made with as much as 80 percent hydration. (Most breads are made with 55 and 66 percent hydration, based on the bakers percentage system in which the flour equals 100 percent and everything else is a percentage of the flour weight. For example, in baguette dough, 100 pounds of flour can be hydrated by 60 pounds of water, for 60 25

Types of Bread

percent hydration.) Rustic bread doughs are sticky and difficult to handle, so it is often necessary to sprinkle additional flour on the dough when shaping it and transferring it to the oven. This accounts for the floury crusts and stretch marks many of these loaves exhibit. The crumb is extremely open, barely holding the loaf together and sometimes tearing to reveal large holes or tunnels. The gluten is stretched to the maximum, exposing it fully to the heat. This gives the bread a pleasant toasty flavour and a gelatinized, shiny interior. The crust is sweet and nutty from the natural caramelization of the sugars. Rustic breads are often yeasted, but many may also be naturally leavened. Pumpernickel and other ryes: There are many versions of rye bread. Pumpernickel is a German/ Russian-style bread made with coarse, whole-grain rye flour. Other rye breads use finer, more refined rye flours in various configurations with wheat and other grains. Rye bread usually has a tighter crumb than wheat bread because, as with all grains other than wheat, there is very little gluten in rye. However, it is possible to make open-crumbed rye breads by following slow-rise techniques and using a high percentage of wheat flour. Rye breads have a distinctive earthly quality and a sweetness from the natural sugars in the rye. Some versions are yeasted, but rye bread tastes better when made with natural sourdough starters and is assimilated more easily by the body when fermented with the lactobacillus organisms found in these starters. The use of seeds and flavourings such as caraways, onion, anise, flax, and orange is traditional in various cultures, but it is in no way necessary for a good rye. White bread (pain de mie): Yeasted white bread for sandwiches, toast, or as an accompaniment to meals is as much a European tradition as it is an American one. Dough conditioners such as butter, milk, potato starch (from either cooked or dried potatoes), and sugar are added to soften the crumb and crust. 26

Types of Bread

White breads are baked in loaf pans at a lower heat than hearth breads to prevent early caramelization and a crispy crust. The crumb is uniform in appearance with medium-size holes and a tenderness not found in lean hearth breads. Despite its softness, the mouthfeel is drier than that of hearth breads. Brioche and enriched breads: The generous addition of butter and eggs pushes some breads into a category called rich or enriched breads. Brioche is the most famous but other yeasted rich breads include kugelhopf, savarin, and panettone. Brioche has a beautiful golden colour and a soft-as-satin feel. The crumb can range from fairly open to tight, but the crust is always thin and tender. Many enriched breads, such as kugelhopf, function more as coffee cakes or tea breads, because of the richness that comes from the additional ingredients. Flatbreads and focaccia: International flatbreads, especially focaccia, have become very popular in the recent years. Loosely translated, focaccia means everything thats left in the oven in other words, a good way to use up leftovers. There are both savoury and sweet versions of this pizza-like, Genoese flatbread. The finest focaccia is made from a soft, wet dough. A long fermentation with a small amount of yeast and the addition of olive oil gives the crumb a spongy, shiny aspect similar to but softer than that of the rustic breads. Sometimes the extra ingredients, such as olives, herbs and cheeses, are incorporated into the dough and sometimes they are placed on top. The dough, baked in sheet pans, is often poked all over just before baking, giving it a dimpled appearance. Pizza is simply another type of focaccia that originated in southern Italy, probably Naples. The Tuscan version of focaccia is called schiacciata. Flatbreads like tortillas, naan, crackerbread and chapatti are international and universal. They may be either leavened, as in the case of the dozens of versions of naan, or unleavened, like matzoh and chapatti. 27

Types of Bread

Flavoured speciality breads: Flavoured breads, such as Cajun-style spice breads or cheese-and-herb-filled rolls capture the tastes associated with particular regions and cultures. Their flavour is determined more by added ingredients than by long fermentation, so they are perfectly suited for the direct mixing method. They are often, but not always, yeasted rather than naturally leavened, risen once in bulk and then once in the pan. They can be made in four or five hours. The dough texture is determined by the proportion of wheat to nonwheat flours, and by the use of supplementary ingredients such as garlic, raisins, nuts, peppers, and cheese. Quick breads: Banana bread, maize bread, and other quick breads are not made from fermented doughs, except in rare instances, so their chemistry is very different from that of most breads. Leavening is usually done chemically by neutralizing acid with alkaline ingredients, such as buttermilk with baking soda which creates carbon dioxide. The crumb of quick breads is much tighter than that of yeast-leavened breads, and is always very tender due to the inclusion of high levels of oil and butter.

1. Vocabulary
yeast = drojdie, ferment to mill = a mcina, a trece prin moar, a sfrma flap = parte sfrmat (a unui plin) strand = fir, fibr, uvi starter = o cultur de bacterii folosite pentru a ncepe fermenta ia nutty = gustos, picant coarse = brut, neprelucrat caraway = chimen anise = anason flax = in dough conditioner = ameliorator crumb = miez (de pine) hearth bread = pine pe vatr 28

Types of Bread

crisp = crocant tenderness = frgezime to poke = a mpinge cu degetele dimple = adncitur, gropi in bulk = n vrac caraway = chimen
Phrasal verbs, expressions and proverbs

someones bread and butter Fig. someones basic income; someones livelihoodthe source of ones food. Bread always falls on the buttered side Prov. When things go wrong, they go completely wrong. Bread and water Fig. the most minimal meal possible; a meal as once was given to prisoners. (Usually used in reference to being in prison or jail.) Bread is the staff of life. Prov. Food is necessary for people to survive bread-and-butter letter = a letter or note written to follow up on a visit; a thank-you note. Break bread with someone Fig. to eat a meal with someone. Cast ones bread upon the waters. Prov. Act generously because you feel it is right and not because you expect a reward. The greatest thing since sliced bread. The most wonderful invention or useful item in a long time. Know which side ones bread is buttered on Prov. To be aware of where your money comes from; to be loyal to the person or thing that will benefit you the most. Man does not live by bread alone. Prov. In order to survive, people need more than physical things like food and shelter.; People need mental or spiritual things like satisfaction and love. (Biblical.) bread and circuses activities that are intended to keep people happy so that they do not complain about problems 29

Types of Bread

2. Comprehension
2.1. Answer the following questions: 1. Which are the main ingredients of typical bread? ............................................................................................. 2. How many types of bread are there? ............................................................................................. 3. What is the Maillard reaction? ............................................................................................. 4. What methods can be used to make the baguette? ............................................................................................. 5. Where is pizza supposed to come from? ............................................................................................. 6. Which are the dough conditioners? ............................................................................................. 7. Which is the most famous type of enriched breads? ............................................................................................. 8. Name some types of flatbreads. ............................................................................................. 9. How are quick breads made? ............................................................................................. 10. Which type of bread uses pre-fermented starters? ............................................................................................. 30

Types of Bread

2.2. Mark with true (T) or false (F) the next statements: 1. Country levains are made with a small percentage of wholegrain flour, usually wheat or rye, to add complexity and texture. 2. Dough conditioners such as butter, milk, potato starch, and sugar are added to soften the crumb, not the crust. 3. Flatbreads may be either leavened and unleavened. 4. Flavoured breads, such as cheese-and-herb-filled rolls capture the tastes associated with particular regions and cultures. 5. If this webbing is composed of multiform-sized holes, it means the loaves have been shaped roughly enough or by mechanical equipment rather than gently by hand. 6. Many enriched breads function more as coffee cakes or tea breads, because of the abundance that comes from the additional ingredients. 7. On a damp day, flour will absorb more liquid than on a dry one. 8. Pizza is simply another type of focaccia that originated in southern Italy. 9. Quick breads are made from fermented doughs. 10. Rustic breads are naturally leavened. 11. Rye breads have a distinctive earthly quality and a sweetness from the natural sugars in the rye. 12. The choice of flour affects nothing but the quality of the baked bread. 13. The finest focaccia is made from a soft, wet dough. 14. Lean breads tend to have crusty exteriors. 15. Enriched breads may be made with as much as 80 percent hydration. 2.3. Identify the following types of bread (look at page 98): baguette pain ordinaire focaccia brioche 31 rustic bread levain bread

Types of Bread

ciabatta stirato pumpernickel

schiacciata pain de mie Cajun-style spice breads

tortillas naan chapatti

3. Practice
3.1. Give the synonyms of the words below: hearty damp crust texture translucent crumb rustic bake house barely spongy

3.2. Give the antonyms of the words below: tender coarse stretch straightforward 32

Types of Bread

mechanical minimal

3.3. Match the words with their definitions: 1. baguette 2. bakery 3. hydrate 4. hydra 5. hydrangea 6. hydrant 7. levain 8. clambake a. a bread leavening agent used traditionally in France and today by artisan bakeries and hobbyists around the world. b. a bush on which there are round groups of pink, white or blue flowers c. A party or gathering, especially a noisy and lively one; A seashore picnic where clams, fish, corn, and other foods are traditionally baked on heated stones covered with seaweed. d. a small narrow loaf of French bread often used for sandwiches. e. an establishment which produces or/and sells bread, pies, pastries, cakes, biscuits, cookies, etc. f. an outlet from a water main, usually consisting of an upright pipe with a valve attached, from which water can be tapped for fighting fires g. a snake in ancient Greek stories with many heads that grow again when they are cut off h. to supply someone or something with water to keep them healthy and in good condition

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Types of Bread

3.4. The word in capital letters at the end of each of the sentences can be changed in such a way that it forms a word that fits suitably in the blank space. Fill each blank in this way: 1. The light rain ........................ the crowd's enthusiasm. DAMP 2. The lake was ringed by ........................ salt deposits. CRUST 3. The individuals who have contributed to this book are far too ........................ to mention. NUMBER 4. Some fruit juices taste a bit ........................ . ACID 5. The lines ended in a maze of sticky ........................ at the entrance of the house. WEB 6. Interest rates have risen by two ........................ points. CENT 7. The hilltops were covered with a ........................ of snow. SPRINKLE 8. The waiter got quite ........................ with us. PLEASE 9. What ........................ reason can she have for being so horrible to you? EARTH 10. A man was being questioned in connection with her ........................ . APPEAR

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Types of Bread

3.5. Use the following phrasal verbs in the sentences below: someone's bread and butter bread always falls on the buttered side bread and water Bread is the staff of life. bread-and-butter letter break bread with someone Cast one's bread upon the waters. the greatest thing since sliced bread know which side one's bread is buttered on Man does not live by bread alone. bread and circuses 1. Gardening is my . at the moment. 2. David: I'm so miserable. Helen: How can you be miserable? You've got a good place to live, plenty to eat, nice clothes.... David: But . . 3. As far as I'm concerned, this new food processor is the . . 4. your .; make a generous contribution to our cause. 5. He likes to take artistic photos, but journalism is his. . 6. He reckons his new mobile phone is the. . 7. Health and education are the sort of . issues that people vote on. 35

Types of Bread

8. I got sort of a . from my nephew, who wants to visit me next summer. 9. I worked as a bartender for a year, and it was the tips that were my . . 10. Jill: Want to go to lunch with us, Bob? Bob: No. I must work on my novel while inspiration lasts. Jill: Don't forget to eat. . , you know. 11. Joe thinks Sally is the . . You can tell just by the way he looks at her. 12. I can't miss another day of work. That's my . . 13. Joseph is . , supporting Bob while he works on his novel. 14. Miranda likes to give money to charities that feed people. "Other services are important," she reasons, "but . ." 15. My kids think their new puppy is the.. 16. Not only did my phone break, but it broke todaytoday of all days, when I'm expecting a really important call. The. . 17. I would like to . you. 18. Ollie won't refuse to come with us. He knows which . . 36

Types of Bread

19. Our cultural heritage is important. Man . . 20. Our customers are our . , so treat them with respect. 21. Please come by and . us sometime. 22. Tax cuts are just . designed to distract attention from the underlying economic crisis. 23. Teaching at the local college is his . . 24. The way he goes on about her - you'd think she was the . . 25. There were several chances for politicians and celebrities to meet and . each other. 26. This dinner is terrible again. I would rather have . ! Why don't we ever have pizza? 27. When I got back from the sales meeting, I took two days to write . to the people I met. 28. When the painting fell off the wall, it landed on a priceless porcelain vase and broke it. The . . 29. Wife: Please be sure not to upset Grandma. You know we can't do without the money she sends us every month. Husband: Don't worry. I know which . . 30. Wilbur knew that if he got in trouble again it would be at least a year on . . 37

Types of Bread

3.6. Find the equivalents in Romanian: Eat the bread of idleness Half a loaf is better than no bread. To eat smbs bread and salt To cast someones bread upon the To quarrel with ones bread and butter A man with many trades begs his bread on Sunday Acorns were good till bread was found. Dry bread at home is better than roast meat abroad. 3.7. Identify the mistakes in the text and write them on the right. They might be extra or misspelled words: Focaccia is fashionable style of bread made in Italia. It is spreading to other places in the world where Italian settlers and traders have formed comunities. The bread is plain from inside and fairly flat topped with herbes and olives. There is a variety of Focaccia and new varieties have been made in the 21str century due to the flexibility of the basic recipe. According to many historians, Focaccia originated the Ancient Greece or with the Etruscans of North Central Italy before the Roman Empire. Flat bread has been made throughout the Middle East and extending to Persia for this long as well. This makes it almost impossible to identify a specific culture behind focaccia. Focaccia is not a traditional unleavened bread and the loaf slightly rises. In the Middle East, focaccias is mostly unknown. However it has a story of being prepared in Spain, Turkey, 38

Types of Bread

France, Italy and Greece. The focaccia was historical not leavened, its natural recipe which rises in the right climate which gives a clue about its origins. Considering that the inland Mediteranean is fairly mountainous, it can be speculated that focaccia was first created by inland people. On the contrary, the Phoenician people were not know to eat bread similar to focaccia who originated from the coastal Syria and coast Lebanon spreading throughout the Mediterranean by 1100 BC. A small quantity of yeast is needed in coastal area to make the bread rise, otherwise the result will be a traditional flat bread. The Roman words panis focacius is from where the name Focaccia derived. Panis means bread and is different form pan of modern English. Focacius is also a latin word meaning centre or fireplace. In Roman times, focaccia was cooked in ashes of a fire rather then on a tray above fire. This makes the translation seem to be corect. Romans used to mix a simple recipe of rouf flour, water, olive oil, little amount of yeast and salts. It could have been seasoned with herbs but was plain most cases. Focaccia was used as dipping bread in Roman times, it was torne by hand dipped in salty soups. In fact focaccia styles breads were used extensively by slaves in the Roman Empire and a stigmum still exists today in some countries. Focaccia style recipes is made in France 39

Types of Bread

and is considered a daily bread by a major part of the population. It is still one of the most popular breads selled in bakeries. Since the medieval ages, focaccia was used quite extensively by the catholic church during religious festivities mostly. The unleavened recipe of focaccia is most commonly used. Italian imigrants in the 20th century brought different recipes with it to the United States including focaccia. However, focaccia is no longer strictly the preserve of Italian communities and can now found in almost all bakeries and supermarkets. It makes delicious sandwich bread and is often served with cheese and other filings. It is also available with a wide variet of seasonings. 3.8. Translate into English:

.............. .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... ..........................

Principalele defecte ale pinii Defectele miezului Principalele defecte ale miezului sunt: crpturile, desprinderea miezului de coaj, straturile i dungile compacte, porozitatea neuniform. Crpturile n miez pot fi de mai multe feluri: verticale, laterale, deasupra cojii inferioare, sub coaja superioar. Crptura vertical care trece prin centrul miezului de sus n jos, exist deja cnd se coace pinea, dar uneori se formeaz n timpul rcirii. Defectul apare datorit folosirii finii de calitate slab, aluatului prea consistent cu aciditate mic, coacerii ineficiente. Crptura lateral care apare la arcuirea cojii, se formeaz n condi ii asemntoare celei verticale. Crptura orizontal deasupra cojii inferioare se datoreaz calit ii slabe a finii, acidit ii reduse a aluatului, consiten ei prea mici, temperaturii sczute, cldurii prea 40

Types of Bread

mari de la vatra cuptorului sau creterii reduse a aluatului n cuptor. Crptura sub coaja superioar apare n condi iile unei extensibilit i i elasticit i reduse a aluatului, fenomenul fiind declanat de temperatura prea mare a cuptorului. Desprinderea miezului de coaj apare mai ales la pinea fabricat din fin alb i semialb i mai rar la pinea neagr. Acest defect se produce n timpul coacerii, fiind favorizat de folosirea finii cu nsuiri de panifica ie slabe, sau de fermentarea insuficient a maielei sau aluatului. Straturile sau dungile compacte caracterizeaz pinea cu miezul des, cu pori insuficient dezvolta i i cu tendin de sfrmare. Straturile pot aprea sub form de dungi orizontale sau uneori circulare i de mrimi diferite. De multe ori, straturile compacte se formeaz imediat dup scoaterea din cuptor, atunci cnd pinea este depozitat necorespunztor. Mai apar dungi sub form de umbre atunci cnd maiaua a fost prea fermentat i culoarea ei s-a nchis la suprafa n urma oxidrii. Porozitatea defectuoas a miezului are trei aspecte principale: pori prea mici, pori mari i neregula i, goluri mari. Porii mici i deni, nedezvolta i se datoreaz aluatului prea consistent, n care fermenta ia decurge lent, iar timpul pentru ob inerea cantit ii necesare de dioxid de carbon este insuficient. Porii mari, neregula i, care formeaz n miez goluri, pinea avnd coaja inferioar plat, iar cea superioar moale i cu rupturi la suprafa , se datoreaz modelrii necorespunztoare. Goluri mari n miez se formeaz n cazul aluaturilor insuficient fermentate, provenite din fin cu propriet i slabe de hidratare. Defectele cojii Defectele cojii se refer la crpturi, bici mici sau arse i culoare necorespunztoare. Crpturile sunt considerate n primul rnd defecte estetice, care contribuie la scderea digestibilit ii, deoarece numai pinea aspectuoas poate deveni apetisant. 41

Types of Bread

Bicile dulci sau arse apar la pinea fabricat din maia insuficient fermentat sau cu durat la dospire final insuficient, cnd prin fermentarea ulterioar n cuptor, la suprafa a aluatului se formeaz pori mari, acoperi i cu o pojghi sub ire de aluat, care la cldur se deshidrateaz repede i se nchid mult la culoare. Culoarea necorespunztoare este un defect destul de frecvent; culoarea poate fi ori prea deschis (palid), ori prea nchis (prjit exagerat, prlit). 3.9. Translate into Romanian: The Maillard Reaction I. In 1912, Louis-Camille Maillard addressed the French Academy with a brief paper in which he described some recent experiments. He had made a very simple observation: upon gently heating sugars and amino acids in water, a yellow-brown colour developed. The assembled learned Frenchmen may have been forgiven for not falling off their seats even in 1912, this observation was surely not too surprising? However, Maillard was astute enough to realise that since biology is awash with sugars and amino acids, this reaction would have far-reaching implications. Ninety years on, Maillard has acquired an impressive number of disciples. A Current Contents search of the keyword Maillard yields over a thousand references for the period 19952000 alone. The consequences of Maillard chemistry are indeed extensive, and cut across many disciples the most noteworthy being food science and medicine. There cannot be many other fields in which the same fundamental chemical knowledge can be applied, for example, in both an interpretation of kidney disease and an understanding of why cooked onions taste pleasant. There are few reactions that attract such attention from organic chemists, food scientist and medics, not to mention those working within the more obscure pockets of the widespread literature.

42

Types of Bread

II. There are two main types of mechanism by which browning of food occurs, depending on whether the process is mediated by enzymes or not. The division is not precise and, in a specific case, it is usually difficult to rule out one or the other mechanism, unless conditions are such, for instance, during heat processing, that enzymes would have been inactivated. Under such conditions, only nonenzymic browning can occur. Nonenzymic browning itself is subdivided roughly (again because there is an overlap) into three types of reactions. The first, called the Maillard reaction, occurs between a carbonyl compound which here is usually a reducing sugar, and an amine, which here is usually an amino acid, a peptide, or a protein. The second is caramelization, a reaction where the sugars react on their own, but normally requires drastic conditions. The third is ascorbic acid oxidation. The last, although it need not involve any enzyme at all, is nearest to enzymic browning, since it often does involve ascorbic acid oxidase, which, however, does not affect the phenols, which are the normal substrate in enzymic browning, but may involve other enzymes, e.g. laccase or peroxidase.

43

Unit 3

From Wheat to Pasta

Pasta processing initially was a simple procedure performed by artisans or pastaio. Flour and water were mixed and kneaded into dumplings. Eventually dough was sheeted and cut into strips. Pasta was marketed exclusively in fresh form until it was discovered that the costal part of Italy had an ideal climate for drying. The main raw ingredient for premium quality pasta is semolina milled from high quality durum wheat. Semolina is a granular product comprised of evenly sized endosperm particles. Durum wheat is very hard and therefore lends itself to producing a high yield of semolina. Semolina quality is determined by speck count, colour, grit content, ash content, moisture content, protein content and quality, and microbial load. Defects of semolina are directly transferred to the pasta product. a. Physical quality. Speck count is a quality control measure for semolina commonly determined at the mill. Specks in semolina are generally brown or black. Bran is a common source of brown specks. Black specks originate from bran of diseased kernels, weed seeds, dirt, and insect parts. Black specks are more noticeable in semolina and pasta. Ash content reflects the purity of the semolina. Semolina with high ash content generally will have a high speck count. Grit is metal, stone, or glass particles, found in semolina. Grit can clog screens, block the die orifice, and/or damage the

44

From Wheat to Pasta

Teflon coating of the die. Damage to the die will result in defects in pasta such as grooves or tears. b. Compositional quality. Semolina contains up to 80% starch and 2 to 3% non-starch polysaccharides. Durum starch is composed of 70 to 75% amylopectin and 25 to 30% amylose. The impact of variations in amylopectin-amylose ratio on pasta extrusion is probably minimal, since dough temperature during extrusion ranges from 45 to 50C, which is below gelatinization temperatures for durum starch. Starch is important in determining cooking quality of pasta, as variations in starch properties impact water uptake, gel consistency, and gluten matrix integrity during cooking. Pasta quality is greatly affected by semolina protein content and quality. Semolina typically contains 12 to 16% protein. c. Gluten/dough quality. Gluten quality is assessed by the wet gluten and sodium dodecylsulfate micro-sedimentation tests. The wet gluten test involves washing semolina with a 2% salt solution. During washing, the semolina is kneaded to develop the gluten and to help remove the starch. Other ingredients include water and optional ingredients such as egg, spinach, tomato, herbs and so on, and vitamins and minerals for nutritional enrichment. Pasta processing Pasta manufacturing is a relatively simple process. The basic elements of pasta processing are hydration, mixing, kneading, and extrusion to give the pasta the desired shape, pre-drying, drying and cooling prior to packaging. Hydration, mixing and kneading. Semolina is combined with water and optional ingredients. The final water content of pasta dough has to be of 30-35%. In the traditional presses there is a mixing stage during which water is uniformly incorporated into semolina with a paddle mixer. The goal of the mixing stage is to uniformly blend and properly hydrate ingredients. Semolina is typically hydrated to 30 45

From Wheat to Pasta

to 32% moisture content. The hydration level often has to be adjusted higher or lower to obtain proper consistency of dough. Kneading of the mixed agglomerated particles is achieved by driving the mixture through a cylinder of beveled helical plates. Dough passes into the vacuum chamber through a rotary seal. The mixing and kneading process takes place about 15 minutes. Extrusion. The vacuum section of the mixer empties directly into an extrusion chamber. Pasta dough is extruded under a vacuum by means of an auger. Heat is developed during this process. The combination of heat, pressure and shear during the extrusion process makes the gluten network within the dough continuous and the dough becomes plastic and translucent. Cold water is circulated around the extrusion chamber to control the temperature at 45-50C to prevent denaturation of the gluten protein. If gluten is denaturated at this stage, the physical properties of the pasta dough and the texture of the cooked pasta will be adversely affected. Like many other foods, pasta is dried to give a longer storage time. Shelf-life of pasta products is commonly listed as two years. Vitamins degrade over time. When vitamin claim on the nutritional label is no longer valid, then the processors must declare the pasta expired. Therefore, fortification level and the levels claimed on the label determine the shelf-life. Drying. Typically, industry will dry pasta to 12% moisture. Pasta is a difficult product to dry. The temperature and humidity of the drying chambers must be carefully controlled. Pastas low moisture, coupled with dimensional changes during drying, can result in checking (stress cracks in the product). Checking occurs when the stresses in the product exceed the strength of the pasta. As drying temperatures increase, the properties of the pasta change, due primarily to inactivation of enzymes and protein denaturation. If strands are dried too quickly, the surface will harden and the strands will fracture due to stresses set up as the moisture trapped within the interior attempts to migrate through the surface. 46

From Wheat to Pasta

Short good pre-driers and driers vary in design, depending on the configuration, thickness and specific weight of the pasta. Dryers are either rotating drum units or continuous belt units. The rotary units are best for small shapes that must be continually stirred during drying, whereas belt units are most common for larger shapes. From the drying zone the pasta passes to the cooling zone. Cooling conditions must be carefully controlled to avoid the checking that can arise if there is a moisture imbalance within the pasta. The dried product now enters the stacker, which stores sufficient production so that packaging may not need to be carried out continuously. The Maillard reactions during pasta drying. Maillard reactions result in the development of a red or orange colour, which is significantly different from the golden colour expected in pasta. Maillard reactions can also result in the development of offflavours in pasta. The Maillard reaction requires a reducing sugar and a free amino group. These reactions can occur during high temperature and ultrahigh temperature drying. Water activity if 0.75 and moisture content of 15% are optimum moisture conditions for the Maillard reaction to occur in pasta. Checking in pasta. There are two types of checking in pasta: pre-dryer checking and final dryer checking. Pre-dryer checking, as the name implies, occurs in the pre-dryer section. This defect will appear as spots in the finished product. The spots will generally be round and be near the surface of the product. These may appear similar to spots due to insufficient vacuum during extrusion. Final dryer checking is easily identifiable. In the spaghetti, final dryer checking will appear as an oval on the surface of the spaghetti, and can be described as a crescent, canoe, or half moon. The final stage of processing is packaging. In the case of long good, the strands are first removed from the sticks and cut to length and afterwards are automatically introduced in the packaging materials. 47

From Wheat to Pasta

1. Vocabulary
adversely = nefavorabil ash = pulbere, cenu, auger = burghiu beveled = ablon de unghi, teitur clog (to) = a nfunda, a obtura die (n.) = matri dumpling = col una extrusion = extruziune, nlturare grit = urluial, rot (de la mcinarea cerealelor) groove = canelur, an helical = elicoidal knead = a frmnta off-flavour = arom, gust cu totul neplcut paddle mixer = agitator, malaxor, amestectoe cu palete rotary seal = dispozitiv de etanare rotativ screen = sit, ciur; material cernut semolina = gri shear = a tia shelf-life = stabilitate la depozitare; durata de depozitare speck = particul, bob, stacker = palisad strand = uvi tear (n.) = ruptur, fisur yield = produc ie, recolt; a produce
Phrasal verbs, expressions and proverbs

to knock the starch out of someone = to kick or beat someone severely. to take the starch out of someone = 1. Fig. to make someone less arrogant or stiff. 2. Fig. to make someone tired and weak dry as dust / a bone = 1. extremely dry 2. very dull; very boring 48

From Wheat to Pasta

as exciting as watching (the) paint dry = very, very dull. to bleed someone dry = to take all of someone's money; to extort money from someone. dry someone or something off = to remove the moisture from someone or something. dry someone out = Fig. to cause someone to become sober; to cause someone to stop drinking alcohol to excess. dry something up = 1. to cause moisture to dry away to nothing. 2. to cure a skin rash by the use of medicine that dries. dry run = Fig. an attempt; a practice or rehearsal. dry spell = Rur. a period with no rain. dry-gulch someone = to ambush someone. hang someone out to dry = Fig. to defeat or punish someone. leave someone high and dry = 1. Lit. [for water] to recede and leave someone untouched. 2. Fig. to leave someone unsupported and unable to maneuver; to leave someone helpless. 3. Fig. to leave someone flat broke. Put your trust in God, and keep your powder dry. = Keep your powder dry. = Prov. Have faith that God will make sure that you win a conflict, but be prepared to fight well and vigorously wet behind the ears = not dry behind the ears = hardly dry behind the ears = Fig. young and inexperienced. You never miss the water till the well runs dry. = Prov. People are not grateful for what they have until they lose it. to be a dry eye = a person who does not cry.

2. Comprehension
2.1. Mark with true (T) or false (F) the next statements: 1. The strands will not fracture if they are dried very quickly. 2. The pre-driers and driers are not all the same. 3. Pasta manufacturing is a complex process. 49

From Wheat to Pasta

4. Rotary seals are not used in the process of pasta manufacturing. 5. Cold water is used in order to control temperature. 6. Grit is metal, stone, or glass particles, found in a semolina. 7. The wet gluten test involves washing semolina with a 2% salt solution. 8. The temperature and humidity of the drying chambers can be carefully controlled. 9. Maillard reactions can also result in the development of offflavours in pasta. 10. Semolina is a granular product comprised of unequally sized endosperm particles. 2.2. Answer the following questions: 1. What are the stages of pasta processing? ............................................................................................. 2. Which is the role of drying? ............................................................................................. 3. What does the configuration of dryers depend on? ............................................................................................. 4. What is semolina? ............................................................................................. 5. Which are the ingredients of dough for pasta? ............................................................................................. 50

From Wheat to Pasta

6. Which is the role of the extrusion stage? ............................................................................................. 7. What determines the quality of semolina? ............................................................................................. 8. What is grit and what is its function? ............................................................................................. 9. How many types of checking in pasta are there and what do they consist in? ............................................................................................. 10. Which is the composition of semolina? .............................................................................................

3. Practice
3.1. Give the synonyms of the words below: uptake denaturation translucent semolina adversely goal

51

From Wheat to Pasta

3.2. Give the antonyms of the words below: raw drying agglomerated heat harden sufficient 3.3. Match the words with their definitions bellow: extrusion gluten knead raw semolina vacuum 1. A granular, milled product of durum wheat, consisting almost entirely of endosperm particles, used chiefly in the making of pasta. 2. To work (dough, clay, etc.) into a uniform mixture by pressing, folding, and stretching. 3. The act or process of pushing or thrusting out. 4. Not altered from its natural state; not prepared by the action of heat. 5 The viscid, tenacious substance which gives adhesiveness to dough 6. A space, as the interior of a closed vessel, which has been exhausted to a high or the highest degree by an air pump or other artificial means

3.4. Use the following phrasal verbs in the sentences below: to knock the starch out of to take the starch out of someone dry as dust / a bone as exciting as watching (the) paint dry 52

From Wheat to Pasta

to bleed someone dry dry someone or something off dry someone out dry something up dry run dry spell dry-gulch someone hang someone out to dry high and dry Put your trust in God, and keep your powder dry. wet behind the ears / not dry behind the ears / hardly dry behind the ears. You never miss the water till the well runs dry. be as dry as a bone to be a dry eye 1. All my workers quit and left me ............................ 2. Brian: Am I going to win my lawsuit? Roger: All you can do is ..................................... 3. ............................ your feet before you come in here! 4. He may be ............................, but he's well-trained and totally competent. 5. Her lecture was ............................ just like her subject. 6. I don't think he's been watering these plants - the soil's as ............................. 7. I told a joke that made Mr. Smith laugh very hard. It really ............................ him.

53

From Wheat to Pasta

8. The posse planned to ............................ the outlaw by waiting outside his favourite saloon. 9. If the doctor at the clinic can't ............. him ..............., no one can. 10. Helen: I never realized what a good friend Jeanie was until she moved away. Julia: .............................................. . 11. John is so arrogant. I'd really like to ................................ him! 12. John's too young to take on a job like this! He's still ..................................................! 13. Last time I was in a fight with Joe, he ............................ me. 14. Let's use some of this to try to that rash . . 15. Listening to you is .................................................. . 16. Liz came out of the argument .............................................. 17. Please .. your feet ..before coming in. 18. Repayments on the new furniture were me . 19. She began to talk about her son who had died and by the end of her speech there wasn't in the house. 20. The boss was really angry at John. He yelled at him and . him . 21. The bread is as .. . 22. The creeps tried to .. me .. . 54

From Wheat to Pasta

23. The . killed the crops. 24. Paying the bills always leaves me ........................................ 25. The hospital will .. Mary and start treatment. 26. The job put a lot of responsibility on someone who was still ., but he learned fast. 27. The outlaw . the traveller and took everything he had. 28. The stock market crash left us with debts of over 300 000. 29. This book is about as exciting .. . 30. This book is as... I am going to stop reading it. 31. The waters receded and left us .. . 32. This hot weather really . of me. 33. This medicine will your rash in a few days. 34. To me, watching golf on television is about as interesting as .. . 35. Is Paul going into business by himself? Why, he's hardly . 36. We ain't had such a long .. since 1988. 37. Mrs. Franklin took all the money out of the bank and left Mr. Franklin .

55

From Wheat to Pasta

38. We had better have a for the official ceremony tomorrow. 39. What a long day! It sure took the . 40. When he sang the beautiful old Austrian folksong, there wasn't a .. in the house. 41. When the leaves are , they break into powder easily. 42. David got a picture of Robin and Joan together and tried to .. both of them . by threatening to show it to their spouses. 43. All the children ran away and left Nick . to take the blame for the broken window. 44. Will the hair dryer .. this mess? 45. You do that again and I'll knock the . you. 3.6. Find the mistakes in the sentences below and correct them: Nothing says Italy like its food, and nothing says Italian food like pasta. Wherever Italians have immigrated they have brought their pasta and so today it is basically an international staple. Unlike other Italian foods like Piza and tomato sauce, which have a fairly recent hystory pasta may go back 56

From Wheat to Pasta

hunddreds if not thouzands of years.

It is said that the venetian merchant Marco Pollo brought back pasta from his journeys in Cina. Another version states that Polo discovery was actually a resdiscovery of a foodstuff that was once popular in Italy in etruscan and roman times. There is some evidence of an etrusco-roman noodle made from the same durum wheat as modern pasta called "lagane" (origin of the modern word for lasagna). However this food, first mentioned in the 1st century AD was not boiled like pasta, it was cooked in an oven. Therefore ancient lagane had some similarities, but cannot be considered pasta.

Like so much of southern Italian life, the Arab invasions of the 8th century influenced heavily the regionalle cuisine and is the most accepted theory for the introduction of pasta. The modern word "macarroni" derives from the Sicilian term for making dought forcefully, as early pasta making was often a laborious daylong processe. How it was served is not truly known but many Sicilian pasta recipes still include other Arabs

57

From Wheat to Pasta

gastronomic introductions such as raisins and spices like cinnamon. 3.7. Translate into English: 1145: apar primele paste Aceasta este data oficial de apari ie a pastelor. Geograful arab Al-Idrisi, n cartea sa intitulat "Pentru cei care au pasiunea de a calatori n jurul lumii", a observat c n Trabia, un ora la 30 de km deprtare de Palermo, un fel de mncare era preparat din gri n form de panglici, ce era exportat n Calabria i n multe ri musulmane i cretine. Astfel, Sicilia a fost locul unde s-a nregistrat pentru prima oar producerea de paste pentru uz privat dar i industrial. Pe 4 februarie 1279: "una bariscela plena de macaronis" Pastele au fost atestate oficial, pentru prima dat, ntr-un document italian medieval (dei o re et medical datat 1244 indic produc ia de paste n Liguria). Fcnd inventarul unei moteniri, notarul genovez Ugolino Scarpa include "una bariscela plena de macaronis" ("un castron plin cu macaroane"). Secolul 14: debutul literar Deja men ionate de ctre poe i i scriitori n secolul 13, de la Fra' Jacopone da Todi pn la Cecco Angiolieri, pastele au ob inut adevratul debut n lumea literar odat cu Decameronul (1348-1252) lui Giovanni Boccaccio. n descrierea inutului fabulos Bengodi fcut lui Calandrino, Maso spune c: "pe un munte, tot din parmezan, locuiete un popor care nu face altceva dect s gteasc macaroane i raviuoli". Secolele 16-17: crearea corpora iilor productorilor de paste Producerea diferitelor tipuri de paste ("fideli" n Liguria, "maccarune" n Napoli, "vermicelli" n Roma) a devenit o adevrat art ntre secolele 16 i 17. Astfel, pastele, considerate la nceput o delicates ocazional, au nceput s apar pe mesele tuturor, mncate cu mna, fr condimente sau doar cu brnz alb ("cacio"). 58 .

From Wheat to Pasta

3.8. Translate into Romanian: 1. Semolina is a yellow, granular flour that is ground from durum wheat. The word is derived from the Latin simila which means fine white flour. Semolina is made from the endosperm of the durum wheat seed. It has a high protein content. Although it can be used in a variety of baked goods, semolina mainly is used to make pasta. 2. The term macaroni (or in Italian maccheroni) is definitely from the Neapolitan dialect, and may be related to Mascherone, one of the oldest traditional characters of the Commedia dellArte; he wears a grotesque mask and is a great glutton. According to one theory the word is a pun: a Neapolitan prince with a fine palate encountered this form of pasta, with its hole in the middle, and thought it very good. On learning that the new pasta had to be made by a specialist paid according to his skill, he exclaimed, So good, but so expensive! (Si buoni, ma caroni!) The first production of pasta on any kind of industrial scale was indeed in Naples in the early fifteenth century. However, this pasta did not keep well, and it was not until 1800 that the process which would make it really dry was discovered. It involved natural drying alternately in hot and cold temperatures. Perfect conditions were found at Torre Annunziata, some kilometres south of Naples itself, where the climate changes four times a day, to a regular pattern. The macaroni of Torre Annunziata is the ne plus ultra of Italian pasta. However, the increasing popularity of dry pasta after the fourteenth century, rather than being attributable to any one Italian city, was because of progress in one form of the culinary art which had been practised on a domestic scale in the Mediterranean basin since ancient times, although there is a recent theory that it originated in the Baltic regions of Lithuania and Estonia in the first millennium BC, reached southern shores by the same route as 59

From Wheat to Pasta

amber, and gradually found its fullest expression there. In studying food, as in studying technology, it is often difficult to say precisely which elements were suggested by the particular needs of a period and which were the legacy of older practices, either native or imported. The great merit of pasta is that (at least in its simplest form) it is easily made; it also takes up little storage space, but swells when cooked. Cooking is simple too, since it does not need an oven like bread, only a large pot generally filled with water, although a few traditional methods call for cooking in oil. Pasta is a considerable improvement on gruel and porridge dishes, but there is no risk of its fermenting, which suggests that it derives from unleavened bread cakes, themselves a transformation of gruel, porridge or polenta dishes which did not require any raising agent.

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Unit 4

Types of Pasta
Pasta comes in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, developed in various parts of Italy to go with a myriad assortment of sauces. It can be short or long, handmade or factory made, stuffed or not, floating in broth or tossed with sauce. It may be made of durum wheat or soft-wheat flour with eggs or water. Dough, the raw material of both bread and noodles, is the first malleable material from which humans were able to make artificial food-stuffs, entirely distinct from the products of the natural environment. It was precisely this quality that so fascinated the Chinese. When the Chinese discovered wheat, several centuries before Christ, its potential quickly became apparent: when mixed with water, it produced a material that was as malleable as clay. The Chinese developed what became a fullfledged civilization of fresh pasta, the underlying model of which remained for many centuries the use of wheat flour in the preparation of products with a specific shape: pasta products, breads, and flatbreads. Observant from the earliest times of the specific physical and chemical nature of foodstuffs, especially cereal flours and starches, the Chinese became masters at transforming a great variety of starchy species of plants into pasta products. At the same time, they learned to make every possible use of soft wheat flour. They quickly understood that the component parts of soft wheat flour starch and gluten had sharply differing properties and could be put to exceedingly interesting uses.

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Dried pasta is readily available in many sizes and shapes. Nowadays, it is factory made and fully dried before it is packaged. Dried pasta is most often made with just semolina flour, water and salt, but it is also available made from other types of flour and seasoning. It rarely contains eggs so it can be stored indefinitely without refrigerating or freezing. The firmness of dried pasta allows it to be stored easily without damage. Dried pasta requires a longer cooking time than fresh pasta and will swell a considerable amount when cooked. When the same amounts of dried and fresh pasta are cooked, the dried pasta will produce approximately 60% more than the fresh pasta. As concerns their history, while the earliest Italian recipes for dried pasta, such as fermicelli tell nothing about their nature, Andalusian-Arabic culinary literature leaves no doubt at all that these pasta shapes were small string-like or grain-like pasta shapes that were dried after being made and that therefore they were a preserved product, ready to cook. This is confirmed by the data on trade in the Mediterranean in the fourteenth century, though it could have been guessed at from numerous mentions made by the twelfth-century Arab geographer Idrisi concerning the specialized production of itriyya in Trebbia, Sicily, destined for sale throughout the Mediterranean basin. The Arabic culinary texts show that this type of pasta constituted a staple foodstuff found in every kitchen and notes that if it happened that one could not find itriyya, one could easily make it on ones own, by kneading some semolina and some flour with some water and a pinch of salt into a dough. Thus, in contrast with lasagne, which were consumed immediately after they were made, vermicelli, which were generally subjected to a drying process, could be preserved at length, and their consumption could be deferred for some time. Only a well-dried product that could withstand transport undamaged could become the stuff of long-distance trade. It was 62

Types of Pasta

therefore as a commercial product that vermicelli slowly made their way into culinary tradition. The earliest Italian recipes of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries describe how they were made with some precision, stipulating that they had to be exposed to sunlight in order to dry them and to give them the qualities needed for long-term preservation. Generally, regardless the class, people preferred to make their own pasta and then dry it for later use rather than purchase it. Practices as this might explain why mentions of vermicelli are so rare in treatises dating back to before the fifteen century. These texts were produced in aristocratic and court circles, and they described only the noblest and most sophisticated activities of the master chefs. It seems that dried pasta, the kinds made with durum wheat, is found in Italy from about A.D. 800. It was, in fact, the Muslim occupiers of Sicily who spread the manufacturing and drying technique. By the twelfth century, pasta produced in Sicily and Sardinia was being exported to mainland Italian territory and northern Europe, where it was marketed by the powerful maritime republics of Genoa and Pisa. Documents exist to prove this, should there be anyone left who still believes that Marco Polo introduced noodles into Italy in 1296 on his return to Venice from China. In reality, by that time, people throughout Italy had been eating pasta for at least a century. Marco Polo does relate an encounter with the Chinese noodle and uses the word pasta to describe it, clearly being familiar with both term and concept. Fresh pasta is available in a variety of sizes and shapes but not to the extent of dried pasta. It is, however, available in a greater variety of flavours. Fresh pasta most often contains eggs and has high water content, making it necessary to refrigerate or freeze the pasta to keep it from spoiling. The eggs in the pasta brighten its colour, add flavour, and give the pasta more nutritional value. Fresh pasta is made daily in Italian specialty 63

Types of Pasta

stores and is found commercially in food stores both refrigerated and frozen. Fresh pasta's softer texture goes well with lighter sauces, such as tomato sauces, cream sauces and simple sauces made from oil or butter that is flavoured with herbs. In general, the type of pasta used is dependent on the sauce. Thicker sauces go better with shaped pasta, because the pasta will be able to hold and carry the sauce more effectively. Thinner sauces, on the other hand, go better with small, delicate pasta in strips like thin egg noodles. Bow Ties, Farfalle brighten any meal with their interesting shape. Thick enough for a variety of sauces, or a perfect addition to a number of salad or soup recipes. Farfalle dates back to the 1500s. It originated in Northern Italy. Fusilli (Twisted Spaghetti) This long, spiralled shape can be topped with any sauce, broken in half and added to soups, or turned into a beautiful salad. Fusilli also bake well in oven. Gemelli, meaning twins, are simply short strands of round pasta that are twisted together. They are very versatile because they hold the sauce while retaining an al dente texture. Gemelli pairs nicely with meat, cream, seafood and vegetable sauces.

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Types of Pasta

Seashells (Conchiglie) are the best when they are stuffed with mixtures of cheese, meat and vegetables. Lasagna (From lasanum, Latin for pot) can be used with chopped vegetables, cheeses and any kind of sauce. Orecchiette (Little Ears) are commonly served with thick, chunky sauces or in pasta salads. They are native to the South of Italy. Maccheroni are tube-shaped semolina-and-water pasta without eggs. Among the bestknown tube shapes are: elbow (a short, curved tube), ditalini (tiny, very short tubes), mostaccioli (large, 2-inch-long tubes cut on the diagonal, with a ridged or plain surface), penne (large tubes), rigatoni (short, grooved straight tubes cut on the diagonal) and ziti (long, thin tubes). Most maccheroni almost double in size during cooking.

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Types of Pasta

Ravioli square round pillows of pasta that have a filling consisting of ingredients such as cheese, meats, vegetables and seasonings. Ravioli can be served with a red sauce, butter, oil or cream. Rotelle (Little Wheels) -The cartwheel is not a classic Italian shape, but due to the variety of colour and entertaining shape they are crowd favourite. Because the spokes of the wheels are good for capturing flavour, these shapes are easy to pair with meat, cream, seafood or vegetable sauces. Tortellini is a ring-shaped pasta typically stuffed with meat, cheese or vegetables. Tortellini is commonly served in a broth or cream sauce. Spaghetti are the perfect choice for nearly any sauce, or they can be baked or used at stir-fry dishes.

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1. Vocabulary
broth = sup chunky = ndesat, dens defer, to = a mnca (pn la); a amna, a ntrzia (s) full-fledged = (pe deplin) dezvoltat, matur; cu drepturi depline grooved = canelat, striat, zim uit, brzdat knead, to = a frmnta aluat myriad = nenumrat; (fig) mii i mii noodles = fidea, ti ei semolina = gri; semolina meal = fin griat spoke = spi de roat starch = amidon strand = fir, fibr, uvi versatile = adaptabil, multilateral
Phrasal verbs, expressions and proverbs

high and dry = lsat n aer/ pom to keep ones powder dry = a-i lua msuri de precau ie (not) to be even dry behing the ears = a fi o persoan (ne)experimentat dry as a bone = foarte uscat dry up = a se termina, a se usca as dry as dust = plictisitor la culme to have a dry stitch on = a fi ud leoarc Dry bread at home is better than roast meat abroad. = Fie pinea ct de rea, tot mai bine-n ara mea. cream off = a lua caimacul de pe ceva, a lua partea cea mai bun a unui lucru Spare the rod and spoil the child = Copilul nepedepsit ajunge nepricopsit. Too many cooks spoil the broth = Unde-s nou fete moare pisica de sete. Be as fresh as a daisy = a fi foarte energic 67

Types of Pasta

to square away = a pune n ordine

2. Comprehension
2.1. Answer the following questions: 1. How is dried pasta obtained? ............................................................................................. 2. What does the type of sauce used in pasta cooking depend on? ............................................................................................. 3. What types of pasta can be eaten with seafood? And which are not eaten with chunky sauces? ............................................................................................. 4. When did Marco Polo bring noodles to Italy? ............................................................................................. 5. Classify the types of pasta presented according to their form and content. ............................................................................................. 6. When did the Chinese discover wheat? ............................................................................................. 7. When were vermicelli first mentioned and why? ............................................................................................. 8. Which are the component parts of soft wheat flour? 68

Types of Pasta

............................................................................................. 9. Which are the ingredients for dried pasta? ............................................................................................. 10. What is the role of eggs in fresh pasta? ............................................................................................. 2.2. Mark with true (T) or false (F) the next statements: T/ F 1. Fresh pasta most often contains eggs and has high water content. 2. Andalusian-Arabic culinary literature leaves doubt that vermicelli were small string-like or grainlike pasta shapes. 3. Few maccheroni do not double in size during cooking. 4. It seems that durum wheat began to be cultivated in Italy from about A.D. 800. 5. Lasagne were consumed immediately after they were made. 6. Nowadays, dried pasta is factory made and fully dried before it is packaged. 7. Observant from the earliest times of the specific psychic and chemical nature of foodstuffs, the Chinese became masters at transforming starchy species of plants into pasta products. 8. Orecchiette are native to the North of Italy. 9. People preferred to make their own pasta and then dry it for later use rather than purchase it. 10. The firmness of dried pasta allows it to be stored easily without damage. 11. Thicker sauces go better with small, delicate 69 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

Types of Pasta

pasta. 12. When the same amounts of dried and fresh pasta are cooked, the fresh pasta will produce approximately 60% more than the dried pasta.

........

2.3. Discover the types of pasta that have already been presented in the text and name them.

3. Practice
3.1. Give the synonyms of the words below: myriad fresh chunky 70

Types of Pasta

chop delicate regardless readily 3.2. Give the antonyms of the words below: malleable expert to guess to spoil tiny 3.3. Match the words with their definitions bellow: seasoning myriad broth stuff sauce a. a composition of condiments eaten with food as a dressing b. a very great or indefinitely great number of persons or things. c. salt or herb, spice, or the like, for heightening or improving the flavour of food. d. the fundamental material of which anything is made up. e. water that has been boiled with meat, fish, vegetables, or barley.

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3.4. Identify the following types of pasta (look at page 99.): fettuccine Derived from the old Italian word fettucce (string), fettuccine refers to flat pasta sheets cut into ribbonlike strands. Fettuccine is wider than linguine. cappelletti - similar to, but smaller than tortellini. Originating from the Emilia Romagna region of Italy, cappelletti - or little hats in Italian - are often served with broth. corzetti Originating from Liguria, the much overlooked and beautiful coastal region of North West Italy, corzetti are a flat circular pasta stamped to resemble ancient coins. garganelli are penne-like pasta shapes, however they are rougher looking. They almost resemble homemade penne; created by folding and sticking together pasta rectangles. linguine refers to long flat strips of pasta. mezzalune In Italian this means half moons. A semi-circular type of stuffed pasta. radiatore Literally translates as radiators, so radiatore are small squares of pasta (not stuffed) that display ridges radiating outwards. tagliatelle Classic thin egg noodles, originating from the Emilia Romagna region. bucatini This pasta name comes from buco, which means hole in Italian, because bucatini is like a hollow version of spaghetti cannelloni (literally large reeds) are rectangle-shapes of flat pasta dough that are filled - with spinach and ricotta for example - and then rolled into large tube shapes. 3.5. Fill in each blank with the appropriate word of the family words of nutrient: 1. A healthy diet should provide all your essential ................. . 2. Good ................. is essential if patients are to make a quick recovery. 72

Types of Pasta

3. Chemical sweeteners have no ................. value. 4. Raw spinach is especially ................. . 5. The doctor advised him to see a ................. about his diet. 6. She's a professor of ................. at Columbia University. 7. Nuts and fruit make ................. snacks. 8. The plant absorbs ................. from the soil. 9. Cooking vegetables for too long lessens their ................. value. 10. For optimally healthy skin, it is important to eat ................., drink plenty of fluids and avoid smoking. 11. Products of Hammer Nutrition make to optimise the ................. support that the body asks. 12. In a diet it is highly important to select a ................. valuable food for consumption. 3.6. The word in capital letters at the end of each of the sentences can be changed in such a way that it forms a word that fits suitably in the blank space. Fill each blank in this way: 1. He was clever, handsome and ................. rich. EXCEED 2. Fresh orange juice should be ................. after opening and drunk within three days. FRIDGE 3. George has already spent ................. time in Romania. CONSIDER 4. Increased population has ................. the landscape. FORM 73

Types of Pasta

5. A 14th century ................. stated that pasta were traded in the Mediterranean basin. GEOGRAPHY 6. The hospital is unable to provide the highly ................. care needed by very sick babies. SPECIAL 7. The Government wants to reduce tobacco ................. by 40%. CONSUME 8. A large proportion of ................. now own their homes. OCCUPY 9. The project is no longer ................. viable. COMMERCE 10. Pasta does not have its origin in the ................. Europe. NORTH 3.7. Use the following phrasal verbs in the sentences below: as dry as a bone dry up to be even dry behind the ears to cream off spare the rod and spoil the child too many cooks spoil the broth. be as fresh as a daisy to square away 1. Adult responsibilities were forced on him, although he was . 2. After a good night's sleep I'll be .

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Types of Pasta

3. His main source of work had , leaving him short of money. 4. I don't think he's been watering these plants - the soil is .. . 5. I want to .. the work before going on vacation. 6. She lets Richard get away with anything, you know ... 7. They had a plan to .. the brightest children and put them in separate schools. 8. Without a conductor, every player had an idea for how the music should go........... . 3.8. Find the mistakes in the sentences below and correct them: The more modern history of spaghetti has ....................... direct tyes to Italy. The climate of the country is ....................... well suited for growing the durum wheat wich ....................... provides the semolina necessar for good ....................... spaghetti so no matter how it originaly, you can ....................... be sure the food has been widely used ....................... throughout the area for centurys. ....................... It may well have been the Italians who ....................... originated eating spaghetti the way we know it ....................... today and thus played a vital role in the history ....................... of spaghetti. The tomatos was introduced to the ....................... 75

Types of Pasta

old world hundreds of years after pasta was. It ....................... didn't take long to discover that this was a match ....................... made in heaven and the first nown record of a ....................... recipe that combines tomatoes and pasta was ....................... writen in 1839 by the Duke of Buonvicino. According to sixteenth-century ....................... italian .......................

historians, we owe pasta stuffed with chopped ....................... meat or herbes, cheese or even fish to a peasant ....................... women of Cernuseo called Libista. ....................... The ravioli of fourteenth-century cooker ....................... books wear usually deep-fried, like fritters. The ....................... Libra de arte coquinaria of Maestro Martino, a ....................... native of Como and chef to the Patriarch of ....................... Acjuileia in Rome aroumd 1450, gives directions ....................... for cooking them in meat broth. ....................... But in its early day ravioli generally meant ....................... a stufing made of meat, cheese, eggs and herbs ....................... wrapped in dough, a dish like modern canneloni. ....................... Ravioli were ate at banquets too, and were ....................... clearly very popular in Prato. They were not ....................... served alone, but as a garnish to a torta maked of ....................... several layers of pastry filled with chicken fryed ....................... in oil, garlic sausage, ravioli stuffed with ham, ....................... 76

Types of Pasta

almonds and: dates. A pastry lid covert the ....................... whole torta, and it was cooked in the embers. ....................... Apart from pastas which are national ....................... specialitys of other countries, most pasta still ....................... goes under Italian names. There are inumerable ....................... kinds, fresh or dried. All comercial pasta is made ....................... mechanically, and so indeed is home-made pasta ....................... now days; even Italian housewife has her pasta- ....................... making machine, worked by turning a handle, ....................... and such machines are know easily obtainable ....................... outside Italy. Only a purist still cuts up the pale ....................... yellow dough into ribbons with a wife, in the ....................... way commemorated by the name of tagliatelle ....................... (from the verb tagliare, to cut down). The ....................... commercially made dough is now past through a ....................... grid with holes allowing it to come out in all ....................... kinds of difference shapes. 3.9. Translate into English: La fabricarea pastelor finoase se folosete fina ob inut prin mcinarea grului dur. Acesta se amesteca cu apa, cu sau fr alte materiale de adaos, realiznd un aluat care este modelat n diferite forme prin presare, apoi produsul modelat este uscat i ambalat. .......................

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Valoarea alimentar a pastelor finoase este foarte ridicat, aceasta avnd componen i chimici cu grad mare de asimilare. Fina griat folosit se ob ine din gru sticlos (cu sticlozitatea apropiat de 100%), tare, cu bobul mare i plin, cu mas hectolitric mare i cu un con inut de gluten mediu mai mare de 35%. Cernerea se execut att pentru fina griat, ct i pentru gri, pe site corespunztoare. Amestecarea finii griate i a griului se execut timp de 30 minute ntr-un rezervor dimensionat corespunztor n func ie de mrimea instala iei de fabricare a pastelor finoase. In unit ile mici opera iile de preparare, frmntare i modelare a aluatului se execut separat folosind cuve de amestecare, malaxoare de frmntare, respectiv prese cu melc. n unit ile mari, opera iile de mai sus se execut n agregate cu func ionalitate automat cu productivit i ce variaz de la 50 la 600kg/h. Aluatul din care sunt modelate pastele finoase este tare (adaosul de ap este de maximum 35%). Preuscarea se realizeaz pe benzi transportoare gurite care sunt vibrate n timpul micrii, n contracurent cu aerul cald la temperatura de 40C. Uscarea se realizeaz n aceleai condi ii pn la ob inerea unei umidit i de 11-13% pentru paste finoase. Sortimentul de paste finoase se diversific permanent n func ie de cerin ele consumatorilor. n general se deosebesc urmtoarele grupe mari de paste finoase: Paste finoase lungi a cror lungime depete de 10-15 ori l imea sau diametrul produsului. Se produc sub form de macaroane cu sec iune circular, cu sec iune refulat la exterior, benzi de aluat de diferite sec iuni, spaghete sub form de fire cu sec iune oval sau circular. 78

Types of Pasta

Paste finoase mpletite; fidea din fire circulare cu diametrul de 0,8-1,5 mm, ti ei nguti de 2-4 mm i la i de 5-12 mm. Paste finoase sub form de figurine cu l imea i lungimea de maximum 12 mm. 3.10. Translate into Romanian:

Spaghetti code is a derogatory term for computer programming that is unnecessarily convoluted, and particularly programming code that uses frequent branching from one section of code to another. Spaghetti code sometimes exists as the result of older code being modified a number of times over the years. Another part of the spaghetti analogy is the way that making a change to one part of the code can have unpredictable effects on the rest of the program, just as pulling on one strand of spaghetti can affect other strands of spaghetti in ways that are not foreseeable. Techniques such as data hiding are often used to prevent similar problems in coding. Ravioli code is a type of computer program structure, characterized by a number of small and (ideally) loosely-coupled software components. The term makes a connection between program structure and pasta; ravioli (small pasta pouches containing cheese, meat, or vegetables) are analogous to objects (which ideally are encapsulated modules consisting of both code and data). Lasagna code is a type of program structure, characterized by several well-defined and separable layers, where each layer of code accesses services in the layers below through well-defined interfaces. The term spaghetti with meatballs is a pejorative term used in computer science to describe loosely constructed objectoriented programming (OOP) that remains dependent on procedural code. It may be the result of a system whose 79

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development has transitioned over a long life-cycle, language constraints, micro-optimization theatre, or a lack of coherent coding standards. What is semolina? Semolina is a yellow, granular flour that is ground from durum wheat. The word is derived from the Latin simila which means fine white flour. Semolina is made from the endosperm of the durum wheat seed. It has a high protein content. Although it can be used in a variety of baked goods, semolina mainly is used to make pasta.

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Unit 5

Pastry Products
The term baked products is applied to a wide range of food products, including breads, cakes, pastries, cookies and crackers and many other products, and it can be difficult to identify a common thread linking the members of such diverse group. The most commonly-identified link is that they all use recipes that are based on wheat flour. This definition, though, would need to be expanded to include baked goods such as gluten-free products, used by people with coeliac digestive disorders, or rye bread, which contain no cereal-based material at all, let alone wheat flour, their main components being sugar and egg white. Unlike botany or zoology, there has never been an attempt to develop a specific taxonomy of baked products. In part this may be because of the long, local traditions associated with the manufacture of baked products and therefore the difficulties associated with translation from one tongue to another of the terms and descriptors used for the products and their associated baking processes. To some extent, this nomenclature problem has persisted to the present day. For example, in English the term biscuit is commonly used for describing a low moisture, hard-eating, sweetened, thin product with a long shelf-life, that is eaten as a snack. In the USA, however, it commonly refers to a sweetened product of intermediate moisture, commonly eaten at breakfast along with savoury foods. The UK biscuit is closer to the US cookie, while the US biscuit is closer to a UK scone. To increase the confusion, the French biskuit refers to a low-moisture, dry81

Pastry Products

eating, long-shelf-life, sponge-type cake with an aerated structure. The closest UK product to the French biskuit is indeed a sponge cake, though with higher moisture content. Characteristics of sponges and cakes Cakes owe their popularity not only to their richness and sweetness, but also to their versatility. Cakes can be presented in many forms, from simple sheet cakes in cafeterias to elaborately decorated works of art for weddings and other important occasions. Many types of cakes are made by hand at home or on a commercial scale (e.g. sponge goods, Swiss roll, fruitcakes and cup cakes). Cakes are often classified into three categories, batter type, foam type and chiffon type, based on their formulations and mixing methods. Foam cake, featuring a large quantity of foam, results from a light, airy batter that produces a baked cake with a somewhat coarse texture with moderately large cells. Chiffon cake is a combination of batter and foam types; it includes oil and egg yolk as liquid ingredients, an egg white foam, baking powder, sugar and cake flour. Sponges and cakes represent a more diverse group of products than bread and other fermented products. They do, however, have some unifying characteristics which distinguish them from other baked products. They may be classified as intermediate-moisture foods though the total moisture content is lower by some 10-20% of that of bread. Cakes do have a crust though it is somewhat thinner than the average crust on breads. Cake crust does have a lower moisture content than cake crumb but equilibration of crust and crumb tends to be more rapid than may be seen with breads. A hard, dry, crisp crust is not normally considered to be a desirable characteristic of cakes. The crust colour tends to be more variable than that of bread because of the ingredient influences, but commonly it falls in the yellow-brown regions of the colour spectrum.

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The cellular structure of cakes tends to be less well defined than that of bread. However, there is considerable variation, with sponge cakes having a comparatively well-defined cell structure. There is also a wide variation in the density of cake products, though in the main, densities of cake products are greater than that of breads. The aeration of sponges and cakes comes from the use of baking powder rather than through the yeast-based aeration which is used in bread production. The lack of any significant gluten development in cake batters and the major impact of ingredients such as sugar determine that cakes have soft and friable eating qualities. There is little resilience in the cake crumb and so they are not considered to have a chewy character. Both moisture and product density have major impacts on cake eating quality. Lower moisture contents yield firm, dry-eating products while more dense cake products tend towards pasty eating characteristics. The flavours of sponges and cakes are determined entirely by the choice of ingredients and the recipe used. Dominant flavours tend to come from the sugars in plain cakes, through the addition of fruit and nuts in fruit cakes, the addition of cocoa solids in chocolate cakes and the addition of ground almonds in almond cakes and so on. Characteristics of biscuits, crackers and cookies In general, crackers contain little or no sugar and moderate levels of fat. Cracker dough, a hard dough, generally contains low levels of water, so baking proceeds quickly. Both yeast-fermented and chemically leavened varieties are common. There are three major types of crackers: saltines (fermented), snack crackers (chemically leavened) and savoury crackers. The word cookie is defined as a small cake. In fact, some cookies are made from cake batter. Cookie doughs range from soft to very stiff, unlike the thinner batters used for cakes.

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Generally, cookies are produced using soft wheat flour that have relatively weak gluten strength (e.g., pastry flour, a blend of soft red and soft white wheat). The cookies usually have high fat and sugar contents and a low moisture content. Scones are a common type of quick-bread prepared in the kitchens and retail bakeries of the UK. They are usually made from a considerably richer dough than that used for baking powder biscuits, and they sometimes include currants. There are many significant differences between biscuits, cookies and crackers and other classes of baked products. First, and perhaps most obvious, is their size and weight. Most products in this group will weigh considerably less than 100 g and typically the unit weight is only 15-16 g. Biscuits and cookies are thin, usually less than 10 mm thick, and commonly round or rectangular in shape. The moisture content of biscuit products is very low, typically under 5%. The low moisture content, coupled with the thinness of the products, gives them a crisp, hard eating character, which means that they have long mould-free shelf-lives, typically many months. Organoleptic shelf-life is also very long since the product staling and moisture loss are not usually a problem. However, there are potential problem areas. One problem is the potential to absorb moisture from the surrounding atmosphere, which can lead to softening of products and loss of crisp eating characteristics. The second is the risk of fat rancidity arising from the combination of long storage time with low water activity. As is the case with cakes, the flavouring of biscuits is dominated by the ingredients and recipe used. There is some contribution from the baking process. There is no significant crust formation, though there may still be a small moisture gradient within the thickness of the products. Biscuits and cookies are much denser than breads or cakes, mainly because there is limited gluten development and no significant foam formation during mixing and, in turn, limited development of a sponge structure during baking of the products. 84

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The range of products encompassed in this group is considerable, at both local and regional levels. Indeed so wide is the product variation that it is sometimes difficult to consider this to be a single group. However, it can be argued that the products are unified by the characteristics described above and only separated by the technologies and engineering used to their manufacture. For example, while mixing is common to all biscuit types, the methods of forming the individual units vary from sheeting (semi-sweet), to moulding (short dough), extrusion (rout pressing), sheeting and lamination (crackers) and even depositing (wafers). Characteristics of pastry Few pastry products are eaten alone, that is without some filling or topping, or both. Pastries are a versatile medium which could be considered edible packaging, as in meat pies. While the fillings may have a wide range of textures, moisture contents and water activities, the pastry employed tends to be relatively uniform in character, with a moisture content above that of biscuits but below that of cake. The typical moisture content of pastries tends to confer a firm and relatively crisp eating character to the product when freshly baked. Since the water activities of pastries are commonly below that of the fillings used in them, water readily moves from the filling to the pastry with the result that the pastry softens and loses its crispness. The shelf-life of the pastry can be quite long but the migration of moisture from the filling to paste reduces this considerably so that typical shelf-lives will range from a few days for meat-containing pastries to a few weeks for pastries with sweet fillings. There is a very wide range to the shapes and uses of pastry products with many local and regional variations. However, in general pastry products are relatively thin, ranging from a few mm up to 20 mm. Pastry flavours tend to be relatively subtle, since the

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fillings are more highly flavoured. A light, golden brown characterises the colour of most pastry products. Rolled-in doughs or laminated doughs are those in which a fat is incorporated into the dough in many layers by using a rolling and folding procedure. The alternating layers of fat and dough give the baked product a flaky texture. Laminated doughs vary in sugar content from about 4% for some croissant doughs to 15% or more for some Danish doughs. However, most of the sweetness of laminated yeast dough products comes from the fillings and toppings. Croissant and Danish doughs are the main laminated yeast dough products. In general, Danish dough products contain eggs, while croissants do not, although there are exceptions to this rule. Strudels are made by wrapping fillings in many layers of very thin dough. The dough usually is made up of flour, egg, water, salt, and oil. There is no leavening and the method of preparation discourages incorporation of bubbles. Home methods of preparation, which involve hand stretching of the dough while brushing it with oil, are time consuming and tedious. Commercial methods have been developed to prepare strudel dough leaves that are distributed in frozen form. Fillo (phyllo) dough is the basis for several kinds of Greek pastry, including baklava and some savoury dishes.

1. Vocabulary
batter = aluat, past chiffon = (despre prjituri) afnat, pufos crackers = biscui i, usc ele crisp = (prjituri) crocant; a (se) rumeni crumb = miez de pine, firmitur currant = stafid neagr descriptor = termen/cuvnt/fraz utilizat() la identificarea unei concep ii sau idei 86

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flaky = ca un fulg, pufos foam = material spumos sau spongios gradient = gradient (mrime care indic varia ia presiunii barometrice sau a temperaturii n anumite condi ii) manufacture = fabricare, prelucrare, producere mould = mucegai; a lua form, a modela resilience = elasticitate sponge cake = prjitur-biscuit, pandipan stale = (pine) uscat, rece, vechi, rnced tedious = obositor, greu, anost to argue = a dovedi, a demonstra to encompass = a nconjura, a con ine versatility = character multilateral, suple e, elasticitate yield = a aduce un beneficiu, a produce; recolt
Expressions and proverbs

That's the way the cookie crumbles. = something that you say which means that bad things sometimes happen and there is nothing you can do to prevent it, so it is not worth becoming upset about it a smart cookie (American) = someone who is clever and good at dealing with difficult situations cake someone or something with something = to cover someone or something with a thicker layer of clumps of a substance such as mud, dirt, blood, etc. have one's cake and eat it too =Clich to have in one's possession something and be able to use or exploit it; to have it both ways. (Usually stated in the negative.) Let them eat cake. = Prov. A joking disclaimer of responsibility for some group of people. (Supposed to have been said by Marie Antoinette when she heard that the common people had no bread.) piece of cake = Fig. something easy to do. sell like hotcakes = Fig. [for something] to be sold very fast. slice of the cake = a share of something. 87

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2. Comprehension
2.1. Answer the following questions: 1. What types of products are included in the term baked products? ............................................................................................. 2. How should the crust of the cakes be? ............................................................................................. 3. How many types of crackers are there? ............................................................................................. 4. Which is the sugar content in laminated products? ............................................................................................. 5. What are scones? ............................................................................................. 6. What does the word biscuit mean in American English? ............................................................................................. 7. Which are the representatives of laminated doughs? ............................................................................................. 8. How thin are the biscuits? .............................................................................................

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9. Which pastry products can be classified as intermediatemoisture foods? ............................................................................................. 10. What is phyllo? ............................................................................................. 11. Which are the differences between biscuits, cookies, crackers and other classes of baked products? ............................................................................................. 12. What has a major impact on the cake quality? ............................................................................................. 2.2. Mark with true (T) or false (F) the next statements: T/ F 1.A hard, dry, crisp crust is automatically considered to be a desirable characteristic of cakes. 2.Biscuits and cookies are much denser than breads or cakes. 3.Cakes are often classified into three categories, batter type, foam type and chiffon type. 4.Chiffon cookie is a combination of batter and foam types 5.. Fillo dough is the basis for several kinds of Greek pastry. 6.English biskuit refers to a low-moisture, dryeating, long-shelf-life, sponge-type cake with an aerated structure. 7.In US the term biscuit is commonly used for describing a low moisture, hard-eating, sweetened, 89 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

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thin product with a long shelf-life, that is eaten as a snack. 8. Laminated doughs vary in flour content from about 4% for some Danish doughs to 15% or more for some croissant doughs. 9. Pastries are a versatile medium which could be considered edible packaging, as in meat pies. 10. Pastry flavours tend to be relatively subtle, since the fillings are more highly flavoured. 11. Scones are a common type of quick-bread prepared in the kitchens and wholesale bakeries of the UK. 12. The water activities of pastries are generally below that of the fillings used in them, and as a consequence, water moves from the filling to the pastry which loses its crispness. 13. Cake batter is also used in cookies. 14. The common ingredients of strudel dough are flour, egg, water, salt, and oil. 15. The aeration of sponges and cakes comes from the use of yeast-based aeration. 16. The flavours of sponges and cakes are undoubtedly determined by the choice of ingredients and the recipe used. 17. The moisture content of cracker products is very low, typically under 5%. 18. There has always been an attempt to develop a specific taxonomy of baked products.

........ ........ ........ ........

........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

2.3. Find in the text the derivates of the word air.

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3. Practice
3.1. Give the synonyms of the words: bakery savoury moisture to absorb to blend considerable texture tedious 3.2. Give the antonyms of the words below: retail popular tedious unify stiff proceed savoury addition

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3.3. Match the words with their definitions bellow: batter cake scone cracker cookie pastry croissant wafer waffle 1. a crisp golden-brown pancake with deep indentations on both sides 2. a dough of flour, fat, and water, used as a base and covering in baked dishes such as pies. 3. a French crescent-shaped roll made of sweet flaky yeast dough, eaten for breakfast. 4. a semi-liquid mixture of flour, egg, and milk or water, used for making pancakes or for coating food before frying 5. a small unsweetened or lightly sweetened British cake made from flour, fat, and milk and sometimes having added fruit. 6. a thin dry biscuit, typically eaten with cheese. 7. a thin, light , crisp biscuit, especially one of a kind eaten with ice cream. 8. an item of soft sweet food made from a mixture of flour, fat, eggs, sugar, and other ingredients, baked and sometimes iced or decorated 9. North American a sweet biscuit

3.4. The word in capital letters at the end of each of the sentences can be changed in such a way that it forms a word that fits suitably in the blank space. Fill each blank in this way: 1. The new offices are light and . AIR 2. The boy and his mother saw the cat creep into the door of the . BAKE 92

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3. When I entered the house, I heard my friend's laugh CHARACTER 4. Both the models benefit from temperature , with the operating temperature range being 15 to 50C. EQUILIBRIUM 5. Reducing class sizes in schools is a aim. DESIRE 6. The meat was tasteless and . CHEW 7. Daniel bought a large pack of chocolate-chip COOK 8. are a popular choice for snacks and used in soup. CRACK 9. We were offered a selection of cakes and with our tea. PASTE 10. The students performed the regular of organic material into garden soil. INCORPORATE 3.5. Use the following phrasal verbs in the sentences below: That's the way the cookie crumbles. a smart cookie cake someone or something with something have one's cake and eat it too Let them eat cake. piece of cake sell like hotcakes slice of the cake

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1. All the motocross racers were heavily .. mud. 2. Don't buy a car if you want to walk and stay healthy. You can't ... . 3. Fred: The budget will allow each one of our managers to get a substantial holiday bonus. Jane: And what about the rest of the employees? Fred: ... . 4. Glad to help. It was ... . 5. He was delighted to have his story published getting paid for it was just ... . 6. He wasnt expecting to lose his job, but thats ... these days for so many folk. 7. I never said that training him would be . 8. Fred: I want to lose weight, but I'm not willing to change the way I eat. Alan: You can't ... . 9. I tried to buy a copy of the report, but there werent any left it had been ... , and now the shops are waiting for the reprint. 10. I was just content to see my daughter in such a stable relationship but a grandchild, that was really the ... . 11. I worked at home so I could raise my family and still earn money. It let me ... .

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12. I can't believe they chose Sam for the job and not me. Ah well, ... . 13. I wouldnt say building my own house has been exactly ... , but the jobs done now. 14. If anyone can make this company succeed, it's Kathy - she's ... . 15. Jill: There's an apartment across the street from me, much bigger and prettier than mine, and it even costs less. I'd really like to rent itbut I don't want to go to the trouble of moving. Jane: You ... . 16. Most parents know that dealing with a sick child makes everything else look like ... . 17. If anyone can make this company succeed, it's Kathy - she's ... . 18. Most people are quite happy to have a job so Id say that to actually enjoy your job is ... . 19. No problem. When you know what you're doing, it's ... . 20. She herself ... green mud to remove her wrinkles. 21. Since word got out about the Perry case, the book has been ... . 95

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22. That book ..., and had to be reprinted several times on publication. 23. Our team is strong, but it won't be ... to make it to the finals. 24. The attendant her ... hot mud at the beginning of the arthritis treatment. 25. The book has only just been published and copies are already ... in both Britain and America. 26. The company makes huge profits and the workers want ... . 27. The delicious candy sold ... . 28. .The government has less money to spend on education this year, so primary schools will get a smaller ... than last year. 29. Rescuing frightened cats is my specialty. ! 30. The fancy new cars were selling ... . 31. There's not much work around and so everyone must be content with a ... . 32. Tom wants to ... . It can't be done. 33. You have not received a fair the education ... . 34. You can't ... . If you want better local services, you have to pay more tax. 96

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3.6. Fill in each blank with the appropriate word of the family words of to bake: a) She used . to make the cake rise and have a good taste. b) We strolled along the sun-.. streets of Naples. c) How long has the cake been .. ? d) Blind baking is another word for , and it refers to a pie or tart crust that you partially or completely bake before it is filled. e) Cookware and . are types of food preparation containers commonly found in the kitchen. f) I made a large loaf of bread, and it is perfect except for some of the centre that is still a little raw. How can I it? g) My sister, Gwen, makes this wonderful blueberry pie every summer. This pie leaves most of the blueberries . . h) A person whose job is to make bread and cakes for sale is a . i) A . is an establishment which produces and sells .. goods from an oven. 3.7. Translate into English: 1. Produsele de patiserie sunt foarte variate, toate caracterizndu-se prin valoare alimentar ridicat. Sortimentul produselor de patiserie cuprinde vafele simple sau umplute, turta dulce, grisinele, bezelele, picoturile. 97

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Vafele sunt produse care se prezint sub form de foi sub iri, phrele, coule e i alte formate, preparate din aluat fluid i coapte n forme speciale. Vafele sub form de foi sub iri sunt folosite la fabricarea napolitanelor, vafele sub form de phrele sunt umplute cu nghe at, iar vafele sub form de coule e la realizarea tartinelor etc. Materiile prime necesare fabricrii vafelor sunt: fina alb de gru, apa, sarea i bicarbonatul de sodium. Din punct de vedere tehnologic, fabricarea vafelor este simpl i fazele de produc ie se succed ntr-un timp relativ scurt. Grisinele sunt produse care se fabric din fin, sare i afnatori, n form de batoane sub iri, foarte bine afnate, spongioase i crocante. Datorit con inutului redus de umiditate i a materialelor folosite pentru ambalare, grisinele se pot conserva timp ndelungat. La fabricarea grisinelor se folosete fina cu nsuiri superioare, cu gluten de categoria I-a (indice de gluten peste 35) i capacitate de hidratare ridicat. Procesul de fabricare a grisinelor sau sticksurilor cuprinde urmtoarele opera ii principale: prepararea aluatului, modelarea sub form de fire, tierea, afnarea prin fermentare, coacerea, rcirea i ambalarea. 2. Aluatul folosit la fabricarea biscui ilor este preparat din fin, zahr, grsimi, ou, miere, glucoz, lapte, arome, afnatori chimici sau biochimici. Gama sortimentelor de biscui i este foarte bogat, att datorit cerin elor consumatorilor, ct i numeroaselor materii prime principale i auxiliare care se folosesc. Ca produs alimentar, biscui ii au nsuiri deosebite n ce privete gustul i valoarea nutritiv (puterea caloric a biscui ilor superiori ajunge la 4900 kcal/kg). Dup con inutul n substan e zaharoase i substan e grase, biscui ii se mpart n dou mari grupe: biscui i gluteioi, cu con inutul n zahr de maximum 20% i n grsimi de maximum 12%, i biscui i zaharoi (fragezi) cu con inut de minimum 20% i n grsimi de minimum 12%. 98

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3.8. Translate into Romanian: Types of Fat and oils for Bakery products Many different fats and oils are available to the baker. These fats and oils have different properties that make them suitable for different purposes. Among the functional properties a baker must consider when selecting a fat for a specific use are its melting point, SFI (i.e., softness or hardness at different temperatures), flavour, and ability to form emulsions. In addition, bakers should take into consideration the cost, stability and health effects of fats and oils used in their products. How fats role varies in different products is made clearer by dividing bakery products into the following general categories: yeast-raised products, including breads and rolls; laminated products, such as croissants and pastry; cakes; and cookies and crackers.

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3.

4.

2. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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fetuccine

linguine

cappelletti

corzetti

garganelli

mezzalune

cannelloni radiatore

tagliatelle bucatini

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